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Chris Knoester

The Ohio State University, Sociology, Faculty Member

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Traditionally, my research has focused on the effects of children on parents’ lives and on the patterns and implications of fathering, specifically. Recently, I have been comprehensively analyzing the patterns and implications of paternity leaves. I created a new National Sports and Society Survey (https://nsass.org), a landmark project that focuses on patterns of sports involvement and their links to well-being, and have been actively researching sports and society issues for some time, now.

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Christopher Bjork

Ellen I . Graves

University of Virginia

Penn State University

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Santa Clara University

Mississippi State University

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Papers by Chris Knoester

Saving Women’s Sports? The ideological underpinnings of U.S. public opinions abouttrans* athlete rights and sex testing, before widespread politicization

Sociology of Sport Journal

This study uses National Sports and Society Survey (N = 3,993) data to further investigate U.S. p... more This study uses National Sports and Society Survey (N = 3,993) data to further investigate U.S. public opinions about transgender athletes’ rights, rights for athletes with varied sex characteristics, and sex testing. We focus on the additional implications of wanting to support, promote, and watch female athletes; traditional views of women’s idealized physical appearances; and homophobia for adults’ opinions about these issues. Findings revealed that more strongly believing that female athletes are undeserving, suggesting that women should more fully conform to traditionally idealized physical appearances, and expressing more homophobic views were negatively associated with support for transgender athletes’ rights and rights for athletes with varied sex characteristics—including a restriction of their rights due to sex testing.

U.S. Public Opinion about the Personal Development and Social Capital Benefits of Sport: Analyzing Components of the Great Sport Myth

Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 2024

Beliefs that sport participation inherently leads to personal development and social capital bene... more Beliefs that sport participation inherently leads to personal development and social capital benefits are essential components of the Great Sport Myth (GSM). The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which U.S. adults embrace these components of the GSM. Also, we sought to better understand the extent to which primary groups, social stratification indicators, and sport experiences pattern beliefs in the personal development and social capital benefits of sports. Data were collected through a large national U.S. survey, the National Sports and Society Survey, and analyzed with multiple regression analyses. Findings suggest that most Americans espouse beliefs in the personal development and social capital benefits of sports. Furthermore, primary groups, stratification indicators, and positive sport experiences consistently appear to shape beliefs about these aspects of the GSM.

The privilege to play: race, gender, & SES advantages in boys’ high school athletic opportunities

Leisure/Loisir, 2024

In this study, with an exploratory sequential mixed-methods design, we considered the components ... more In this study, with an exploratory sequential mixed-methods design, we considered the components and implications of a habitus that (re)produces racial/ethnic, social class, and gender differences in US interscholastic sport participation. We drew from independently collected qualitative (N = 19 men and 47 total college athletes) and quantitative (N = 4,097 high school boys) data and noted and investigated dynamic links between individual choices; family, community, and school contexts; and power structures that inform interscholastic athletics. Findings positioned sports as offering valuable institutionalized cultural capital but being rife with reproductive struggles. Schools serve as fields that co-construct unequal athletic opportunity structures by nurturing and rewarding a cultivated athletic habitus associated with masculinity, whiteness, and affluent dispositions. These processes situate athletic advantages and successes as purely meritorious but restrict who is most likely to receive the individual and social benefits of high school sports participation.

Better to Have Played than Not Played? Childhood Sport Participation, Dropout Frequencies and Reasons, and Mental Health in Adulthood

Sociology of Sport Journal, 2024

This study considers the long-term mental health implications of organized youth sport participat... more This study considers the long-term mental health implications of organized youth sport participation, informed by an accumulation model of health, the Sport Commitment Model, and a life course perspective. Using data from the National Sports and Society Survey (N=3,931) and multiple regression analyses, results indicate that adults who continually played organized youth sport had fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms compared to those who played and dropped out and those who never played. Dropouts had worse mental health than those who never played. Furthermore, among dropouts, reported interpersonal reasons for dropping out of organized sport were consistently associated with subsequent mental health but some structural factors also mattered. These findings point to a need to improve the interpersonal and structural environments of organized youth sport.

U.S. youth sports participation: Analyzing the implications of generation, gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and family and community sport cultures

by Chris Knoester and Christopher Bjork

Leisure/Loisir, 2024

Using data from the National Sports and Society Survey (N = 3,993), this study described and anal... more Using data from the National Sports and Society Survey
(N = 3,993), this study described and analyzed U.S. adults’
reports of their youth sports experiences. We considered
patterns in ever having played a sport regularly while growing
up, ever having played an organized sport, and then
relative likelihoods of having never played an organized
sport, played and dropped out of organized sports, or played
an organized sport continually while growing up. We used
binary and multinomial logistic regressions to assess the
relevance of generational, gender, racial/ethnic, socioeconomic
status, and family and community sport culture contexts
for youth sports participation experiences. Overall, the
findings highlight general increases in ever playing organized
sports and ever playing organized sports and dropping
out across generations. Increasing levels of female sports
participation, emerging disparities by socioeconomic statuses,
and the continual salience of family and community
cultures of sport for participation are also striking.

