Biodiversified Plants

plants
Review
An Update on Effectiveness and Practicability of Plant Essential
Oils in the Food Industry
Liana Claudia Salant, ă 1 and Janna Cropotova 2, *
1 Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Agricultural Sciences and
Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
2 Department of Biological Sciences Ålesund, Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
Larsgårdsvegen 4, 6025 Ålesund, Norway
* Correspondence: janna.cropotova@ntnu.no
Abstract: Consumer awareness and demands for quality eco-friendly food products have made
scientists determined to concentrate their attention on sustainable advancements in the utilization
of bioactive compounds for increasing safety and food quality. Essential oils (EOs) are extracted
from plants and exhibit antimicrobial (antibacterial and antifungal) activity; thus, they are used in
food products to prolong the shelf-life of foods by limiting the growth or survival of microorganisms.
In vitro studies have shown that EOs are effective against foodborne bacteria, such as Escherichia coli,
Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., and Staphylococcus aureus. The growing interest in essential
oils and their constituents as alternatives to synthetic preservatives has been extensively exploited
in recent years, along with techniques to facilitate the implementation of their application in the
food industry. This paper’s aim is to evaluate the current knowledge on the applicability of EOs in
food preservation, and how this method generally affects technological properties and consumers’
perceptions. Moreover, essential aspects concerning the limitation of the available alternatives
are highlighted, followed by a presentation of the most promising trends to streamline the EOs’
usability. Incorporating EOs in packaging materials is the next step for green and sustainable
Citation: Salant, ă, L.C.; Cropotova, J.
foodstuff production and a biodegradable method for food preservation.
An Update on Effectiveness and
Practicability of Plant Essential Oils
Keywords: plants; essential oils; bioactive compounds; shelf life; food safety
in the Food Industry. Plants 2022, 11,
2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/
plants11192488
Academic Editors: Hua Shao, 1. Introduction

Peng Wang and Weiwei Gao
The technological advancements, globalization, and economic growth of the last
Received: 7 September 2022 decade have led the way to urban expansion, triggering significant changes in consumers’
Accepted: 20 September 2022 lifestyles and dietary habits. Nowadays, one of the most important changes in consumers’
Published: 22 September 2022 lifestyles is increased health consciousness by understanding the importance of food in
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
maintaining and improving human well-being [1,2]. Worldwide, the green earth concept
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
determines the use of natural products in daily life.
published maps and institutional affil- Food perishable products are prone to oxidation and microbial contamination, leading
iations. to changes in sensorial properties, loss of essential nutrients, and major economic losses for
the industry. The addition of artificial preservatives and antioxidants during industrial food
production is necessary to reduce all these effects and to improve the safety, shelf-life, and
quality of the products. Although synthetic antioxidants, such as butylated hydroxytoluene,
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. butylated hydroxyanisole, and propyl gallate, are cheaper and more stable, concerns
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. were risen about their safety: long-term intake may lead to allergies, gastrointestinal
This article is an open access article disorders, or even cancer [3]. Similarly, nitrites and benzoates used at high concentrations
distributed under the terms and could be toxic and carcinogenic [4]. There is a clear trend toward finding solutions for
conditions of the Creative Commons natural food protection as aspects such as clean labeling, and healthy or organic food
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
concepts are increasingly demanded by consumers. The main challenges are maintaining
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
consumers’ acceptance, good functionality, and low costs. An alternative solution is the
4.0/).
Plants 2022, 11, 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11192488 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/plants

