The plunderi ng of Ira q's cultura l in stitution s demon strates yet again how warfa re fuels th... more The plunderi ng of Ira q's cultura l in stitution s demon strates yet again how warfa re fuels the global trade in looted antiquities .
Cultural property protection policy as implemented in Syria since 2011 is structured around stand... more Cultural property protection policy as implemented in Syria since 2011 is structured around standards and practices enshrined within the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (including its First and Second Protocols) and the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. Policy emphasis is on the in situ protection of cultural sites and the recovery and return of stolen or looted cultural objects. But policy initiatives have very obviously failed to stop the plunder and illegal trade of cultural objects in Syria, as they have failed before for neighboring countries. This paper describes why policy initiatives aimed at site protection and object recovery have failed and how policy might be improved by a market reduction approach aimed at subduing demand.
I n 2003, the major auction houses ended sales of unprovenanced cylinder seals and cuneiform tabl... more I n 2003, the major auction houses ended sales of unprovenanced cylinder seals and cuneiform tablets, a move that at the time was interpreted as being in response to public anger over the looting of Iraqi museums and archaeological sites, and the associated restrictions placed on trade by UNSCR 1483. Ten years on from those events, these original conclusions do not appear so secure, though they cannot be discounted. Th is article will look at fi ve analyses to examine those conclusions, and demonstrate that there is a relationship between auction sales and their wider material and commercial contexts, but it is not a straightforward one.
A 2015 court judgment in the United Kingdom ruled that a seized Libyan statue should be returned ... more A 2015 court judgment in the United Kingdom ruled that a seized Libyan statue should be returned to the ownership of the State of Libya. The judgment prompts a critical discussion of the involvement of professional conservators in the trafficking of cultural objects. Higher standards of due diligence are recommended for conservators and other professional experts engaging with cultural objects that might have been stolen and trafficked. Stronger professional due diligence is but one component of a broader policy of demand reduction that will be necessary to control the theft and trafficking of cultural objects, and to offer protection to cultural sites around the world.
The illegal excavation and trade of cultural objects from Syrian archaeological sites worsened ma... more The illegal excavation and trade of cultural objects from Syrian archaeological sites worsened markedly after the outbreak of civil disturbance and conflict in 2011. Since then, the damage to archaeological heritage has been well documented, and the issue of terrorist funding explored, but hardly any research has been conducted into the organization and operation of theft and trafficking of cultural objects inside Syria. As a first step in that direction, this paper presents texts of interviews with seven people resident in Syria who have first-hand knowledge of the trade, and uses information they provided to suggest a model of socioeconomic organization of the Syrian war economy regarding the trafficking of cultural objects. It highlights the importance of coins and other small objects for trade, and concludes by considering what lessons might be drawn from this model to improve presently established public policy.
The role of professional experts. Arts 8(2), 56, 2019
Auction sales of unprovenanced, likely stolen, cultural objects continue to generate controversy.... more Auction sales of unprovenanced, likely stolen, cultural objects continue to generate controversy. But while auction houses can appear to be relatively passive agents in the sales process, providing a platform for bringing together buyers and sellers, in reality their business practices are more complex. With reference to three recent disputed auctions of cultural objects, this paper explores in more detail the 'art world' of auction house business practices, exploring in particular the central role of professional experts in supporting auction sales and the legal and ethical implications of their involvement.
International Journal of Cultural Property, 265-283., 2019
The antiquities catalogues of major auction houses comprise an accessible long-term source of inf... more The antiquities catalogues of major auction houses comprise an accessible long-term source of information about the auction market in antiquities and the market in antiquities more generally. The information contained in these catalogues has been used to investigate the nature and scale of the market and to assess the impact of legal and normative measures of market control. But, by way of two case studies, referencing Iraqi and Cambodian material sold at the New York branch of Sotheby's, this article argues that, while auction catalogues do provide an invaluable source of information for investigating the antiquities market, it can be misleading. Changing material or monetary statistics might reflect commercial factors unrelated to market control. For more reliable research, long-term auction data should be contextualized with information available from other sources.
The aim of this paper is to understand the harms potentially caused to Iraq by the looting and tr... more The aim of this paper is to understand the harms potentially caused to Iraq by the looting and trafficking of cuneiform tablets and their consequent study and publication, showing how these harms are not fully repaired by the return of the tablets to Iraq. The processes and consequences of publications related to these collections are also considered, discussing publication rights and intellectual property and introducing the concept of restorative justice in the context of the Museum of the Bible (MOTB) technical assistance announcement for 2020, for studies and future curation of the collections in question.
... These take the form of a list of prayers addressed to specific temples throughout the souther... more ... These take the form of a list of prayers addressed to specific temples throughout the southern Mesopotamian plain, including the temples ... Dynasty of Akkad 2351J-21.50 BC ... with Zabalam is found on Archaic Level III tablets from Uruk, where MUS-le (MUS being a reading of the ...