Inequalities in Girls' High School Sports Participation: How Social Class, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender Route Opportunities to Play and Persist in Athletics

Sociological Focus, 2024

High school athletics are understudied sites for social and educational stratification. Participa... more High school athletics are understudied sites for social and educational stratification. Participation can offer mental and physical health benefits, improved student retention and graduation rates, the encouragement of pro-social behaviors, resume building, and enhanced social statuses. Despite legal prohibitions against race and gender discrimination in schools, opportunities to play and persist in interscholastic athletics may reflect and amplify existing social and educational stratification processes. Using an exploratory sequential mixed-methods research design, this study centers on girls’ high school sports and considers how gender, race/ethnicity, and social class operate at the individual, interactional, cultural, and institutional levels and encourage proclivities, commitments, and support for participation. We combine qualitative (N = 28 women and 47 total college athletes) and quantitative (N = 4,271 high school students) studies to inquire about how, and to what extent, racial/ethnic and social-class dynamics affect girls playing any and specific high school sports and whether they play persistently. Findings suggest that schools co-construct unequal athletic opportunity structures by nurturing and rewarding a cultivated athletic habitus associated with masculinity, whiteness, and affluent dispositions. These processes disguise athletic advantages and successes as well-earned merit and restrict who is most likely to receive the individual and social benefits of high school sports participation.

Who Watches and Follows Girls' and Women's Sport? A Gendered Life Course Analysis of U.S. Adults' Consumption

Journal of Emerging Sport Studies, 2023

Despite high and rising consumption of women's sport in the United States (U.S.), limited researc... more Despite high and rising consumption of women's sport in the United States (U.S.), limited research has addressed the social factors that lead individuals to become consumers of girls' and women's sport. This study uses 2018-19 National Sports and Society Survey (NSASS) data to examine the frequencies and predictors of U.S. adults' consumption of girls' and women's sport. We integrate social structure and life course theories to consider social structural locations, parental and own sports involvement during childhood, adult gender ideologies, and adult sport commitments as predictors of adults' consumption of girls' and women's sport. The results indicate moderate consumption of female sport, with just over half of adults appearing to spend some time watching/following female sport in the last year. Also, we estimate that U.S. adults average watching/following female sport for about one hour per week, but they report that their watching/following of female sport is typically only a small fraction of their overall sport consumption. Regression findings show consistent evidence of sexuality, number of female family members, parents' sports fandom or athleticism, childhood sports involvement, adult gender ideologies, and adult sport commitments shaping the consumption of female sport. In addition, there is some initial evidence that gender seems to encourage men to watch/follow more female sports, but women appear more prone to watch female sport as opposed to male sport. However, gender and sexuality interact with one another in predicting female sport consumption, such that gay/lesbian identities particularly heighten consumption of female sport among women. Consequently, there is evidence that lesbians are disproportionately among the most avid consumers of girls' and women's sport.

Reconstructing, Challenging, and Negotiating Sex/Gender in Sport: U.S. public opinion about transgender athletes' rights, rights for athletes with varied sex characteristics, sex testing, and gender segregation

Sociology of Sport Journal, 2023

Using data from the National Sports and Society Survey (N = 3,993), this study considers U.S. adu... more Using data from the National Sports and Society Survey (N = 3,993), this study considers U.S. adults' opinions about transgender athletes' rights, rights for athletes with varied sex characteristics, sex testing, and gender segregation in sports. Social structural location, social group, and ideological characteristics are examined as predictors of these opinions. Results indicated that most U.S. adults now seem to support transgender athletes' rights and rights for athletes with varied sex characteristics and oppose sex testing and gender segregation in youth sports. Men, heterosexuals, older generations, those without a college education, Republicans, Christians, and rural residents, as well as those who exhibit more traditionalism and traditionally gendered beliefs in their ideologies, are more opposed to athletes' rights and inclusivity on these issues.

Family socioeconomic status and college attendance: A consideration of individual-level and school-level pathways

by Chris Knoester and James Tompsett

PLoS One, 2023

Inequality research has found that a college education can ameliorate intergenerational dispariti... more Inequality research has found that a college education can ameliorate intergenerational disparities in economic outcomes. Much attention has focused on how family resources impact academic achievement, though research continues to identify how mechanisms related to social class and structural contexts drive college attendance patterns. Using the Education Longitudinal Study and multilevel modeling techniques, this study uniquely highlights how extracurricular activities relate to family socioeconomic status and school contexts to influence college attendance. Altogether, sport and non-sport extracurricular participation, college expectations, and academic achievement scores, situated within unique school contexts that are driven by residential social class segregation, contribute to the cumulative advantages of children from higher SES families. The results from this study show that these cumulative advantages are positively associated with college attendance and an increased likelihood of attending a more selective school.

Social Structure, Culture, and the Allure of Donald Trump in 2016

by Chris Knoester and Matthew Knoester

New Political Science: A Journal of Politics & Culture, 2023

Using October, 2016 data from a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults (N¼1,461), this s... more Using October, 2016 data from a nationally representative
sample of U.S. adults (N¼1,461), this study considers the
extent to which social structure and culture worked together
to activate affinities for Donald Trump. For our analyses, we
used multiple regressions and first focused on the extent to
which social structural locations (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity,
age, education, rurality) were associated with a willingness to
trust Trump and report intentions to vote for him. Then, we
considered partisanship affiliations. Finally, we looked at the
extent to which hegemonically masculine, racial/ethnic and
nativist, and authorities on truth values helped to further
establish affinities for Trump. Findings indeed revealed that
cultural value contestations were central to establishing affinities
for Trump. Such beliefs even remained linked to intentions
to vote for Trump after accounting for adults’ trust
in him.