Plants 2022, 11, 2488 2 of 24
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 2 of 22
maintaining consumers’ acceptance, good functionality, and low costs. An alternative so-
lution is the use of valuable compounds from plants. The most common bioactive com-
use of valuable compounds from plants. The most common bioactive compounds used
pounds used for food preservation with proven efficacy against microbial contamination
for food preservation with proven efficacy against microbial contamination are phenolic
are phenolic compounds and essential oils [5].
compounds and essential oils [5].
Essential oils (EOs), mainly comprising the aromatic and volatile compounds natu-
Essential oils (EOs), mainly comprising the aromatic and volatile compounds naturally
rally present in all parts of plants, are known as highly effective antimicrobial agents. The
present in all parts of plants, are known as highly effective antimicrobial agents. The
antimicrobial (preventing spoilage by inhibiting microorganisms’ growth) and antioxi-
antimicrobial (preventing spoilage by inhibiting microorganisms’ growth) and antioxidant
dant (preventing lipid oxidation and peroxidation) activities of EOs are attributed to their
(preventing lipid oxidation and peroxidation) activities of EOs are attributed to their volatile
volatile compounds; thus, they have been extensively utilized for medicinal, bactericidal,
compounds; thus, they have been extensively utilized for medicinal, bactericidal, virucidal,
virucidal,
fungicidal,fungicidal,
antiparasitic,antiparasitic,
insecticidal,insecticidal, and antioxidant
and antioxidant purposes purposes [6–12]. Primar-
[6–12]. Primarily used
ily used in aromatherapy, EOs have gained the attention
in aromatherapy, EOs have gained the attention of the food industry in the lastof the food industry in the last
decade
decade due to their capacity to control the growth of pathogenic
due to their capacity to control the growth of pathogenic microorganisms [6]. The main microorganisms [6]. The
main essential
essential oils with
oils with provenproven antimicrobial
antimicrobial properties
properties are obtained
are obtained fromfrom certified
certified crops, crops,
such
such as lavender, thyme, cinnamon, oregano, basil, or rosemary. Essential
as lavender, thyme, cinnamon, oregano, basil, or rosemary. Essential oils and extracts are oils and extracts
are
alsoalso attained
attained fromfrom by-products
by-products resultingfrom
resulting fromagricultural
agriculturalwastes
wastes such
such asas grape
grape seeds,
seeds,
apricot
apricot kernels, and orange peels [13–15]. EOs contain from ten to hundreds of individual
kernels, and orange peels [13–15]. EOs contain from ten to hundreds of individual
compounds
compounds with with 2–3 2–3major
majorbioactive
bioactive components
components present
present at high
at high concentrations
concentrations (20–
(20–70%),
70%), including phenylpropanoids (e.g., phenols, aldehydes, and
including phenylpropanoids (e.g., phenols, aldehydes, and alcohols), terpenoids (phenols, alcohols), terpenoids
(phenols, ethers,aldehydes,
ethers, ketones, ketones, aldehydes,
alcohols, and alcohols,
esters),and
andesters),
terpeneand terpene compounds
compounds (e.g., limonene, (e.g.,
p-
limonene,
cymene, and p-cymene,
terpinene). andTerpenes
terpinene). Terpenes are
or terpenoids or terpenoids
known as activeare known
agentsas activebacteria,
against agents
against bacteria,and
fungi, viruses, fungi, viruses,[16].
protozoa and It protozoa [16]. to
is essential It is essentialthat
mention to mention that their com-
their composition may
position
vary, duemay vary, due
to intrinsic to intrinsic
factors: factors:
depending ondepending
the used plant on the used
part plantstems,
(roots, part (roots,
leaves,stems,
seeds,
leaves,
flowers,seeds, flowers,
and others), and
and others),
extrinsic and extrinsic
factors: extraction factors:
method extraction
(water ormethod (water or
steam distillation,
steam distillation, solvent extraction, expression under pressure,
solvent extraction, expression under pressure, microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasonic-microwave-assisted ex-
traction, ultrasonic-assisted
assisted extraction, extraction,
supercritical supercritical
fluid extraction, andfluid extraction,
subcritical waterand subcritical
extraction) water
[17]. The
extraction) [17]. The
steam distillation steam distillation
technique and principal technique
methodsand principal
of EOs methods
application of food
in the EOs applica-
industry
tion in the foodinindustry
are illustrated Figure 1.are illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Figure The steam
1. The steam distillation
distillation technique
technique and
and principal
principal methods
methods of
of essential
essential oils
oils application
application in
in the
the
food industry.
food industry.
The mechanism
The mechanism of ofantibacterial
antibacterialaction
actionofofEOs
EOshas
hasbeen
been reported
reported in in several
several stud-
studies
ies [6,18–21]. These oils are complex in nature, with a mixture of over 300 distinct com-
[6,18–21]. These oils are complex in nature, with a mixture of over 300 distinct compounds
pounds at different concentrations. The major components such as terpenes/terpenoids
at different concentrations. The major components such as terpenes/terpenoids and aro-
and aromatic/aliphatic are responsible for the various biological activities, including food
preservation [6,22]. Most of the EOs and their constituents have been admitted as safe food
additives by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) [23].
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 3 of 22
The antibacterial properties of EOs might be attributed to more than one mecha-
nism [24]. Due to the lipophilicity of terpenes and phenolics, EOs are capable of penetrating
easily inside the cytoplasm of microorganisms and deteriorating the phospholipid bilayer
of mitochondria and the inner membrane, resulting in increased cellular permeability
followed by leakage of cytoplasmic constituents (e.g., DNA and RNA) and certain ions
(Na+ , K+ , and Mg2+ ) [25]. Another mechanism is related to the distortion of lipid–protein
interaction in a bacterial cell caused by lipophilic hydrocarbons naturally found in EOs
affecting the ATPases activity necessary for the production of ATP [26]. In addition, certain
phenolics found in EOs may disrupt the electron flow, proton motive force, and cytoplas-
mic coagulation. All these mechanisms result in the inhibition of the bacterial activity on
the food surface, but also prevent active compounds from EOs from reaching the inner
membrane. Therefore, Gram-negative bacteria have been shown to be more resistant
to EOs than Gram-positive bacteria [27]. Nevertheless, due to hydrophobic compounds
present in EOs that are capable of passing through the barrier of the outer membrane, it is
still possible to inactivate Gram-negative bacteria in food products. Thus, Gram-negative
bacteria have a lower susceptibility to EOs than Gram-positive ones, mainly due to their
membrane characteristics that act as barriers against macromolecules and hydrophobic
compounds [28]. The main bioactive compounds with significant antimicrobial activities
are terpineol, thujanol, myrcenol, neral, thujone, camphor, and carvone [6].
In addition, essential oils have also been revealed to be effective in the inhibition
of growth and reducing the number of foodborne pathogens, such as Salmonella spp.,
Escherichia coli O157:H7, S. albus, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella typhimurium, Shigella dysenteriae,
and Listeria monocytogenes [29,30]. In addition, the association of several compounds present
in EOs provides antioxidant properties, mainly due to the presence of phenolic compounds
as major components [4]. Antioxidant compounds pose the ability to delay or inhibit
the oxidation of lipids and other molecules by inhibiting the initiation or propagation
of oxidation chain reactions [9]. Studies present that the essential oils extracted from
cinnamon, nutmeg, clove, basil, parsley, oregano, and thyme are characterized by the
most important antioxidant properties [31]. This paper’s aim is to evaluate the current
knowledge on the applicability of EOs in food preservation, and how this method generally
affects technological properties and consumers’ perceptions. Further, the scientific literature
from the last five years is investigated for evaluating the latest updates in the field.
2. Active Packaging Systems with Essential Oils Addition

Food packaging protects food from environmental factors such as UV light, oxygen,
water vapor, pressure, and heat and improves shelf-life and food safety. Active packaging
interacts with the product and, although it may have some synthetic compounds, the addi-
tion of EOs and biodegradable materials has made industrial producers determined to use
it as an environmental-friendly packing method, with increased consumer acceptability [32].
Delivery systems may be particulate (lipid-based—emulsions, emulgels, nanostructured
lipid carriers, and solid-lipid nanoparticles; self-assembled—liposomes, phytosomes, etho-
somes, and niosomes; polymer-based—micro/nanoparticles, micro/nano-capsules, and
nanofibers), macroscopic carriers (film and sponge), or molecular inclusion complexes (cy-
clodextrins and nontoxic cyclic oligosaccharides) [33]. The EOs have a series of structural
disadvantages that limit their industrial use: volatility (influenced by heat, air, illumination,
or radiation); oxidizability, which may lead to compounds of degradation that produce
consumer harm; an intense aroma that can cover or modify the original food smell; reduced
solubility (they are hydrophobic and incorporation in water-based matrices is challenging);
possible interaction with nutritional constituents from food [34].
Nanotechnologies use liposome, nanoemulsion, or solid-lipid nanoparticle-based
strategies to enhance water solubility and bioavailability, protect the EO, mask the unpleas-
ant odor or taste, and assure a controlled release of active ingredients. Nano-encapsulation
of EOs has a lot of benefits, but toxicological aspects of most of the nanocarriers are not fully
explored and, before commercial application, consumer safety should be checked [35]. In-
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 4 of 22
corporation in colloidal delivery systems (emulsion-based, surfactant-based, or biopolymer-

