Articles by Catherina Wilson
Conflict and Society, 2018
Duress results from the internalization of violence. Through the narratives of two Central Africa... more Duress results from the internalization of violence. Through the narratives of two Central African Republic student refugees in the Democratic Republic of Congo, this article presents the multiple layers of violence they experience. After introducing violence, the article turns to its different layers by making use of the palimpsest metaphor. Three layers of violence interrelate and overlap: the first relates to chronic crisis in the Central African Republic; the second layer deals with the context of the urban jungle (Kinshasa); and the third layer is linked to the humanitarian agencies that fail to provide for urban refugees. The experience of these three layers adds up to duress. Duress colors the students’ agency and the decisions they make along their life paths.
Geoforum, 2018
In this paper I follow four Central African students who fled open violence in their country and ... more In this paper I follow four Central African students who fled open violence in their country and found refuge in the neighbouring Democratic Republic of Congo. By taking a close look at how the students move between Bangui and Kinshasa this paper aims to better understand the decisions made along their pathways and the multiple social transformations they bring about. By illustrating the multiple layers of mobility and by adopting a more variegated reading of the refugee, this paper builds on the mobility turn and contributes to the fields of migration and refugee studies (especially in Sub-Saharan Africa), as well as to the debates around social navigation and social becoming among youth in urban settings. As the students move from place to place, the research follows both the trajectories and the decisions the students make during their journeys. This ‘following strategy’ is part of a mobile and multi-sited methodology, where travelling is more than physical movement from one place to another. The paper argues that the transformation the students undergo is processual and plural and that it is socially, relationally, and contextually situated. Different environments call for different social positions or identities—such as becoming a refugee within the parameters of a humanitarian configuration, on the one hand, or turning into an astute city dweller in Kinshasa’s social structures, on the other. By moving spatially and navigating socially, the students envisage futures and create opportunities for themselves in the hope of returning home as respected adults.
Hot Spots, Cultural Anthropology website, 2014
Book Chapters by Catherina Wilson
Refugee Youth: Migration, Justice and Urban Space, 2023
Esatis is an engaged slam poet from the Central African Republic. Nathan-2K is a Congolese gospel... more Esatis is an engaged slam poet from the Central African Republic. Nathan-2K is a Congolese gospel music guitarist. Both young men left their respective home towns and made their way to a foreign African megapolis in search of greener pastures. Based on two biographical trajectories, this chapter (1) problematizes South-North migration and concentrates on trajectories within Africa; (2) questions the artificial migration-refuge divide and; (3) challenges images of the vulnerable refugee/migrant and underlines self-affirmation, personal success and dignity instead. The biographic approach helps to contextualize important moments of decision in these young men’s biographical trajectories. Exploring these details leads to a deeper understanding of how lives of youth in urban Africa can unfold in a constant interplay between structure and agency (through music).
Youth and Non-Violence in Africa’s Fragile Contexts, 2022
The predominant images of youth that emerge from the Central African Republic (CAR) are those of ... more The predominant images of youth that emerge from the Central African Republic (CAR) are those of young people armed with traditional weapons and amulets or in military fatigue, enmeshed in violent practices. The purpose of this chapter is, by contrast, to focus on young people who tried to avoid violent mobilisation during war. We analyse why and how they made an effort to stay away from arms during the 2012-present conflict in the Central African Republic. In many contexts of conflict, it seems young people’s options fall under three types of pathways: becoming involved in violence (either by ‘choice’ or by forced recruitment) (1) or not becoming involved, most likely by keeping a low profile while navigating the difficulties of living in a volatile and violent context (2), or fleeing (to Internally Displaced Person (IDP) camps or across borders) (3). The first option leads to violent pathways, well studied by scholars (Cakay, 2016; Utas, 2005; Vigh, 2006), the second and third leading to non-violent pathways. Especially the second pathway has so far been less examined (Sommers, 2015). Through a detailed portrayal of the lives of a handful of young people from the Central African Republic who tried to stay out of armed violence, we aim to nuance and broaden the understanding of the non-violent trajectories available to youth in situations of conflict. We emphasize the need for understanding the relationship between youth and violence in these contexts as complex. This relationship is not fixed but evolves as conflict flares up, takes root, and normalizes while young people simultaneously acquire knowledge and experience. It is therefore not about being or not-being violent as qualities inherent to specific young people; it is rather about young people’s responses to, engagement with, and learning about violent contexts as influenced by its situational and temporal dimensions. Understanding those who navigate away from arms better can ‘offer unique insights into the everydayness of peacemaking within violent contexts’ (Iwilade, Introduction).
