Ciclo de Krebs e Efeito Warburg
Ciclo de Krebs e Efeito Warburg
Ciclo de Krebs e Efeito Warburg
(Essa parte eu fiz por último e fiquei com preguiça, mas achei muito interessante,
então fiz um compilado do que achei na web)
-Uma fração da glicólise captada pelo tumor segue uma via alternativa (via das
pentoses), formando blocos de construção (ác. nucleico) para a replicação da célula.
Obs.: A via das pentoses é uma via alternativa da oxidação da glicose-6-fosfato, que leva à
produção de 3 compostos: CO2, NADH e ribose-5-fosfato.
-Em células tumorais, a PDH cinase está muito ativa, inibindo a produção de acetil
CoA e aumentando a produção de lactato e alanina.
-http://blog.projetosafira.org/2012/12/04/a-enzima-pkm2-ativa-o-banquete-de-
acucar-do-qual-dependem-as-celulas-de-cancro/
As células
de cancro, ao
produzirem
energia através da
glicólise,
conseguem
utilizar a glicose
para produzir
novas células. O
açúcar é assim
utilizado como
matéria-prima para proliferar e gerar mais células-filhas. Para conseguirem obter energia a
partir da glicose, todas as células utilizam uma enzima chamada piruvato quinase. Estudos
recentes mostram que as células de cancro passam a utilizar uma outra forma desta enzima,
a piruvato quinase M2 (PKM2), a qual utiliza a glicose para produzir mais moléculas além de
energia. Este processo metabólico modificado parece ser um aspecto fundamental de vários
cancros. Revertê-lo representa uma promissora oportunidade de tratamento.
-http://www.isaude.net/pt-BR/noticia/23389/ciencia-e-tecnologia/pesquisadores-
norte-americanos-resolvem-misterio-do-efeito-warburg
Understanding Cancer Energetics
It's long been known that cancer cells eat a lot of sugar to stay alive. In fact, where
normal, noncancerous cells generate energy from using some sugar and a lot of oxygen,
cancerous cells use virtually no oxygen and a lot of sugar. Many genes have been implicated
in this process and now, reporting in the May 27 issue of Cell, researchers at the Johns
Hopkins University School of Medicine have discovered that this so-called Warburg effect is
controlled.
Nearly 20 years ago, Semenza's research team discovered that HIF-1 can turn on a
number of genes that that help cells survive when oxygen levels fall too low. In addition to
genes that contribute to building new blood vessels, HIF-1 also turns on genes involved in
the metabolic process that turns glucose into energy. One of those genes, pyruvate kinase
M2 or PKM2, catalyzes the first step of this metabolic process and is present only in cancer
cells.
To figure out whether and if HIF-1 and PKM2 interact, the team first engineered cells
to have or lack HIF-1. They kept them in high or low oxygen for 24 hours and found that cells
starved of oxygen, but containing HIF-1, had more PKM2 than cells without HIF-1,
suggesting that HIF-1 controls the production of PKM2.
The team then asked if HIF-1 and PKM2 physically interact with each other by
isolating one of the two proteins from cells; they found that pulling one out also resulted in
the other coming along for the ride, showing that the two proteins do in fact bind to each
other.
Knowing that the primary function of HIF-1 is to bind DNA and turn on specific genes,
Semenza's team next asked whether PKM2 somehow helped HIF-1 do that. They examined
genes known to be activated by HIF-1 in low oxygen after the removal of PKM2 and found
that without PKM2, less HIF-1 was bound to DNA.
Now armed with evidence that PKM2 helps HIF-1 turn on genes, the team looked at
the activity of genes directly involved in the metabolic pathway that burns so much sugar in
cancer cells and compared genes known to be activated by HIF-1 with those not affected by
HIF-1. Removing PKM2 from cells had no effect on genes not controlled by HIF-1 but
reduced the activity of HIF-1-controlled genes.
"These results were really astounding," says Semenza. "In addition to solving the
long-standing mystery of the Warburg effect, we also discovered that PKM2 may play a far
broader role in promoting cancer progression than has been appreciated before."
-
http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/news/media/releases/cancer_cells_reprogram_energy_n
eeds_to_grow_and_spread_study_suggests
Cancer Cells "Reprogram" Energy Needs to Grow and Spread, Study Suggests
Studying a rare inherited syndrome, researchers at Johns Hopkins have found that
cancer cells can reprogram themselves to turn down their own energy-making machinery
and use less oxygen, and that these changes might help cancer cells survive and spread.
The Hopkins scientists report that the loss of a single gene in kidney cancer cells
causes them to stop making mitochondria, the tiny powerhouses of the cell that consume
oxygen to generate energy.
Instead, the cancer cells use the less efficient process of fermentation, which
generates less energy but does not require oxygen. As a result, the cancer cells must take in
large amounts of glucose. The appetite of cancer cells for glucose is so great that it can be
used to identify small groups of tumor cells that have spread throughout the body.