based) improved the antimicrobial activity of EO in the food industry by increasing the
aqueous solubility and mass transfer of EO [36]. Citrus spp. essential oils incorporated in
edible films and coatings, microencapsulated biodegradable polymers, and nano-emulsion
coatings were assessed for their potential in active packing with good effects as antimicro-
bials and antifungals and good environmental impact (by-products can be used, reducing
food waste) [37], but with limited use because of their interaction with food matrices,
concerns about the optimum dose, its impact upon consumer’s sensorial perception, and
its potential as an allergen [38,39].
In active packaging design, it is very important to choose the appropriate coating or
carrier material as a delivery system for EOs considering that the polymer needs to protect
the EO, assure its controlled release, and be soluble in water, biocompatible, biodegradable,
and low-cost [40]. In essential oils–antibacterial packaging (EOs–AP) systems, active ingre-
dients diffuse through micropores of the film and are released at the food surface, assuring
antimicrobial protection. Several factors affect the antimicrobial efficiency: solubility of the
antibacterial agent into food, the migration rate between the EOs–AP system and food, and
microbial growth kinetics that must be considered when designing the AP, so the sustained
release assures a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the interaction between EO
constituents and AP formulation, so the physical properties of the packaging material are
not affected [41]. Polysaccharides are widely used because of their advantages: low cost,
safety, accessibility, biodegradability, and biocompatibility.
Chitosan, alginate, cellulose, starches, gums, and pectin are some of the most used
biopolymers [42]. Starch-based food packaging is used as an environmentally friendly
packing method with the disadvantages of high permeability to water vapor transfer and
bacterial or fungal spoilage. The latter may be solved by incorporation of EOs to prevent
microbial contamination, but it reduces the mechanical properties of the film: reduces the
cohesion forces of the polymer chain, creating a heterogeneous matrix and subsequently
lowering the tensile strength and increasing the elongation at break value of the film, which
must be considered when designing a product covered in starch film enriched with various
EOs [43]. Chitosan is a polysaccharide with antimicrobial properties and its enrichment
with EOs improves fruit preservation prone to fungal infections, depending on releasing
the antimicrobial compounds from the polymer matrix, the type of EO, fungal species, and
incubation temperature [44]. Hadidi et al., 2020, loaded chitosan nanoparticles with clove
essential oil (CEO) with a 55.8–73.4% retention rate of EOs and obtained a better antioxidant
capacity than the free CEO and high antimicrobial activity against Listeria monocytogenes
and Staphylococcus aureus, being a potential delivery system to be used in active packag-
ing [45]. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose edible films containing nanoemulsions of wild
and cultivated Thymus daenensis essential oil were used by Moghimi et al., 2017, for their
antimicrobial effect as a food packaging system. This study showed that wild thyme had
more antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria (including S. aureus, S. epidermidis,
B. subtilis, E. faecalis, and E. faecium) rather than the cultivated one, while the latter was more
efficient against Candida albicans and Gram-negative bacteria (including E. coli, S. typhi,
S. dysenetriae, S. flexneri, A. baumannii, and K. pneumoniae), both being potential active food
packaging systems [46]. Arezoo et al., 2020, used sago starch films loaded with cinnamon
EO (1–3%) and TiO2 (1–5%) as a bio-nanocomposite for maintaining the quality of fresh
fruits and vegetables with good antimicrobial protection against Salmonella typhimurium,
Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus [47]. Lemon waste powder obtained from byprod-
ucts of lemon juice was incorporated with 3–6% cellulose nanofibers and 1.5–3% savory EO
into a nano-biocomposite film, being a promising biodegradable active packing system that
contributes to waste reduction and can offer good antibacterial protection against S. aureus,
L. monocytogenes, E coli, Ps. Aeruginosa, and S. enterica [48]. Inclusion complexes (ICs)
with Ocimum basilicum and Pimenta dioica EOs and β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) were prepared
as a strategy to reduce volatility and increase the release time of EOs by Marques et al.,
2019, with good antimicrobial properties, superior for sachets with Pimenta dioica, and
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 5 of 22
the potential to be used as a food preservative [49]. Coriander EO was incorporated in

cyclodextrin and maltodextrin nanosponges (NSs) as a stable controlled release system
with antimicrobial properties against Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes, and E. coli,
with better antimicrobial activity for cyclodextrin NS than maltodextrin NS expressed in
lower MICs than coriander EO [50].
3. Applicability of Essential Oils in Food Products