Fathers' Time Off Work After the Birth of a Child and Relationship Dissolution among Socioeconomically Disadvantaged U.S. Families

Relationship dissolution is common among socioeconomically disadvantaged parents. This study util... more Relationship dissolution is common among socioeconomically disadvantaged parents. This study utilizes longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) to assess whether fathers' time off work after the birth of a child reduces the likelihood of parents dissolving their relationship. We also consider whether the association between fathers' time off work and relationship dissolution is mediated by fathers' support of mothers and moderated by union type. Results indicate that the risk of relationship dissolution is lower when fathers take time off work after the birth of a child. Results also suggest that longer periods of time off work (i.e., two or more weeks) are associated with a lower risk of relationship dissolution among married couples, although overall evidence for variations by union type are mixed. Additionally, there is evidence that the association between fathers' time off work and relationship dissolution is at least partially explained by higher levels of relationship support among fathers who took time off work after the birth of a child. Overall, findings suggest that providing fathers with opportunities to take time off for the birth of a child may help to promote relationship stability among socioeconomically disadvantaged couples in the U.S.

Paternity Leave-Taking and Father Involvement among Socioeconomically Disadvantaged U.S. Fathers

by Chris Knoester, Richard Petts, and Brianne Pragg

In the present study, we examine the associations between the amount of time that U.S. employed f... more In the present study, we examine the associations between the amount of time that U.S. employed fathers took off from work after the birth of a child (i.e., paternity leave-taking) and trajectories of how frequently fathers engage with their children and take responsibility for them. To do so, we analyze longitudinal data on 2,109 fathers from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a data set that contains information from disproportionately socioeconomically disadvantaged families from large urban areas. The results indicate that, one year after birth, paternity leavetaking and lengths of leave are positively associated with fathers' engagement and responsibility. In addition, paternity leave-taking is positively associated with trajectories of fathers' responsibility over the first 5 years after birth. Lengths of paternity leave are positively associated with trajectories of fathers' engagement. Finally, there is evidence that paternity leave-taking and lengths of leave-taking are especially likely to boost fathers' engagement and responsibility among nonresident fathers. Overall, the findings from the present study suggest that an expansion of paternity leave-taking may encourage higher subsequent levels of father involvement-especially among nonresident fathers. Keywords parental leave; paternity leave; fatherhood; father involvement; father identity theory Although there has been a great deal of research on work-family balance, one prominent policy that promotes work-family balance has been understudied: paternity leave. Paternity leave encourages fathers to practice parenting skills and engage with their children while also fulfilling their expectations as breadwinners. In the process, paternity leave offers support to fathers who seek to fulfill both new and traditional fathering ideals (Galinsky,

If I [Take] Leave, Will You Stay? Paternity Leave and Relationship Stability

Recent European studies suggest that fathers' leave-taking may contribute to parental relationshi... more Recent European studies suggest that fathers' leave-taking may contribute to parental relationship stability. Paternity leave-taking may signal a commitment by fathers toward a greater investment in family life, which may reduce the burden on mothers and strengthen parental relationships. This study uses longitudinal data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) to analyze the association between paternity leave-taking and relationship stability in the United States. Results indicate that paternity leave-taking, and taking relatively short leaves (i.e., two weeks or less) in particular, is associated with greater relationship stability. These findings increase our understanding of the potential benefits of paternity leave, and can inform policy decisions that aim to increase family stability.

Fathers' Paternity Leave-Taking and Children's Perceptions of Father-Child Relationships in the United States

Paternity leave-taking is believed to benefit children by encouraging father-child bonding after ... more Paternity leave-taking is believed to benefit children by encouraging father-child bonding after a birth and enabling commitments to fathers' engagement. Yet, no known U.S. studies have directly focused on the associations between paternity leave-taking and children's reports of father-child relationships. Understanding the potential consequences of paternity leave-taking in the United States is particularly important given the lack of a national paid parental leave policy. The present study uses five waves of data on 1,319 families, largely socioeconomically disadvantaged, from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to analyze the associations between paternity leave-taking and 9-year-old children's reports of their father-child relationships. We also assess the extent to which these associations are mediated by fathers' engagement, co-parenting quality, parental relationship satisfaction, and fathers' identities. Results indicate that leave-taking, and particularly 2 weeks or more of leave, is positively associated with children's perceptions of fathers' involvement, father-child closeness, and father-child communication. The associations are explained, at least in part, by fathers' engagement, parental relationship satisfaction, and father identities. Overall, results highlight the linked lives of fathers and their children, and they suggest that increased attention on improving opportunities for parental leave in the United States may help to strengthen families by nurturing higher quality father-child relationships.

Parental Leave Use among Disadvantaged Fathers

The United States lags behind other industrialized countries in its lack of inclusive and standar... more The United States lags behind other industrialized countries in its lack of inclusive and standardized parental leave policy after the birth or adoption of a child. Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N=2,233), this study examines the patterns and predictors of fathers' parental leave use, as well as its association with father-child engagement. Our findings indicate that the vast majority of employed fathers take parental leave, but they rarely take more than one week of leave. Fathers who have more positive attitudes about fatherhood and who live with the birth mother are especially likely to take leave, and to take more weeks of leave, than other fathers. Finally, we find that taking parental leave, and taking more weeks of parental leave, is positively associated with father engagement levels at one year and five years after the birth of his child. Unlike other industrialized countries, the United States does not have a universal parental leave policy that offers inclusive, standardized, and paid parental leave after the birth or adoption of a child. Until recently, relatively little attention has been paid to the need for more generous parental leave policies in the U.S. (Craig & Mullan, 2011; Nepomnyaschy & Waldfogel, 2007). Correspondingly, few scholars have studied fathers' parental leave patterns-especially among disadvantaged and non-resident fathers. Also, because fathers' use of parental leave is thought to be very short and is perceived to be uncommon, the association between paternity leave and father-child relationships is an understudied area; however, paternity leave has the potential to encourage fathers to become more involved in their new children's lives (Haas & Hwang, 2008; Tanaka & Waldfogel, 2007). Therefore, we need to know more about the patterns of paternity leave-taking in the U.S. and the relationships between leave-taking and father-child engagement.