Essays on African languages and linguistics : in honour of Maarten Mous, 2020
The chapter deals with Sango and Lingala, two supravernacular languages spoken in Central Africa.... more The chapter deals with Sango and Lingala, two supravernacular languages spoken in Central Africa. After introducing the languages, the chapter turns to the (pre-)colonial context in which they rose. It then discuss the perceptions and uses of Sango in Kinshasa, and conversely, of Lingala in Bangui. In both cities, there is room for hybrid identifications to language. The chapter continues by explaining the unique positionality of Zongo as a space where Sango and Lingala meet on an equal ground and finalizes by presenting the rivers of the Congo Basin as multidirectional musical vectors for both languages. The work here presented is based on insights during a multi-sited, ethnographic research carried between July 2013 and February 2015 in Bangui, Kinshasa and the Sud-Ubangi province. The main focus of the research was not language. The data collected on language is in many cases anecdotal. Instead of presenting highly substantiated claims, this chapter wishes to awaken curiosity.
In: Youth Language Practices in Africa and Beyond Ed. by Nassenstein, Nico / Hollington, Andrea, Aug 2015
In Kisangani (Democratic Republic of the Congo), as in other African cities, young people use lan... more In Kisangani (Democratic Republic of the Congo), as in other African cities, young people use language playfully, giving birth to urban youth languages: languages that are characterized by conscious linguistic manipulation and which redefine the position of their speakers in society. In Kisangani the present author found two types: Kindoubil and Inverted Kindoubil. Both are based on Lingala (the language of the capital, Congolese music and (representing a symbol of) worldliness), yet they serve different purposes. In the center of town, on the one hand, individuals speak Kindoubil to enhance their personal
status and to present themselves as solution finders, leading them to a potential income. This Kindoubil is not completely unintelligible to outsiders. On the other hand, in the outskirts of the city, young people speak Inverted Kindoubil. In comparison to the former, this language is unintelligible to the non-initiated
and serves the purposes of secrecy and in-group identity.
Theses by Catherina Wilson
Conflict mobiles are individuals whose mobility—and lack of mobility—is informed by violence andc... more Conflict mobiles are individuals whose mobility—and lack of mobility—is informed by violence andconflict. Based on personal narratives of those who move across borders within and beyond the Central African region, this thesis is an ethnography of mobility. By taking mobility as its axiom and placing the lives of people on the move at its centre, the goal of this thesis is twofold. On the one hand, it contests fixed (national) borders and defies static historical readings of Central Africa. On the other hand, it investigates how the multiple trajectories of individuals in Central African give form to the mobility paradigm. There are many avatars of the conflict mobile, the CAR (Central African Republic) refugee-students in Kinshasa (DR Congo), on whom the empirical part of this thesis is based, form only one. It is these students’ journeys, their life stories and means of fending for themselves, as well as their dreams and frustrations, that stand at the core of this thesis. By acknowledging the role of the people (including artists) with whom researchers produce knowledge, this thesis finally invites the reader to ‘un-border’ by looking at the field, and academia, through a mobile lens.
In his attempt to overcome stagnation and enter adulthood, the Congolese Yankee makes a creative ... more In his attempt to overcome stagnation and enter adulthood, the Congolese Yankee makes a creative use of language and discourse. By speaking the urban Lingala variant known as Kindoubil, i.e. a consciously manipulated language that sets him apart from others, the Congolese Yankee builds his own identity and tries to find ways to escape marginalisation. This thesis begins by describing the city of Kisangani through the lens of language. Kisangani is a bilingual city where both Lingala and Swahili are widely spoken. Interestingly, youngsters in Kisangani deliberately choose to speak Lingala over Swahili. The former is often the easier
option, but possibly of greater importance is that youngsters seek to embody the prestige that envelops Lingala in order to prove they are in the know. Lingala, as such, is made an asset that can be negotiated in the linguistic marketplace. The thesis then turns to treat the general socio-economic background and livelihood of the Yankee, who is considered to be a master of survival strategies. It aims at
explaining how the informal economy works and how it is de facto formalized. This is achieved by describing the mechanism of the “co-ops”, or opportunities in precariousness. The Yankee is an ambivalent character, thus rather than attempting to define the Yankee, the thesis continues to analyze the possible features and registers of conduct of Kiyankee (Yankee-hood). When embodied, these features can be interpreted either positively or negatively. For example, lucidity is a quality needed for excelling in business, while at the same time essential for being a thief. In all cases, the Yankee relies on ingenuity and resourcefulness in order to survive and to be respected for his knowledge. Stagnation is the cause of his frustrations, but also a trigger for creativity. Because language is one of the only tools over which youth can have control, one of the best ways to embody Kiyankee is by adapting one’s
language use. By speaking Kindoubil, the Yankee creates an alternative reality onto which he grafts an egotistical discourse of success. Yet there seems to be more than
one of type Kindoubil. The one the Yankee deliberately chooses to speak is one that is unrecognized as arbitrary. It carefully weaves elements of modernity, urbanity, prestige and success and derives its power from being exclusive, because those who do not speak it reluctantly look up to it. Moving a step further, the adoption of Kindoubil culminates in youngsters consciously altering their identity. They create
instances of power where the dream of turning into a man of respect becomes momentarily real. The Yankee constructs an onstage existence, an alternative dream-like adulthood to which he does have access and when successfully dramatized appears real. Appearance permeates reality blurring the line between what is real and what is a dream.