Considering that the EOs are perceived as an alternative eco-friendly food preser-
vative, the interest in EOs application in the food industry and packaging has grown in
recent years. The major sources relevant for industrial use are from Alliaceae, Apiaceae, Aster-
aceae (Compositae), Lamiaceae (Labiatae), Myrtaceae, Poaceae, Cupressaceae, Lauraceae, Pinaceae,
Zingiberaceae, and Rutaceae plant families and the extraction can be made from different
part of plants: flowers, leaves, fruits, seeds, grasses, roots, rhizomes, wood, bark, gum,
tree blossoms, bulbs, and dried flower buds [51]. EOs play significant roles in the food
sector with a wide range of applications, mainly to prolong shelf-life and prevent oxidation.
For this purpose, they are valorized by the addition to food products, either by direct
mixing or in edible coatings and active packaging [32]. Several EOs have GRAS status
(Generally Recognized as Safe), including basil, cinnamon, clove, coriander, ginger, laven-
der, menthol, nutmeg, oregano, rose, sage, and thyme EOs. The reported EO constituent
comprises carvacrol, carvone, citral, cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, limonene, linalool, thymol,
and vanillin, with no antagonistic human health effects [11]. In the study conducted by
Macchia et al., 2022, the efficacy of pure EOs of eucalyptus, basil, cloves, thyme, pine
tree, and tea tree was assessed in situ and compared to a conventional biocide based on
quaternary ammonium salts. The tests revealed positive results concerning the synergy of
the essential oils, showing a stronger biocide efficacy [52].
EOs extracted from ten Apiaceous fruits [Pimpinella anisum L. (anise), Carum carvi
L. (caraway), Apium graveolens L. (celery), Coriandrum sativum L. (coriander), Cuminum
cyminum L. (cumin), Anethum graveolens L. (dill), Foeniculum vulgare L. (fennel), Petroselinum
crispum L. (parsley), Daucus carota L. var. sativus (yellow carrot), and Daucus carota L. var.
boissieri (red carrot)] were studied for their antimicrobial effects by Khalil et al., 2018; among
them, coriander, caraway, and cumin EOs were the most potent bactericides [53]. In recent
decades, bacterial resistance has been one of the main threats to global health [54]. Plant
secondary metabolites, such as EOs, phenolic compounds, alkaloids, lectins/polypeptides,
and polyacetylenes, represent an alternative to reduce this issue [18]. The main pathogens
involved in the spoilage of food products and causing foodborne diseases are E. coli,
Clostridium spp., Salmonella spp., Campylobacter jejuni, Aeromonas hydrophila, S. cerevisiae,
Penicillium expansum, and Listeria monocytogenes [55]. Fernandez-Lopez and Viuda-Martos
completed a review in 2018, and they demonstrated the wide application of EOs by taking
into account the number of scientific publications found when the words “antioxidant”
(1920 results), “antimicrobial” (2473 results), or both (973 results) were used as keywords
along with EOs [56]. EOs are used as biopreservatives in all food types with various
applications in the food segment for meat, fish, seafood, bread, grains, milk, dairy products,
fruits, and vegetables (especially cut products) to enhance the quality and safety of products.
The recent application of essential oils in the food industry is presented in Table 1.
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 6 of 22
Table 1. The application of essential oils in the food industry.
Sensory
Plant Essential Major Active Concentration of Target ModernTechnology Examples of
Type of Product Acceptability Effect of EO Addition References
Oil Ingredients EO in Product Microorganism (Film/Coating) FoodProducts
Tested Attributes
Coating with Fresh minced [57]
chitosan/chitosan- Extended shelf life from 6
E. coli, S. enteritidis, caseinate to 12–15 days
1,8-Cineole (27.5%), L. monocytogenes and Color Chicken breast [58]
Rosmarinus Cellulose Extended shelf life with
α-Pinene (21.2%), 1–2% Meat and meat measurement
officinalis S. aureus nanofiber/whey good sensory acceptability
Camphor (12.8%), 0.5–1% products Odor, taste, and
(Rosemary) Pseudomonas spp., protein matrix to 8 days Lamb meat [59]
Camphene (10.3%), 0.2–1% overall perception
Enterobacteriaceae, containing TiO2 Inhibition of mold
β-Pinene (8.9%), and lactic acid bacteria particles (1%) formation for 9 days with
Borneol (3.0%) (LAB), yeasts good sensory acceptability Sukuk [60]
Whey protein film
Chitosan coating
Carvone (78.76%), Appearance, color,
Carboxymethyl
Mentha spicata Limonene (11.50%), texture, and Extended shelf life at least Fresh
0.1–0.2% Fruits L. monocytogenes cellulose (CMC) and [61]
(Mint) and β-Bourbonene overall 12 days strawberries
Chitosan (CH) coating
(11.23%) acceptability
Nanoemulsion-loaded Extended shelf life up to Fresh pork loin [62]
pectin (PEC) edible Texture and color 20–25 days
E. coli, S. aureus, and coating measurement Extended the shelf life up
S. typhimurium Chitosan film Color, odor, to 24 days Beef meat [63]
Total viable counts Nanoemulsion-based and overall acceptability
Aeromonas spp. reduced
(TVC) edible coating with Color, odor, from 48.76% to 19.1%,
Aeromonas spp. mandarin fiber texture, and Shewanella spp. reduced Low-fat cheese [64]
Shewanella spp. Immersion in 0.1% general from 9.64% to 1.7%
Biogenic amines: (v/v) oregano EO acceptability with Decrease in Hx up to
2% Meat and meat
putrescine, emulsion for 30 min at Grass carp
Carvacrol (58.30%), 0.5–1% products 9-point hedonic 1.2 µmol/g, TVBN
Origanum cadaverine, room temperature and (Ctenopharyn-
Linalool (9.09%), 1.5–2.5% Dairy products scale test decreased up to [65]
vulgare spermidine, then air packaging in godon
and γ-Terpinene 0.1% Fish No sensory 10.5 mg/100 g, prolonging
(Oregano) spermine, histamine, polyvinyl chloride idellus)
(6.01%) 112 ± 13 Fish analysis the shelf life to 8 days.
tyramine, bags followed by performed A microbiological shelf-life
mg/fillet Fish
tryptamine and chilled storage at 4 ◦ C Color extension of 2 days
2% Common carp
phenylethylamine UV-C-treated at 121 instrumentally. Biogenic amines decreased:
and 243 mJ/cm2 , (Cyprinus [66]
Microbial growth Volatile putrescine up to 20 mg/kg carpio)
(total culture plate vacuum-packed, and compounds by and cadaverine up to
count). chill-stored at 3.5 ◦ C GC–MS, SIFT–MS, 38 mg/kg.
VOCs as indicators MAP + oregano EO and SESI–MS Prolonging the shelf-life by Atlantic
of microbial growth. solution by spraying instead of 6 times salmon (Salmo [67]
followed by chilled sensory analysis Inhibited bacterial growth salar)
storage at 4 ± 1 ◦ C for up to day 8 of storage
16 days
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 7 of 22
Table 1. Cont.
Sensory
Tested Attributes
Better antimicrobial
protection for S. aureus
S.typhimurium, E. than nitrites
n/a Reduced total viable Beef burger [68]
Eugenol (56.06%), coli, L. monocytogenes, Off-odor
Syzygium S. aureus Sodium alginate and counts and slowed the
Caryophyllene Meat and meat substances with
aromaticum 1% Shewanellaceae spp., emulsifiers accumulation of harmful
(39.63%), and products bitter taste
(Clove) 0.5 % Pseudomonadaceae Chitosan-based substances including total
α-Caryophyllene Fish measured as
spp., and coating volatile basic nitrogen, Grass carp
(4.31%) inosine
Flavobacteriaceae spp. trimethylamine nitrogen, (Ctenopharyn-
and hypoxanthine and and [69]
godon
decreased K-value up to idellus)
11 days
Color
instrumentally.
Microbial growth MAP + dill EO
Volatile
Anethum α-phellandrene dill (total culture plate solution by spraying Atlantic
compounds by Inhibited bacterial growth
Graveolens ether limonene 2% Fish count). followed by chilled salmon (Salmo [67]
GC–MS, SIFT–MS, up to day 8 of storage.
(Dill) p-cymene VOCs as indicators storage at 4 ± 1 ◦ C for salar)
and SESI–MS
of microbial growth 16 days
instead of sensory
analysis
p-Cymene Doubled storage time Cake [70]