Paid paternity leave-taking in the United States

Surprisingly few studies have focused on paternity leave-taking in the U.S. This study utilizes d... more Surprisingly few studies have focused on paternity leave-taking in the U.S. This study utilizes data from three national datasets to provide a comprehensive examination of the attitudes, practices, and predictors of paid paternity leave-taking in the U.S. Specifically, this study focuses on (a) describing attitudes towards fathers receiving a share of paid parental leave, (b) describing rates and lengths of paid paternity leave-taking, and (c) analyzing the extent to which economic capital, cultural capital, social capital, and father identities predict paternity leave-taking practices. The results indicate that most people support fathers receiving a share of paid parental leave in the U.S. Yet, rates of paid paternity leave-taking are relatively low and the majority of fathers who take paid leave take only one week or less. Economic capital, cultural capital, social capital, and father identities that prioritize engaged fathering are positively associated with taking paid leave and taking longer periods of leave. Overall, the results emphasize that the current structure of U.S. paternity leave policies seems to limit access to paid paternity leave and contribute to patterns of inequality due to more advantaged fathers having greater access and ability to take paid paternity leave than less advantaged fathers.

Are Parental Relationships Improved if Fathers Take Time Off of Work After the Birth of a Child

Research has begun to examine the consequences of paternity leave, focusing primarily on whether ... more Research has begun to examine the consequences of paternity leave, focusing primarily on whether paternity leave-taking increases father involvement. Yet, other consequences of paternity leave-taking have not been considered using U.S data. This study uses longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to examine whether fathers' time off from work after the birth of a child is associated with relationship quality, relationship support, and coparenting quality. We also consider whether these relationships are mediated by father involvement. Results suggest that fathers' time off of work after a birth and length of time off are each positively associated with relationship quality and coparenting quality one year after a child's birth. They are also positively associated with trajectories of relationship quality and coparenting quality over the first five years after birth. Father involvement at least partially mediates these relationships. Overall, this study suggests that the potential benefits of fathers' time off of work after the birth of a child may extend beyond father involvement and may improve parental relationships.

Paternity Leave and Parental Relationships: Variations by Gender and Mothers' Work Statuses

Objective: This study examines the associations between paternity leave and parents' reports of r... more Objective: This study examines the associations between paternity leave and parents' reports of relationship satisfaction and relationship conflict, and whether the associations vary by parent gender and mothers' work statuses. Background: Paternity leave research in the U.S. has focused on implications for father involvement, but paternity leave may also help to strengthen parental relationships by promoting a more equitable division of domestic labor. Given gender gaps in childcare, the association between paternity leave and parental relationship outcomes may also vary by gender and mothers' work statuses. Method: The sample consists of 4,700 couples (i.e., parent dyads) from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort. Multilevel models are used to assess the associations between paternity leave and both relationship satisfaction and conflict, and whether these associations vary by gender and mothers' work statuses. Results: Paternity leave-taking is positively associated with parents' reports of relationship satisfaction, but length of paternity leave is only positively associated with mothers' reports of relationship satisfaction. Also, among mothers who worked prior to the child's birth, paternity leave-taking and length of leave are negatively associated with their reports of relationship conflict. In contrast, among mothers who did not work in paid labor pre-birth, paternity leave is positively associated with mothers' reports of relationship conflict. Conclusion: Paternity leave may have implications for parental relationships (and especially mothers' perceptions of their relationships with fathers).

Paternity Leave-Taking and Father Engagement

Evidence suggests that paternity leave-taking is associated with higher levels of father involvem... more Evidence suggests that paternity leave-taking is associated with higher levels of father involvement, but research has been limited in its focus on cross-sectional analyses and indicators of father involvement used. This study utilizes national longitudinal data to examine whether paternity leave-taking is associated with two indicators of father engagement when children are infants, whether paternity leave-taking is associated with trajectories of father engagement during the first few years of a child's life, and whether the relationships between paternity leave and father engagement are explained by fathering commitments and attitudes. Results suggest that longer periods of leave are associated with more frequent engagement in developmental tasks and caretaking when children are infants as well as during the first few years of children's lives. There is also evidence that father attitudes partially explain the relationships between length of paternity leave and father engagement.

Sport Participation and the Development of Grit

by Chris Knoester and Emily A Nothnagle

Leisure Sciences, 2022

Grit is the combination of perseverance and passion that helps people overcome challenges. Sport ... more Grit is the combination of perseverance and passion that helps people overcome challenges. Sport participation is a form of purposive leisure that may lead to the development of grit. Consequently, this study analyzes sport participation experiences over the life course and their implications for the development of adults' grit. With data from the National Sports and Society Survey (N ¼ 3,993), two series of nested regression models are used to explore the relationships between sport participation and grit. The first series focuses on the links between sport participation levels while growing up and their perceived impacts on work ethics, as a proxy for grit. The second series examines the relationships between sport participation levels over the life course and adults' grit. Findings suggest that more sustained sport participation in childhood as well as adulthood lead to higher levels of adults' grit.