“There must be a strong advantage to cancer cells to stop using a highly efficient
process in favor of one that generates much less energy,” says Gregg Semenza, M.D., Ph.D.,
professor of pediatrics and director of the vascular biology program in theInstitute for Cell
Engineering at Johns Hopkins.
But turning down the “thermostat” in a sense, may give the cancer cell a survival
edge. Reporting in the May 8 issue of Cancer Cell, Semenza and his colleagues found that if
they reversed the switch and forced kidney cancer cells to start making mitochondria again,
the cells produced increased amounts of free radicals, which can cause cells to stop dividing
or even die.
Semenza and colleagues measured mitochondria content and oxygen use in kidney
cancer cells that contain no VHL protein and in the same cells with VHL “engineered” back
in. Restoring VHL caused the cells to make two to three times more mitochondria and use
two to three times more oxygen.
VHL normally blocks the action of HIF-1, a protein that the Hopkins group discovered
in 1992. Cells normally make HIF-1 only under low oxygen conditions, when fermentation is
necessary to make energy. However, in the absence of VHL, HIF-1 is active even when
oxygen is plentiful and switches on genes that help a cell take up more glucose.
This current work shows that excess HIF-1 counteracts a protein called MYC, which
normally stimulates cells to make mitochondria. “Because MYC is turned on in many other
cancers, these results suggest that shutting down the mitochondria must be a very
important event in kidney cancer,” Semenza notes.
There is currently no treatment available for patients with advanced kidney cancer.
Scientists at pharmaceutical companies, the National Cancer Institute, and laboratories at
Hopkins and other universities are investigating whether drugs that inhibit HIF-1 may be
useful for cancer therapy.
-
http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/news/media/releases/need_oxygen_cells_know_how_to
_spend_and_save
Need Oxygen? Cells Know How to Spend and Save
Researchers at Johns Hopkins have discovered how cells fine-tune their oxygen use
to make do with whatever amount is available at the moment.
Too little oxygen threatens life by compromising mitochondria that power it, so
when oxygen is scarce, cells appear to adjust by replacing one protein with an energy-
efficient substitute that “is specialized to keep the motor running smoothly even as it begins
to run out of gas,” says Gregg Semenza, M.D., Ph.D., a professor of pediatrics and director of
the vascular biology program in the Institute for Cell Engineering at Hopkins. “This is one
way that cells maintain energy production under less than ideal conditions.” A report on the
work is in the April 6 issue of Cell.
“Cells require a constant supply of oxygen,” Semenza says, “so it’s vital for them to
quickly react to slight changes in oxygen levels.” The protein-swap is how they do it.
In the mitochondria, the tiny powerhouses found in every cell, energy is produced by
passing electrons through a series of relay stations called cytochromes until they eventually
join with oxygen to form water. This final step is directed by the protein cytochrome c
oxidase, or COX for short. If electrons react with oxygen before reaching COX, they generate
“free radicals” that can damage or destroy cells. The mitochondria are designed to produce
energy without excess free radical production at normal oxygen levels.
Semenza’s team noticed that one particular component of the COX protein complex,
COX4, comes in two different forms, COX4-1 and COX4-2. Under normal oxygen conditions,
the cells’ mitochondria contain mostly COX4-1. The researchers suspected that COX 4-2
might be the active protein under stressful, low-oxygen conditions, which the researchers
refer to as hypoxia.
To test the idea, the team compared the growth of human cells in normal oxygen
conditions (what’s generally present in normal room air) compared to cells grown in
hypoxia. In low oxygen, liver, uterus, lung and colon cells all made COX4-2. The researchers
then exposed mice to hypoxia for a few weeks and found that they too showed increased
levels of COX4-2.
In 1992, Semenza’s team had discovered a protein which they called HIF-1 (for
hypoxia-inducible factor 1) that cells make in response to hypoxia. HIF-1 turns on genes that
help cells survive when oxygen is low, such as during a heart attack or stroke. The
researchers set out to figure out if the sensor protein HIF-1 triggers the COX-swapping.
By examining the gene control regions of COX4, they found that the HIF-1 sensor
switched on COX4-2 activity when oxygen is low. And they learned that because COX4-1
already is in the mitochondria, the swap for COX4-2 occurs when the sensor turns on yet
another gene that produces an enzyme to specifically chew up COX4-1. Engineering human
cells to lack this enzyme and subjecting them to low oxygen, the scientists found the cells
unable to rid themselves of COX4-1.
“It’s remarkable that the one-celled yeast also swap COX subunits in response to
hypoxia, but because they lack HIF-1, they accomplish the swap in a completely different
way,” says Semenza. “This suggests that adapting mitochondria to changes in oxygen levels
may be a major challenge for most organisms on Earth.”