(11.67–15.51%), E. faecium, E. hirae, E. (from 15 to 30 days)
Limonene (7.14%), 0.125–0.625 g Bakery products coli, S. typhimurium, Microencapsulation by Color, odor, taste, without molding
Thymus vulgaris Increased meat shelf life to Beef meat [63]
Thymol 0.5–1% Meat and S.aureus, P. complex coacervation and overall
(Thyme) 25 days
(53.57–56.16%), and 0.2–1% meat products aeruginosa, C. Chitosan film acceptability
Carvacrol albicans, A. niger Inhibition of mold Sucuk [60]
(5.47–6.93%) formation for 9 days with
good sensory acceptability
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 8 of 22
Table 1. Cont.
Sensory
Tested Attributes
from 48.76% to 38.2%,
Aeromonas spp. Immersion in 0.1% Shewanella spp. reduced Grass carp
Pseudomonas spp. (v/v) thyme EO Color, odor, from 9.64% to 9.17%. (Ctenopharyn-
Shewanella spp. emulsion for 30 min at texture, and Decrease in Hx up to godon [65]
Thymol (72.51%) Biogenic amines: room temperature and general 0.7 µmol/g, TVBN idellus)
Thymus and 0.1% putrescine, then air packaging in acceptability with
mongolicus Fish decreased up to
Carvacrol (11.04%) 112 ± 13 Fish cadaverine, polyvinyl chloride 9-point hedonic 12.5 mg/100 g, prolonging
Ronn. Caryophyllene mg/fillet spermidine, bags followed by scale test
(Thyme) the shelf life to 8 days.
(8.99%) spermine, histamine, chilled storage at 4 ◦ C No sensory Biogenic amines decreased:
tyramine, UV-treated, analysis putrescine up to 19 mg/kg Common carp
tryptamine and vacuum-packed, and performed and cadaverine up to [66]
(Cyprinus
phenylethylamine chill-stored at 3.5 ◦ C 37 mg/kg carpio)
Prolonging the shelf-life by
5 times
Aspergillus spp.,
Linalool (65.18%), Alternaria alternata,
Coriandrum
Geranyl acetate Cereals and Penicillium spp., Chitosan-based
sativum 0.06–0.3 g n/a 85% antifungal protection Rice [71]
(12.06%), and seeds Mycelia sterilia, nanomatrix
(Coriander)
α-Pinene (4.76%) Fusarium poae and F.
oxysporum
Zingiberene +
Zingiberol (38.9%),
Pseudomonas spp.,
Zingiber Ar-curcumene Extended shelf life with
Meat and meat Enterobacteriaceae, Odor, taste, and Minced lamb
Officinale Roscoe (17.7%), and β- 0.5–1% Whey protein film good sensory acceptability [59,72]
products lactic acid bacteria overall perception meat
(Ginger) Sesquiphellandrene+β- to 8 days
(LAB), yeasts
Bisabolene
(11%)
Linalool (41.3%),
1,8-Cineole (9.6%), Fresh
(Z)-Isoeugenol B. cinerea Extended 4 ◦ C storage to strawberries [73]
Ocimum (5.9%), Fruits B. thermosphacta, E. Aloe vera gel coating 12 days with good external
500–1000 µL L−1 External visual
basilicum L. 1-Epi-cubenol (4.8%), Meat and meat faecalis, C. Chitosan film with EO aspect visual aspect
1%
(Basil) α- products maltaromaticum, E. microcapsules Increased storage time to
Transbergamotene coli and S. salivarius 10 days Sliced cooked
(4.6%), and ham [74]
(Z)-Anethol (3.2%)
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 9 of 22
Table 1. Cont.
Sensory
Tested Attributes
Sodium alginate
Pistachios [75]
Zataria Nuts aerobic mesophilic coating Taste, odor, color, Extended shelf life to
Thymol and 0.3–0.5%
multiflora Boiss Meat and meat bacteria Corn starch films and overall 39 days
Carvacrol 0.5–1% Fresh ground
(Shirazi thyme) products mold and yeast fortified with acceptability Extended storage to [76]
cinnamaldehyde 20 days beef patties
Carvone,
Extended 4 ◦ C storage to
Nigella sativa D-Limonene, Meat and meat S. aureus Chitosan/alginate Color Chicken breast
1% 5 days with good external [77]
(Black cumin) α-Pinene, and products E. coli multilayer films determination meat
visual aspect
p-Cymene
Immersion in 0.1%
from 48.76% to 36.5%,
trans-Anethole (v/v) star anise EO Color, odor,
Shewanella spp. reduced
(90.28%), emulsion for 30 min at texture, and Grass carp
Aeromonas spp. from 9.64% to 7.28%.
Illicium verum d-Limonene (3.75%), room temperature and general (Ctenopharyn-
0.1% Fish Pseudomonas spp. Decrease in Hx up to [65]
(Star anise) and then air packaging in acceptability with godon
Shewanella spp. 0.5 µmol/g, TVBN
4-Allylanisole (1.51%) polyvinyl chloride 9-point hedonic idellus)
decreased up to
bags followed by scale test
13.5 mg/100 g, prolonging
chilled storage at 4 ◦ C
the shelf life to 8 days
Anethole (74.40%),
Odor and taste
Thymol (11.44%),
Pimpinella Ps. Aeruginosa, with five-point
γ-Terpinene (4.61%), Meat and meat Extended storage to
anisum L. 0.5–2% S. aureus Chitosan film hedonic method Chicken burger [78]
D-Limonene (2.06%), products 12 days
(Anise) E. coli. (on cooked
and Estragole
burgers)
(1.87%)
E. coli, Ps.
Anethole (59.47%),
Pimpinella Aeruginosa, Color, flavor, odor,
Pseudoisoeugenol Extended shelf life with “Béja Sicilian
saxifraga S. typhimurium, L. Sodium alginate aspect, and texture
(20.15%), and 1–3% Dairy products good sensory acceptability cheese” (fresh [79]
(Burnet- monocytogenes, coating with five-point
p-Anisaldehyde to 10 days cheese)
saxifrage) Micrococcus luteus, hedonic method
(7.53%)
B.cereus
Cuminal (28.28%),
Odor, color, and
Cuminum p-Cymene (26.9%), Shahri Balangu seed
Meat and meat E. coli, S. aureus, overall acceptance Improved the shelf-life of
cyminum γ-Terpinene 0.5–2% mucilage edible Beef meat [80,81]
products Fungi with 9-point beef to 9 days
(Cumin) (15.29%), and Phenyl coating
hedonic scale test
glycol (14.32%)
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 10 of 22
Table 1. Cont.
Sensory
Tested Attributes
Paulownia Geranyl, Geraniol, Pseudomonas spp., Color, odor, and
Meat and meat Chitosan coatings with Prolonged the shelf life to Ready-to-cook
Tomentosa Nonanal, and 160 mg lactic acid bacteria overall [82,83]
products nanoencapsulated EO 16 days pork chops
(Princess tree) Heptadecane (LAB) acceptability
Carvacrol (80.55%),
Satureja
p-Cymene (6.43%),
khuzestanica Pseudomonas spp., Color and odor, Extended antimicrobial
β-Bisabolene Meat and meat Chitosan coatings with
(Marzeh-e- 1% lactic acid bacteria with a 5-point activity during 20 days of Lamb meat [84,85]
(3.25%), Citronellal products nanoencapsulated EO
Khuzestani in (LAB) descriptive scale storage
(1.8%), and Linalool
Persian)
(1.35%)
Quality index
Biogenic amines:
used instead of
putrescine, Application of lemon Biogenic amines decreased:
Citrus sensory analysis:
Limonene, cadaverine, peel EO nanoemulsion putrescine up to 31 mg/kg Rainbow trout
(lemon, orange, (QI) = (histamine
γ-terpinene, and 4% Fish spermidine, by immersion, air and cadaverine up to (Oncorhynchus [86]
grapefruit, and + putrescine +
β-pinene spermine, serotonin, packaging, chilled 12 mg/kg, and histamine mykiss)
tangerine peel) cadaverine)/(1 +
tyramine, dopamine, storage at 4 ◦ C up to 2.4 mg/kg
spermidine +
and agmatine
spermine)
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 11 of 22
Some properties of EOs, such as the low-level water solubility, the high volatility, and
their powerful odor, can curb their use as food preservatives in the food industry [87,88].
The antioxidant activity of biofilms depends on the antioxidant action of the EOs and the
film’s oxygen permeability. Adding EOs into edible films can boost their antimicrobial
capability, and the edible film’s efficacy against microbial growth will vary based on the
oil’s chemical characteristics and microorganism type [89]. Incorporating EOs and plant
extracts into edible natural biopolymers represents one of the newest research trends of the
food packaging industry [90,91]. Their incorporation into packaging materials and coated
films and straight into the food matrix as emulsions, nanoemulsions, and coatings are part
of newer applications [92].
Elevated contents of EOs can result in the transmission of off-flavors to the end
product. Moreover, as EOs are lipophilic, it is difficult to disperse them in water-based
washing solutions. Given this, an alternative was developed, namely their incorporation in
nanoemulsions [93]. Plant EOs are the organic and natural option to other preservatives
with significant antimicrobial, antifungal, and antiviral properties when used to obtain
innovative and healthy packaging. Consumers want to be assured that the packaging has
the proper attributes for ensuring food quality and freshness and preventing microbial
contamination.
Until now, there are few patents regarding the addition of EOs in active food pack-
aging [94]. The subject of WO patent 2013032631 A1 is the encapsulation of aromatic
compounds of EO within gelatin capsules with potential application in beverage pack-
aging [95]. Another patent concerning a plastic film with EO incorporated was created
to protect and preserve horticulture products and foods against insects (US 20040034149
A1) [96]. The subject of WO patent 2013084175 A1 is a material of animal origin with EO
isolated from R. officinalis, Citrus limon, and Vitis vinifera, used to pack fresh food and to in-
hibit the development of biogenic amines [97]. Another patent WO 2006000032-A1 regards
an antimicrobial packaging material for food products containing from 0.05% to 1.5% by
weight of a natural EO [98]. Patent number WO 2007135273 A3 refers to materials based on
(non)woven fibers for food preservation, coated with a matrix containing biodegradable
polymers for controlled release of volatile antimicrobial agents [99].
3.1. Fruits and Vegetables