Saving Women’s Sports? The ideological underpinnings of U.S. public opinions abouttrans* athlete rights and sex testing, before widespread politicization

Sociology of Sport Journal

This study uses National Sports and Society Survey (N = 3,993) data to further investigate U.S. p... more This study uses National Sports and Society Survey (N = 3,993) data to further investigate U.S. public opinions about transgender athletes’ rights, rights for athletes with varied sex characteristics, and sex testing. We focus on the additional implications of wanting to support, promote, and watch female athletes; traditional views of women’s idealized physical appearances; and homophobia for adults’ opinions about these issues. Findings revealed that more strongly believing that female athletes are undeserving, suggesting that women should more fully conform to traditionally idealized physical appearances, and expressing more homophobic views were negatively associated with support for transgender athletes’ rights and rights for athletes with varied sex characteristics—including a restriction of their rights due to sex testing.

U.S. Public Opinion about the Personal Development and Social Capital Benefits of Sport: Analyzing Components of the Great Sport Myth

Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 2024

Beliefs that sport participation inherently leads to personal development and social capital bene... more Beliefs that sport participation inherently leads to personal development and social capital benefits are essential components of the Great Sport Myth (GSM). The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which U.S. adults embrace these components of the GSM. Also, we sought to better understand the extent to which primary groups, social stratification indicators, and sport experiences pattern beliefs in the personal development and social capital benefits of sports. Data were collected through a large national U.S. survey, the National Sports and Society Survey, and analyzed with multiple regression analyses. Findings suggest that most Americans espouse beliefs in the personal development and social capital benefits of sports. Furthermore, primary groups, stratification indicators, and positive sport experiences consistently appear to shape beliefs about these aspects of the GSM.

The privilege to play: race, gender, & SES advantages in boys’ high school athletic opportunities

Leisure/Loisir, 2024

In this study, with an exploratory sequential mixed-methods design, we considered the components ... more In this study, with an exploratory sequential mixed-methods design, we considered the components and implications of a habitus that (re)produces racial/ethnic, social class, and gender differences in US interscholastic sport participation. We drew from independently collected qualitative (N = 19 men and 47 total college athletes) and quantitative (N = 4,097 high school boys) data and noted and investigated dynamic links between individual choices; family, community, and school contexts; and power structures that inform interscholastic athletics. Findings positioned sports as offering valuable institutionalized cultural capital but being rife with reproductive struggles. Schools serve as fields that co-construct unequal athletic opportunity structures by nurturing and rewarding a cultivated athletic habitus associated with masculinity, whiteness, and affluent dispositions. These processes situate athletic advantages and successes as purely meritorious but restrict who is most likely to receive the individual and social benefits of high school sports participation.

Better to Have Played than Not Played? Childhood Sport Participation, Dropout Frequencies and Reasons, and Mental Health in Adulthood

Sociology of Sport Journal, 2024

This study considers the long-term mental health implications of organized youth sport participat... more This study considers the long-term mental health implications of organized youth sport participation, informed by an accumulation model of health, the Sport Commitment Model, and a life course perspective. Using data from the National Sports and Society Survey (N=3,931) and multiple regression analyses, results indicate that adults who continually played organized youth sport had fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms compared to those who played and dropped out and those who never played. Dropouts had worse mental health than those who never played. Furthermore, among dropouts, reported interpersonal reasons for dropping out of organized sport were consistently associated with subsequent mental health but some structural factors also mattered. These findings point to a need to improve the interpersonal and structural environments of organized youth sport.

U.S. youth sports participation: Analyzing the implications of generation, gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and family and community sport cultures

by Chris Knoester and Christopher Bjork

Leisure/Loisir, 2024

Using data from the National Sports and Society Survey (N = 3,993), this study described and anal... more Using data from the National Sports and Society Survey
(N = 3,993), this study described and analyzed U.S. adults’
reports of their youth sports experiences. We considered
patterns in ever having played a sport regularly while growing
up, ever having played an organized sport, and then
relative likelihoods of having never played an organized
sport, played and dropped out of organized sports, or played
an organized sport continually while growing up. We used
binary and multinomial logistic regressions to assess the
relevance of generational, gender, racial/ethnic, socioeconomic
status, and family and community sport culture contexts
for youth sports participation experiences. Overall, the
findings highlight general increases in ever playing organized
sports and ever playing organized sports and dropping
out across generations. Increasing levels of female sports
participation, emerging disparities by socioeconomic statuses,
and the continual salience of family and community
cultures of sport for participation are also striking.

Inequalities in Girls' High School Sports Participation: How Social Class, Race/Ethnicity, and Gender Route Opportunities to Play and Persist in Athletics

Sociological Focus, 2024

High school athletics are understudied sites for social and educational stratification. Participa... more High school athletics are understudied sites for social and educational stratification. Participation can offer mental and physical health benefits, improved student retention and graduation rates, the encouragement of pro-social behaviors, resume building, and enhanced social statuses. Despite legal prohibitions against race and gender discrimination in schools, opportunities to play and persist in interscholastic athletics may reflect and amplify existing social and educational stratification processes. Using an exploratory sequential mixed-methods research design, this study centers on girls’ high school sports and considers how gender, race/ethnicity, and social class operate at the individual, interactional, cultural, and institutional levels and encourage proclivities, commitments, and support for participation. We combine qualitative (N = 28 women and 47 total college athletes) and quantitative (N = 4,271 high school students) studies to inquire about how, and to what extent, racial/ethnic and social-class dynamics affect girls playing any and specific high school sports and whether they play persistently. Findings suggest that schools co-construct unequal athletic opportunity structures by nurturing and rewarding a cultivated athletic habitus associated with masculinity, whiteness, and affluent dispositions. These processes disguise athletic advantages and successes as well-earned merit and restrict who is most likely to receive the individual and social benefits of high school sports participation.