Summary. Bell-Beaker culture artefacts are not unequivocal expressions of male status, but helped... more Summary. Bell-Beaker culture artefacts are not unequivocal expressions of male status, but helped instead to maintain ritual and symbolic demarcations of gender difference. The gendered nature of cultural production explains part of the variability seen in Beaker assemblages. More ...
Within a corporate criminological framework, this paper examines the antiquities acquisition poli... more Within a corporate criminological framework, this paper examines the antiquities acquisition policies and activities of the J. Paul Getty Museum particularly during the curatorship of Marion True, whose indictment by the Italian government was part of a broader investigation into the trade of illicitly obtained Italian antiquities. Specifically, we employ two theoretical perspectives -that of differential association and anomie -to examine malpractice among Getty officers and suggest that both museum cultures and the psychology of collecting may in fact be criminogenic. In light of such criminological insight, we conclude the paper with suggestions for broad reforms of museum governance.
The plunderi ng of Ira q's cultura l in stitution s demon strates yet again how warfa re fuels th... more The plunderi ng of Ira q's cultura l in stitution s demon strates yet again how warfa re fuels the global trade in looted antiquities .
Cultural property protection policy as implemented in Syria since 2011 is structured around stand... more Cultural property protection policy as implemented in Syria since 2011 is structured around standards and practices enshrined within the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict (including its First and Second Protocols) and the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. Policy emphasis is on the in situ protection of cultural sites and the recovery and return of stolen or looted cultural objects. But policy initiatives have very obviously failed to stop the plunder and illegal trade of cultural objects in Syria, as they have failed before for neighboring countries. This paper describes why policy initiatives aimed at site protection and object recovery have failed and how policy might be improved by a market reduction approach aimed at subduing demand.
I n 2003, the major auction houses ended sales of unprovenanced cylinder seals and cuneiform tabl... more I n 2003, the major auction houses ended sales of unprovenanced cylinder seals and cuneiform tablets, a move that at the time was interpreted as being in response to public anger over the looting of Iraqi museums and archaeological sites, and the associated restrictions placed on trade by UNSCR 1483. Ten years on from those events, these original conclusions do not appear so secure, though they cannot be discounted. Th is article will look at fi ve analyses to examine those conclusions, and demonstrate that there is a relationship between auction sales and their wider material and commercial contexts, but it is not a straightforward one.
A 2015 court judgment in the United Kingdom ruled that a seized Libyan statue should be returned ... more A 2015 court judgment in the United Kingdom ruled that a seized Libyan statue should be returned to the ownership of the State of Libya. The judgment prompts a critical discussion of the involvement of professional conservators in the trafficking of cultural objects. Higher standards of due diligence are recommended for conservators and other professional experts engaging with cultural objects that might have been stolen and trafficked. Stronger professional due diligence is but one component of a broader policy of demand reduction that will be necessary to control the theft and trafficking of cultural objects, and to offer protection to cultural sites around the world.
The illegal excavation and trade of cultural objects from Syrian archaeological sites worsened ma... more The illegal excavation and trade of cultural objects from Syrian archaeological sites worsened markedly after the outbreak of civil disturbance and conflict in 2011. Since then, the damage to archaeological heritage has been well documented, and the issue of terrorist funding explored, but hardly any research has been conducted into the organization and operation of theft and trafficking of cultural objects inside Syria. As a first step in that direction, this paper presents texts of interviews with seven people resident in Syria who have first-hand knowledge of the trade, and uses information they provided to suggest a model of socioeconomic organization of the Syrian war economy regarding the trafficking of cultural objects. It highlights the importance of coins and other small objects for trade, and concludes by considering what lessons might be drawn from this model to improve presently established public policy.
The role of professional experts. Arts 8(2), 56, 2019
Auction sales of unprovenanced, likely stolen, cultural objects continue to generate controversy.... more Auction sales of unprovenanced, likely stolen, cultural objects continue to generate controversy. But while auction houses can appear to be relatively passive agents in the sales process, providing a platform for bringing together buyers and sellers, in reality their business practices are more complex. With reference to three recent disputed auctions of cultural objects, this paper explores in more detail the 'art world' of auction house business practices, exploring in particular the central role of professional experts in supporting auction sales and the legal and ethical implications of their involvement.
International Journal of Cultural Property, 265-283., 2019
The antiquities catalogues of major auction houses comprise an accessible long-term source of inf... more The antiquities catalogues of major auction houses comprise an accessible long-term source of information about the auction market in antiquities and the market in antiquities more generally. The information contained in these catalogues has been used to investigate the nature and scale of the market and to assess the impact of legal and normative measures of market control. But, by way of two case studies, referencing Iraqi and Cambodian material sold at the New York branch of Sotheby's, this article argues that, while auction catalogues do provide an invaluable source of information for investigating the antiquities market, it can be misleading. Changing material or monetary statistics might reflect commercial factors unrelated to market control. For more reliable research, long-term auction data should be contextualized with information available from other sources.