Fruits and vegetables are acknowledged increasingly for their health benefits, mainly
due to their nutrients and fiber content, while being characterized by a short shelf-life
due to weight loss and decay, caused mainly by fungal activity. Botrytis cinerea appears
very frequently in fruits during the postharvest period. Strategies enhancing the shelf
life of fruits and vegetables cover the combined application of EOs into biofilms or MAP
(modified atmosphere packaging) [100]. To benefit from fresh fruits and vegetables in a
time-convenient manner, the food industry has launched the concept of “fresh-cut food”,
which implies that fruits or vegetables were physically altered but remained fresh. In
addition to the health benefits, fresh-cut food is appealing (fresh-like appearance, taste,
and flavor) and ready-to-eat [101]. Among the advantages of this segment of products,
there is the fact that they require less time to be prepared and consumed. These prod-
ucts are very time-convenient for customers as they are already cleaned and trimmed,
reducing the preparation time. While fresh-cut fruits and vegetables (FCFV) hold some
benefits (convenient, portable, and easy to eat) over the whole product, the industry and
the processes followed to preserve their freshness and quality (free of pathogenic microor-
ganisms) face considerable challenges [102]. While the health benefits of fresh-cut products
have persuaded consumers to increase their intake, studies have revealed that the num-
ber of illnesses caused by Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli, Shigella spp., Campylobacter
spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Yersinia spp., and Bacillus cereus has also
increased [103].
There is an increasing trend in the fresh fruits and vegetable packaging area to substi-
tute the traditional petrochemical-based packaging films with environmentally friendly
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 12 of 22
and biodegradable materials, such as edible coatings. Most used compounds for obtaining
edible coatings comprise chitosan, starch, cellulose, alginate, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), car-
rageenan, zein, gluten, whey, carnauba, beeswax, and fatty acids [104]. Another essential
benefit of using edible coatings is reducing synthetic waste, given that edible coatings are
made up of biodegradable material. For example, biodegradable green packaging can
be obtained from tropical plants (neem, nutmeg, turmeric, cinnamon, and lemongrass)
and some of their by-products (seeds, husks, kernels, and peels) with beneficial bioactive
properties [105]. In fresh or fresh-cut products such as fruits and vegetables, several param-
eters are evaluated to assess the EO coating efficiency: chemical properties (total soluble
solids, vitamin C content, and titratable acidity), weight loss and firmness, respiration
properties, microbiological properties, antioxidant properties (total phenolic content and
DPPH radical scavenging activity), and impact upon sensorial characteristics (flavor, taste,
visual appearance, and color) [106].
There is great interest in using EOs as effective agents against antimicrobial contami-
nation in minimally processed food [21]. The EOs possessing the most potent antibacterial
properties have antimicrobial agents such as carvacrol, eugenol, and thymol [16]. The
antimicrobial action of EOs in vegetables and fruit-based dishes are influenced positively
by low storage temperature and pH reduction [107]. In several studies, the researchers used
the EOs obtained from orange, lime, Litsea cubeba, clove, oregano, spearmint, cinnamon,
limonene, and thyme in developing packaging for fruits and vegetables with promising
antimicrobial results [108–113]. There are various studies regarding antimicrobial pack-
aging based on a blend of chitosan, gelatin, carboxymethyl cellulose—CMC, polylactic
acid (PLA), and essential oils (e.g., Mentha spicata oil, Red thyme, and Zataria multiflora)
designed to expand the shelf life and stability of strawberries [61,114–118]. Citronella EO
was loaded on a nanocomposite film made of chitosan/ZnO/Ag, and the antimicrobial
effect upon S. aureus, E. coli, and C. albicans was studied on grapes. The synergistic effect of
EO, ZnO, and Ag increased the shelf life of packaged white grapes to 14 days with very
good visual appearance and antimicrobial control [119].
In others studies, a mixture of eugenol, thymol, and carvacrol has been tested on
grapes and showed that counts for yeasts and molds were significantly reduced, as well
as the lower occurrence of berry decay [120–122]. The study conducted by Waithaka
et al., 2017, demonstrated that EOs extracted from rosemary and eucalyptus have the
capability of controlling passion fruit fungal pathogens such as Alternaria spp., Fusarium
spp., Colletotrichum spp., and Penicillium spp. [123]. Munhuweyi et al., 2017, investigated the
inhibitory effects of chitosan EOs, with different concentrations of lemongrass, cinnamon,
and oregano oils, using vapor emission and direct coating against Botrytis spp., Penicillium
spp., and Pilidiella granite pathogens of the pomegranate fruit. The results showed that
chitosan film incorporated with oregano EO had the highest antifungal activity [124].
Hoseini et al., 2019, used a chitosan-based coating incorporated with savory (Satureja
hortensias L.) and tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus L.) EOs in prolonging kumquat’s shelf time
by 30 days. The active packaging was efficient in reducing weight loss during storage and
maintaining vitamin C in fruits with good sensory acceptability [125]. Mango fruits were
covered with carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS)-pullulan edible films enriched with 4–12%
galangal EO, the best mechanical properties of the film being with a 2.5:2.5 CMCS-pullulan
ratio. The most effective film was with 8% galangal EO addition, providing 15 days of
shelf life for mango fruits while maintaining its properties (firmness, acidity, soluble solids,
and weight) [126]. In the work of Velázquez-Contreras et al., 2021, active packages filled
with thymol or carvacrol complexed in 3-cyclodextrins (ß-CDs) showed the effectiveness of
these monoterpenes in improving the shelf life of berries fruits [127]. Dwivedy et al. (2018)
showed the in situ potency of Illicium verum EO in the complete protection of pistachio
seeds from fungal and aflatoxin B1 contamination [128]. Origanum majorana essential oil
encapsulated into chitosan nanoemulsion caused in situ inhibition of lipid peroxidation
and AFB1 production in maize without altering their sensory properties [129].
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 13 of 22
3.2. Cereal-Based Products