Who Watches and Follows Girls' and Women's Sport? A Gendered Life Course Analysis of U.S. Adults' Consumption

Journal of Emerging Sport Studies, 2023

Despite high and rising consumption of women's sport in the United States (U.S.), limited researc... more Despite high and rising consumption of women's sport in the United States (U.S.), limited research has addressed the social factors that lead individuals to become consumers of girls' and women's sport. This study uses 2018-19 National Sports and Society Survey (NSASS) data to examine the frequencies and predictors of U.S. adults' consumption of girls' and women's sport. We integrate social structure and life course theories to consider social structural locations, parental and own sports involvement during childhood, adult gender ideologies, and adult sport commitments as predictors of adults' consumption of girls' and women's sport. The results indicate moderate consumption of female sport, with just over half of adults appearing to spend some time watching/following female sport in the last year. Also, we estimate that U.S. adults average watching/following female sport for about one hour per week, but they report that their watching/following of female sport is typically only a small fraction of their overall sport consumption. Regression findings show consistent evidence of sexuality, number of female family members, parents' sports fandom or athleticism, childhood sports involvement, adult gender ideologies, and adult sport commitments shaping the consumption of female sport. In addition, there is some initial evidence that gender seems to encourage men to watch/follow more female sports, but women appear more prone to watch female sport as opposed to male sport. However, gender and sexuality interact with one another in predicting female sport consumption, such that gay/lesbian identities particularly heighten consumption of female sport among women. Consequently, there is evidence that lesbians are disproportionately among the most avid consumers of girls' and women's sport.

Reconstructing, Challenging, and Negotiating Sex/Gender in Sport: U.S. public opinion about transgender athletes' rights, rights for athletes with varied sex characteristics, sex testing, and gender segregation

Sociology of Sport Journal, 2023

Using data from the National Sports and Society Survey (N = 3,993), this study considers U.S. adu... more Using data from the National Sports and Society Survey (N = 3,993), this study considers U.S. adults' opinions about transgender athletes' rights, rights for athletes with varied sex characteristics, sex testing, and gender segregation in sports. Social structural location, social group, and ideological characteristics are examined as predictors of these opinions. Results indicated that most U.S. adults now seem to support transgender athletes' rights and rights for athletes with varied sex characteristics and oppose sex testing and gender segregation in youth sports. Men, heterosexuals, older generations, those without a college education, Republicans, Christians, and rural residents, as well as those who exhibit more traditionalism and traditionally gendered beliefs in their ideologies, are more opposed to athletes' rights and inclusivity on these issues.

Family socioeconomic status and college attendance: A consideration of individual-level and school-level pathways

by Chris Knoester and James Tompsett

PLoS One, 2023

Inequality research has found that a college education can ameliorate intergenerational dispariti... more Inequality research has found that a college education can ameliorate intergenerational disparities in economic outcomes. Much attention has focused on how family resources impact academic achievement, though research continues to identify how mechanisms related to social class and structural contexts drive college attendance patterns. Using the Education Longitudinal Study and multilevel modeling techniques, this study uniquely highlights how extracurricular activities relate to family socioeconomic status and school contexts to influence college attendance. Altogether, sport and non-sport extracurricular participation, college expectations, and academic achievement scores, situated within unique school contexts that are driven by residential social class segregation, contribute to the cumulative advantages of children from higher SES families. The results from this study show that these cumulative advantages are positively associated with college attendance and an increased likelihood of attending a more selective school.

Social Structure, Culture, and the Allure of Donald Trump in 2016

by Chris Knoester and Matthew Knoester

New Political Science: A Journal of Politics & Culture, 2023

Using October, 2016 data from a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults (N¼1,461), this s... more Using October, 2016 data from a nationally representative
sample of U.S. adults (N¼1,461), this study considers the
extent to which social structure and culture worked together
to activate affinities for Donald Trump. For our analyses, we
used multiple regressions and first focused on the extent to
which social structural locations (e.g., gender, race/ethnicity,
age, education, rurality) were associated with a willingness to
trust Trump and report intentions to vote for him. Then, we
considered partisanship affiliations. Finally, we looked at the
extent to which hegemonically masculine, racial/ethnic and
nativist, and authorities on truth values helped to further
establish affinities for Trump. Findings indeed revealed that
cultural value contestations were central to establishing affinities
for Trump. Such beliefs even remained linked to intentions
to vote for Trump after accounting for adults’ trust
in him.