The aim of this paper is to understand the harms potentially caused to Iraq by the looting and tr... more The aim of this paper is to understand the harms potentially caused to Iraq by the looting and trafficking of cuneiform tablets and their consequent study and publication, showing how these harms are not fully repaired by the return of the tablets to Iraq. The processes and consequences of publications related to these collections are also considered, discussing publication rights and intellectual property and introducing the concept of restorative justice in the context of the Museum of the Bible (MOTB) technical assistance announcement for 2020, for studies and future curation of the collections in question.
... These take the form of a list of prayers addressed to specific temples throughout the souther... more ... These take the form of a list of prayers addressed to specific temples throughout the southern Mesopotamian plain, including the temples ... Dynasty of Akkad 2351J-21.50 BC ... with Zabalam is found on Archaic Level III tablets from Uruk, where MUS-le (MUS being a reading of the ...
Summary. Bell-Beaker culture artefacts are not unequivocal expressions of male status, but helped... more Summary. Bell-Beaker culture artefacts are not unequivocal expressions of male status, but helped instead to maintain ritual and symbolic demarcations of gender difference. The gendered nature of cultural production explains part of the variability seen in Beaker assemblages. More ...
Within a corporate criminological framework, this paper examines the antiquities acquisition poli... more Within a corporate criminological framework, this paper examines the antiquities acquisition policies and activities of the J. Paul Getty Museum particularly during the curatorship of Marion True, whose indictment by the Italian government was part of a broader investigation into the trade of illicitly obtained Italian antiquities. Specifically, we employ two theoretical perspectives -that of differential association and anomie -to examine malpractice among Getty officers and suggest that both museum cultures and the psychology of collecting may in fact be criminogenic. In light of such criminological insight, we conclude the paper with suggestions for broad reforms of museum governance.
Neil Brodie, Morag M. Kersel, Christina Luke and Kathryn W. Tubb (eds), Archaeology, Cultural Heritage, and the Antiquities Trade. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 206–26., 2006
Neil Brodie, Morag M. Kersel, Christina Luke and Kathryn W. Tubb (eds), Archaeology, Cultural Heritage, and the Antiquities Trade. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1–24., 2006
Barbara Hoffman (ed.), Art and Cultural Heritage Law for the Twenty-first Century: Policy and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 52–63., 2006
Phyllis M. Messenger and George S. Smith (eds), Cultural Heritage Management, Policies and Issues in Global Perspective. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 261–77., 2010
The illegal and destructive appropriation and trade of archaeological heritage is a well-document... more The illegal and destructive appropriation and trade of archaeological heritage is a well-documented phenomenon. It causes economic loss and cultural dislocation for the dispossessed "source" communities and countries, balanced by corresponding economic and cultural gains for the acquiring communities and countries. States and international NGOs have developed legal and other normative instruments aimed at controlling the trade, and relevant professional bodies are beginning to explore the ethical dimension. Nevertheless, laws and ethics have fallen short of their purpose, and the problem persists. The design of more appropriate legal and ethical responses is hampered by a poorly developed conceptual framework (with an imprecise terminology to match) founded upon a patchy evidence base of uncertain reliability. There is an urgent need for more empirical research and some innovative theoretical input.
Eleanor Robson, Luke Treadwell and Chris Gosden (eds), Who Owns Objects? Oxford: Oxbow, 1–14., 2006
All parti es with an interest of one sort or another in the a nti qui ties trade agree that it ca... more All parti es with an interest of one sort or another in the a nti qui ties trade agree that it cau ses a certa in amO ll nt of damage to the wo rld 's archaeological heritage. Unfortunately, they cannot agree just how seriolls th at damage is.
Neil Brodie, Jenny Doole, Giorgos Gavalas and Colin Renfrew (eds), Horizon. A Colloquium on the Prehistory of the Cyclades. Cambridge: McDonald Institute, 299–304., 2008
In Bonnie Effros and Guolong Lai (eds), Unmasking Ideologies: The Vocabulary and Symbols of Colonial Archaeology. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute, 61–82., 2018
Proceedings of the 6th International Conference of Experts on the Return of Cultural Property. Seoul: Overseas Korean Cultural Heritage Foundation, 190–204., 2017
Stefano Manacorda and Duncan Chappell (eds), Crime in the Art and Antiquities World: Illegal Trafficking in Cultural Property. New York: Springer, 117–133., 2011
This report reveals the illicit exploitation of the world's cultural resourcesa destructive and o... more This report reveals the illicit exploitation of the world's cultural resourcesa destructive and often criminal enterprise. Modern day looting is greater in scale than any carried out in the past, with results that are usually beyond repair. The damage caused to the heritage of humanity and to the history and traditions of living communities is appalling. Action is needed now to stop this plunder.
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