In agriculture, crops are affected by fungal infections, and the antifungal effects of
some EOs are already valorized in industrial settings: rosemary, clove, thyme, sesame, and
garlic are just some of the natural sources of EOs included in commercial products for crop
protection [6]. Lee et al., 2017, used garlic, onion, ginger, fennel, and black pepper EOs on
multilayered rice films made from rice flour and LDPE (low-density polyethylene) as a
potential insecticide against Plodia interpunctella larvae infestation on stored cereals. Garlic
and onion EO had the best anti-insect effect, and allyl disulfide, extracted from garlic, was
further used for brown rice packaging with good sensory evaluation [130]. EOs loaded
on lipid nanocarriers (nanoemulsions, solid-lipid nanoparticles, and liposomes) inhibit
food pathogens by changes in the cellular morphology and functionality (ribosomes and
cytoplasm), interruption of the electron transport chain, and inhibition of bacterial toxin
release, and they can be used for preserving grains and flours [131]. Oregano majorana EO
encapsulated in a chitosan-based nanoemulsion inhibited lipid peroxidation and AFB1 (afla-
toxin B1) production in maize without affecting the sensorial properties, being a promising
antifungal agent for crops [129]. Cinnamon and clove oils were added to a pectin-based
film and applied to bread to reduce spoilage and increase shelf life. Cinnamaldehyde from
cinnamon EO and eugenol from clove EO offered good antifungal protection against Penicil-
lium and Aspergillus, increasing bread shelf life by 4 days [132]. Das et al., 2019, concluded
that Coriandrum sativum essential oil (CSEO) and encapsulated CSEO nanoemulsion have a
strong potency in the suppression of in situ Aflatoxin B1 production in stored rice seeds
than a fungal infestation [71].
Worldwide, there is a global concern about synthetic insecticides’ negative impact on
ozone, environmental pollution, toxicity to nontarget organisms, and pesticide residues.
The negative effects of synthetic pesticides have amplified the need for effective and
biodegradable pesticides. EOs and their phytoconstituents have been reported as natural
agents against insect pests and could be applicable to the management of insect pests
to decrease ecologically detrimental effects [6]. Another study conducted by Yang et al.,
2020, evaluated 28 essential oils for their attraction–inhibitory activity against the adults of
S. zeamais. Amongst the four most active oils (cinnamon, tea tree, ylang ylang, and marjoram
oils), cinnamon oil was the most active in both contact/residual and fumigant bioassays and
exhibited strong behavioral inhibitory activity [133]. The findings of Bendini et al., 2020,
indicate that the use of EOs from mandarin (Citrus reticulata) and tea tree (Melaleuca
alternifolia) for the post-harvest protection of small fruits against Fruit Fly Drosophila
suzukii is feasible, provided that the EOs have been selected not only for their bioactivity
against the insect pest but also for their affinity with the consumers’ sensorial system [134].
3.3. Dairy Products

In cheese, the main concern is microbial spoilage due to fungi and bacteria. EO in-
corporation in cheese active packaging has benefits such as increasing the shelf-life of
cheese products, but a series of limitations occur: cheese proteins interact with phenolic
compounds from EO; fats surround hydrophobic constituents of EO, which may interfere
with their antimicrobial activity; the physical structure of cheese may limit EO availability
to microbial cells; the intense aroma of EO may interact with the cheese taste [135]. Oregano
or garlic EO was added to a whey protein (WPI) edible film and applied to Kasar sliced
cheese to provide microbial reduction during cheese storage. Garlic EO-WPI was less
effective than oregano EO-WPI on microbial protection, assuring 15 days of shelf life and
contributing to reducing food waste [136]. Mahcene et al., 2021, used sodium alginate-
based edible films enriched with rosemary, basil, white wormwood, and pennyroyal EOs as
preservatives for homemade cheese. They assured protection against weight-loss, hardness,
discoloration, flavor, and texture changes and prevented microbial spoilage, with good
consumer acceptance, and with the film enriched with basil being most preferred [137].
In the study conducted by Moghazy et al., 1–2% of encapsulated thyme EO was added
to a liposomal chitosan emulsion and applied on Karish cheese to increase shelf life. Thy-
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 14 of 22
mol and p-cymene identified in thyme EO were responsible for 4 weeks of antimicrobial
protection against aerobic bacteria, psychrotrophic bacteria, and yeast and mold. In ad-
dition, 2% chitosan solution stabilized the liposomal emulsion for 2 months at 4 ◦ C and,
as a result, coating with this emulsion increased the shelf life of Karish cheese from 2 to
4 weeks [138]. Carum copticum EO was included in a composite film with Pectin/Nanoclay
(montmorillonite) and β-Carotene and was applied on butter; the antioxidant and antimi-
crobial properties, and color changes were assessed. The film containing 0.05% EO and
0.03% β-Carotene assured protection against B. cereus, more than for E. coli, and had good
antioxidant properties with the highest oxidative stability and least color change during
60 days of storage. The film changed color from orange to yellow when butter oxidized
and could be considered expired [139].
3.4. Eggs
Pires et al., 2020, covered eggs with a series of rice protein coatings enriched with 1%
tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), copaiba (Copaifera langsdorffii), or thyme (Thymus vulgaris) EO
to increase the shelf life of eggs. After six weeks of storage, covered eggs had better internal
properties than uncovered eggs, in terms of weight loss, albumen pH, and yolk index,
probably due to the hydrophobicity of the rice coating and the lipophilic characteristics of
EO that provide a barrier to mass and oxygen loss [140]. Basil EO (BEO) and beeswax were
incorporated in a chitosan-based emulsion and used for egg coating. The proportion of
beeswax and BEO that assured the best coating properties by increasing the consistency
coefficient of the emulsion, decreasing the droplet size, improving the stability by forming
a multi-layer adsorption at the oil–water interface, and having bacteriostatic properties
was, respectively, 0.5% and 1%. Shelf life was extended until day 35, with no height loss
(eggs remaining in the AA category) and a better yolk index than the control group [141].
3.5. Meat and Meat Products