Fathers' Time Off Work After the Birth of a Child and Relationship Dissolution among Socioeconomically Disadvantaged U.S. Families

Relationship dissolution is common among socioeconomically disadvantaged parents. This study util... more Relationship dissolution is common among socioeconomically disadvantaged parents. This study utilizes longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) to assess whether fathers' time off work after the birth of a child reduces the likelihood of parents dissolving their relationship. We also consider whether the association between fathers' time off work and relationship dissolution is mediated by fathers' support of mothers and moderated by union type. Results indicate that the risk of relationship dissolution is lower when fathers take time off work after the birth of a child. Results also suggest that longer periods of time off work (i.e., two or more weeks) are associated with a lower risk of relationship dissolution among married couples, although overall evidence for variations by union type are mixed. Additionally, there is evidence that the association between fathers' time off work and relationship dissolution is at least partially explained by higher levels of relationship support among fathers who took time off work after the birth of a child. Overall, findings suggest that providing fathers with opportunities to take time off for the birth of a child may help to promote relationship stability among socioeconomically disadvantaged couples in the U.S.

Paternity Leave-Taking and Father Involvement among Socioeconomically Disadvantaged U.S. Fathers

by Chris Knoester, Richard Petts, and Brianne Pragg

In the present study, we examine the associations between the amount of time that U.S. employed f... more In the present study, we examine the associations between the amount of time that U.S. employed fathers took off from work after the birth of a child (i.e., paternity leave-taking) and trajectories of how frequently fathers engage with their children and take responsibility for them. To do so, we analyze longitudinal data on 2,109 fathers from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a data set that contains information from disproportionately socioeconomically disadvantaged families from large urban areas. The results indicate that, one year after birth, paternity leavetaking and lengths of leave are positively associated with fathers' engagement and responsibility. In addition, paternity leave-taking is positively associated with trajectories of fathers' responsibility over the first 5 years after birth. Lengths of paternity leave are positively associated with trajectories of fathers' engagement. Finally, there is evidence that paternity leave-taking and lengths of leave-taking are especially likely to boost fathers' engagement and responsibility among nonresident fathers. Overall, the findings from the present study suggest that an expansion of paternity leave-taking may encourage higher subsequent levels of father involvement-especially among nonresident fathers. Keywords parental leave; paternity leave; fatherhood; father involvement; father identity theory Although there has been a great deal of research on work-family balance, one prominent policy that promotes work-family balance has been understudied: paternity leave. Paternity leave encourages fathers to practice parenting skills and engage with their children while also fulfilling their expectations as breadwinners. In the process, paternity leave offers support to fathers who seek to fulfill both new and traditional fathering ideals (Galinsky,

If I [Take] Leave, Will You Stay? Paternity Leave and Relationship Stability

Recent European studies suggest that fathers' leave-taking may contribute to parental relationshi... more Recent European studies suggest that fathers' leave-taking may contribute to parental relationship stability. Paternity leave-taking may signal a commitment by fathers toward a greater investment in family life, which may reduce the burden on mothers and strengthen parental relationships. This study uses longitudinal data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (ECLS-B) to analyze the association between paternity leave-taking and relationship stability in the United States. Results indicate that paternity leave-taking, and taking relatively short leaves (i.e., two weeks or less) in particular, is associated with greater relationship stability. These findings increase our understanding of the potential benefits of paternity leave, and can inform policy decisions that aim to increase family stability.

Fathers' Paternity Leave-Taking and Children's Perceptions of Father-Child Relationships in the United States

Paternity leave-taking is believed to benefit children by encouraging father-child bonding after ... more Paternity leave-taking is believed to benefit children by encouraging father-child bonding after a birth and enabling commitments to fathers' engagement. Yet, no known U.S. studies have directly focused on the associations between paternity leave-taking and children's reports of father-child relationships. Understanding the potential consequences of paternity leave-taking in the United States is particularly important given the lack of a national paid parental leave policy. The present study uses five waves of data on 1,319 families, largely socioeconomically disadvantaged, from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to analyze the associations between paternity leave-taking and 9-year-old children's reports of their father-child relationships. We also assess the extent to which these associations are mediated by fathers' engagement, co-parenting quality, parental relationship satisfaction, and fathers' identities. Results indicate that leave-taking, and particularly 2 weeks or more of leave, is positively associated with children's perceptions of fathers' involvement, father-child closeness, and father-child communication. The associations are explained, at least in part, by fathers' engagement, parental relationship satisfaction, and father identities. Overall, results highlight the linked lives of fathers and their children, and they suggest that increased attention on improving opportunities for parental leave in the United States may help to strengthen families by nurturing higher quality father-child relationships.

Parental Leave Use among Disadvantaged Fathers

The United States lags behind other industrialized countries in its lack of inclusive and standar... more The United States lags behind other industrialized countries in its lack of inclusive and standardized parental leave policy after the birth or adoption of a child. Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N=2,233), this study examines the patterns and predictors of fathers' parental leave use, as well as its association with father-child engagement. Our findings indicate that the vast majority of employed fathers take parental leave, but they rarely take more than one week of leave. Fathers who have more positive attitudes about fatherhood and who live with the birth mother are especially likely to take leave, and to take more weeks of leave, than other fathers. Finally, we find that taking parental leave, and taking more weeks of parental leave, is positively associated with father engagement levels at one year and five years after the birth of his child. Unlike other industrialized countries, the United States does not have a universal parental leave policy that offers inclusive, standardized, and paid parental leave after the birth or adoption of a child. Until recently, relatively little attention has been paid to the need for more generous parental leave policies in the U.S. (Craig & Mullan, 2011; Nepomnyaschy & Waldfogel, 2007). Correspondingly, few scholars have studied fathers' parental leave patterns-especially among disadvantaged and non-resident fathers. Also, because fathers' use of parental leave is thought to be very short and is perceived to be uncommon, the association between paternity leave and father-child relationships is an understudied area; however, paternity leave has the potential to encourage fathers to become more involved in their new children's lives (Haas & Hwang, 2008; Tanaka & Waldfogel, 2007). Therefore, we need to know more about the patterns of paternity leave-taking in the U.S. and the relationships between leave-taking and father-child engagement.