Rosemary EO was incorporated in a bio-nanocomposite based on chitosan and mont-
morillonite (MMT) to develop an active packaging for fresh poultry meat. It increased the
storage time up to 15 days by inhibiting lipid peroxidation and discoloration and assuring
microbiological safety, but MMT interacted with the plastic wrap used for primary packing.
In an industrial setting, either the fresh poultry meat producer chooses another way of
primary packing, or the active packaging should be consisted of chitosan films enriched
with rosemary EO, without MMT [142]. Vital et al., 2018, covered beef meat with an alginate
coating enriched with 0.1% rosemary EO or oregano EO and carried out a sensory analysis
of steaks to determine consumers’ acceptability of EO coating. Although both EOs have
a strong flavor, steak coated with oregano EO was preferred by the panelists, showing
the importance of choosing the appropriate flavor when designing an active packaging
for meat [143]. Thyme EO was included in a β-cyclodextrin complex and further incor-
porated into ε-polylysine nanoparticles (TGPNs). Gelatin nanofibers containing TGPN
were engineered and loaded on fresh chicken meat, and the antimicrobial activity on the
C. jejuni was evaluated. The TGPNs packaged chicken samples possessed good antimicro-
bial protection without a negative impact on color, texture, and sensory evaluation, being a
promising prospect in meat preservation [144]. Ferulago angulata essential oil (FAEO) was
used to enrich a gelatin-chitosan edible film applied to turkey meat, and 0.5% FAEO was
the concentration that assured the best film stability, ensuring microbial growth inhibition
and increasing the storage time to 15 days [145]. The casein-maltodextrin encapsulated
with thyme (Thymus vulgaris) EO showed antioxidant and antimicrobial activity against
Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella Typhimurium
tested in vitro and against thermotolerant coliforms and Escherichia coli in situ, showing
potential for application as a natural preservative in hamburger-like meat products [146].
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 15 of 22
3.6. Seafood
One of the biggest challenges for the seafood industry is the short shelf life of fresh
marine food products due to microbial contamination and biochemical spoilage caused
by lipid/protein oxidation, a problem of great economic concern. Seafood products are
highly perishable due to a large amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids and the strong
activity of endogenous enzymes [147,148]. Fresh marine food products may be subjected to
microbial contamination or biochemical spoilage during handling, processing, and storage.
Therefore, the need for improving the quality and increasing the shelf life of fresh seafood
products is currently increasing [149]. Therefore, the need for improvement in the quality
and increased shelf life of fresh seafood products is currently increasing. The need of
increasing the shelf life of fresh fish and other seafood products without compromising on
the quality and safety has led to an increased number of studies focusing on the application
of natural antioxidants to retard lipid and protein oxidation [150]. Modern consumers
prefer the use of antioxidants from natural sources due to the lower risk of cardiovascular
diseases and cancer [25]. Most of the natural antioxidants used for seafood preservation
belong to the group of phenolic compounds naturally found in plants such as phenolic
acids, anthocyanins, and flavonoids. As these compounds originally protect plants from
oxidative stress, they can successfully be used as a source of natural antioxidants for the
preservation of marine food products. The use of natural antioxidants in the food industry
including seafood processing is often performed by the application of EOs [151].
EOs exhibit strong antioxidant, antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal properties and
are considered safe additives, which enable their application in the seafood industry. Those
derived from spices and certain herbs are also found to possess antimicrobial activity and
are, therefore, used in the seafood industry as natural agents for extending the product
shelf life by retarding microbial and biochemical spoilage [27]. Recently, research focusing
on the application of EOs for chilled stored fish gained rapidly growing popularity due
to very promising results. The fish processing industry has shown a growing interest in
using EOs as bio-preservatives and antimicrobials for chilled-stored seafood products [25].
The most commonly used fish species for EOs application studies were salmon, rainbow
trout, grass carp, and common carp [65–67,69,86] and the most popular EOs were oregano,
dill, thymus, rosemary, clove, cinnamon, and mint [25]. The EOs have been applied to
fish using different methods, i.e., directly through spraying, immersion, pipetting, or
evaporation, as well as bulk EO or EO emulsion, coupled with other stabilization methods
such as modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), active film, additives, and various pre-
treatments [25]. The EOs inhibitory effect of the microbial population on the spoilage
parameters in chilled-stored seafood varies among EO varieties. However, it is possible to
decrease the bacteria load with lower doses of EOs when applying hurdle technologies such
as modified atmosphere packaging [67]. At the same time, large fluctuations in an EO’s
inhibitory effects on microorganisms were observed even at the same dose of EOs. This
phenomenon can be explained by different compositions (fat, water, and protein content)
among various fish species, EO types, and methods of using EOs [25]. However, generally,
EOs are very effective against microbial communities in chilled-stored fish, as well as
biogenic amines (such as histamine, putrescine, and cadaverine). Moreover, a number of
volatile organic molecules related to fish spoilage are suppressed by the EOs [67]. These
studies confirm the effectiveness of EOs in reduction in microbial and biochemical spoilage
in chilled-stored fish. Citrus oils have also been shown to be effective in fish products; the
microflora of carp skin, gill, and intestines is reduced by citral and linalool at 20 ◦ C for
48 h [152].
4. Conclusions and Future Perspective

The results reported in this review provide updated information concerning the use of
EOs in the food sector, which are an alternative to synthetic antioxidants for conventionally
produced foods. The available literature indicates that essential oils have been used with
success against a wide range of foodborne pathogens. Some properties of EOs, such as the
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 16 of 22
low-level water solubility, the high volatility, and their powerful odor, can curb their use as
food preservatives in the food industry. Several methods have been considered to overcome
this problem. Therefore, a possible solution would be their inclusion in an edible coating.
Seeking to lengthen the shelf-life and to increase a product’s value, but also to strengthen
consumer confidence in processed food products, EOs can add various properties to
films and coatings, such as antioxidant and/or antimicrobial characteristics, varying EO’s
compounds and their interactions with the polymer matrix. However, the use of EOs has
several limitations: most of the studies were performed in vitro and in vivo; there may be
different outcomes, due to their high volatility, and low water solubility; volatile oils also
impart a strong flavor and consumers may reject them; the yield is influenced by the variety
of plants, extracting techniques, harvesting season, or geographical regions. This could
generate low reproducibility of a process in an industrial setting, and the cost, selectivity,
and safety could be a limitation in their use.
Mainly, EOs have been successfully used for fruits and vegetables, meat, fish, and
dairy products preservation. However, regarding fruits and vegetables, the disadvantages
mentioned above make their applications limited. This issue is primarily given by the
significant amount of EOs’ volatile compounds, which mask the natural flavor of fruits and
vegetables. A potential solution might be to study further the use of composite films based
on a similar product matrix as seen in the case of adding lemon EOs to biofilms used for
packing citric fruits. These methods would lessen the olfactory impact of EOs on fruits and
vegetables; in that sense, encapsulation and nanotechnology are promising tools.
A highly researched topic is developing new natural edible films and coatings having
an inherent antimicrobial activity or one obtained through the addition of EOs. The
literature consulted shows an increased interest in this topic. There are several reviews in
the field, but there are few research/original articles, and they have been published recently
(since 2015). Research results showed that the new active packaging was more successful
in vitro than in vivo (i.e., with real-food products), pointing to a need for continued research.
There are regulatory constraints regarding the accepted daily intake of EOs and some
of their components; therefore, for using them appropriately in food products, a daily
intake survey should be prepared for the health authority’s evaluation. Moreover, a deeper
knowledge of the effects and the role of EOs on human health needs to be better investigated.
Future studies should be carried out on their mode of action and their possible toxicological
effects in order to optimize their potential uses and increase bio-accessibility.
The utilization of essential oil in active food packaging seems to be a realistic solution
to prolong the shelf life of food products and maintain their safety, quality, and integrity.
Although several patents have been achieved due to the positive result of EOs incorpo-
ration into food packaging, there is no information available in the literature about their
commercial used.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.C.S. and J.C.; writing—original draft preparation, L.C.S.
and J.C.; writing—review and editing, L.C.S. and J.C.; supervision, L.C.S. and J.C. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Plants 2022, 11, 2488 17 of 22
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plants

Academic Editors: Hua Shao, 1. Introduction

Plants 2022, 11, 2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11192488 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/plants

Plants 2022, 11, 2488 2 of 22

2. Active Packaging Systems with Essential Oils Addition

corporation in colloidal delivery systems (emulsion-based, surfactant-based, or biopolymer-

the potential to be used as a food preservative [49]. Coriander EO was incorporated in

3. Applicability of Essential Oils in Food Products

Table 1. The application of essential oils in the food industry.

p-Cymene Doubled storage time Cake [70]

3.1. Fruits and Vegetables

3.2. Cereal-Based Products

3.3. Dairy Products

3.5. Meat and Meat Products

4. Conclusions and Future Perspective

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