Paid paternity leave-taking in the United States

Surprisingly few studies have focused on paternity leave-taking in the U.S. This study utilizes d... more Surprisingly few studies have focused on paternity leave-taking in the U.S. This study utilizes data from three national datasets to provide a comprehensive examination of the attitudes, practices, and predictors of paid paternity leave-taking in the U.S. Specifically, this study focuses on (a) describing attitudes towards fathers receiving a share of paid parental leave, (b) describing rates and lengths of paid paternity leave-taking, and (c) analyzing the extent to which economic capital, cultural capital, social capital, and father identities predict paternity leave-taking practices. The results indicate that most people support fathers receiving a share of paid parental leave in the U.S. Yet, rates of paid paternity leave-taking are relatively low and the majority of fathers who take paid leave take only one week or less. Economic capital, cultural capital, social capital, and father identities that prioritize engaged fathering are positively associated with taking paid leave and taking longer periods of leave. Overall, the results emphasize that the current structure of U.S. paternity leave policies seems to limit access to paid paternity leave and contribute to patterns of inequality due to more advantaged fathers having greater access and ability to take paid paternity leave than less advantaged fathers.

Are Parental Relationships Improved if Fathers Take Time Off of Work After the Birth of a Child

Research has begun to examine the consequences of paternity leave, focusing primarily on whether ... more Research has begun to examine the consequences of paternity leave, focusing primarily on whether paternity leave-taking increases father involvement. Yet, other consequences of paternity leave-taking have not been considered using U.S data. This study uses longitudinal data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to examine whether fathers' time off from work after the birth of a child is associated with relationship quality, relationship support, and coparenting quality. We also consider whether these relationships are mediated by father involvement. Results suggest that fathers' time off of work after a birth and length of time off are each positively associated with relationship quality and coparenting quality one year after a child's birth. They are also positively associated with trajectories of relationship quality and coparenting quality over the first five years after birth. Father involvement at least partially mediates these relationships. Overall, this study suggests that the potential benefits of fathers' time off of work after the birth of a child may extend beyond father involvement and may improve parental relationships.

Paternity Leave and Parental Relationships: Variations by Gender and Mothers' Work Statuses

Objective: This study examines the associations between paternity leave and parents' reports of r... more Objective: This study examines the associations between paternity leave and parents' reports of relationship satisfaction and relationship conflict, and whether the associations vary by parent gender and mothers' work statuses. Background: Paternity leave research in the U.S. has focused on implications for father involvement, but paternity leave may also help to strengthen parental relationships by promoting a more equitable division of domestic labor. Given gender gaps in childcare, the association between paternity leave and parental relationship outcomes may also vary by gender and mothers' work statuses. Method: The sample consists of 4,700 couples (i.e., parent dyads) from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort. Multilevel models are used to assess the associations between paternity leave and both relationship satisfaction and conflict, and whether these associations vary by gender and mothers' work statuses. Results: Paternity leave-taking is positively associated with parents' reports of relationship satisfaction, but length of paternity leave is only positively associated with mothers' reports of relationship satisfaction. Also, among mothers who worked prior to the child's birth, paternity leave-taking and length of leave are negatively associated with their reports of relationship conflict. In contrast, among mothers who did not work in paid labor pre-birth, paternity leave is positively associated with mothers' reports of relationship conflict. Conclusion: Paternity leave may have implications for parental relationships (and especially mothers' perceptions of their relationships with fathers).

Paternity Leave-Taking and Father Engagement

Evidence suggests that paternity leave-taking is associated with higher levels of father involvem... more Evidence suggests that paternity leave-taking is associated with higher levels of father involvement, but research has been limited in its focus on cross-sectional analyses and indicators of father involvement used. This study utilizes national longitudinal data to examine whether paternity leave-taking is associated with two indicators of father engagement when children are infants, whether paternity leave-taking is associated with trajectories of father engagement during the first few years of a child's life, and whether the relationships between paternity leave and father engagement are explained by fathering commitments and attitudes. Results suggest that longer periods of leave are associated with more frequent engagement in developmental tasks and caretaking when children are infants as well as during the first few years of children's lives. There is also evidence that father attitudes partially explain the relationships between length of paternity leave and father engagement.

Sport Participation and the Development of Grit

by Chris Knoester and Emily A Nothnagle

Leisure Sciences, 2022

Grit is the combination of perseverance and passion that helps people overcome challenges. Sport ... more Grit is the combination of perseverance and passion that helps people overcome challenges. Sport participation is a form of purposive leisure that may lead to the development of grit. Consequently, this study analyzes sport participation experiences over the life course and their implications for the development of adults' grit. With data from the National Sports and Society Survey (N ¼ 3,993), two series of nested regression models are used to explore the relationships between sport participation and grit. The first series focuses on the links between sport participation levels while growing up and their perceived impacts on work ethics, as a proxy for grit. The second series examines the relationships between sport participation levels over the life course and adults' grit. Findings suggest that more sustained sport participation in childhood as well as adulthood lead to higher levels of adults' grit.