Working Papers by Catherina Wilson
TRAFIG working paper 8, 2021
This working paper investigates the livelihoods, trajectories, networks and self-generated opport... more This working paper investigates the livelihoods, trajectories, networks and self-generated opportunities of vulnerable migrants in refugee-like situations in Dar es Salaam. Its main purpose is to arrive at a deeper
understanding of protracted displacement through a ‘figurational approach’, which stresses the networks and the interdependencies of urban refugees in Dar es Salaam, across Tanzania, and across national borders. Refugees’ social relations do not unfold in a vacuum but are shaped by the regimes of aid and asylum that govern their lives. In a context of constant fear of imprisonment and deportation, this working paper gives particular attention to the alliances that the vulnerable
migrants build within Dar es Salaam. It underlines their agency and coping strategies, as they bring with them many valuable skills. Capitalising on these skills can result in longstanding partnerships between vulnerable migrants and locals. Spaces of freedom where displaced people do not need to live in a perpetual state of fear
and uncertainty are equally important. More than focusing on constraints, this paper underlines the urban refugees’ agency and survival strategies. We pay particular attention to the mobility and connectivity of female urban refugees, also within a digital context.
Through (social media) entrepreneurship, women in refugee- like situations have managed to overcome immobilisation and create new opportunities for themselves. By analysing a variety of life situations
throughout this paper, we seek to recognise and promote urban refugees’ agency and dignity.
TRAFIG Working Paper No. 2, 2020
This working paper examines the history of the search for solutions to protracted displacement. F... more This working paper examines the history of the search for solutions to protracted displacement. Focusing specifically on the Horn of Africa, East Africa, the Middle East and South Asia, the paper analyses past policy responses that explicitly or implicitly address situations of extended exile. In addition, the paper examines the potential of translocal mobility and connectivity as an individual- or household-level solution to displacement.
Edited Books by Catherina Wilson
Langaa RPCIG, Cameroon, 2020
This book is authored by Max-Landry Kassaï and edited by Catherina Wilson.
Ce livre est écrit pa... more This book is authored by Max-Landry Kassaï and edited by Catherina Wilson.
Ce livre est écrit par Max-Landry Kassaï, Catherina Wilson est éditrice de ce projet.
The Tragedy Of The Stupid Nation retraces three decades of political instability during which the people of the Central African Republic suffered from several waves of violence that lead to the breakdown of the social cohesion between the different communities (first along ethnic, then along religious lines). This book is a personal and collective account of the massacres, looting and fleeing and an indictment of misgovernance, nepotism and political inequality. The consequences of which are, too often, carried by the population. Combining different literary genres, Max-Landry Kassaï gives the reader an appreciation of what it is to come of age in the Central African Republic.
La tragédie d'une nation débile retrace cinq décennies d'instabilité politique au cours desquelles le peuple centrafricain a souffert de plusieurs maux qui ont abouti à l'éclatement de la cohésion sociale entre les communautés. C'est un récit personnel et collectif des massacres, tueries, et pillages indescriptibles, qui ont fait couler le sang centrafricain. Et tout cela sort d'une crise de gestion de la chose publique, des inégalités sociales et politiques dues au népotisme et régionalisme, caractérisant les différents régimes qui ont eu lieu.
Exhibitions by Catherina Wilson
Mboka'sika literally means 'new country' Lingala. This is the first mayor exhibition by the Congo... more Mboka'sika literally means 'new country' Lingala. This is the first mayor exhibition by the Congolese artist Sapin Makengele held in The Netherlands, Sapin's adopted country, hence the title. The exhibition was co-curated by Catherina Wilson.
L’exposition « Vivre sous contraintes », par Salma Khalil et
Catherina Wilson, célèbre l’effort d... more L’exposition « Vivre sous contraintes », par Salma Khalil et
Catherina Wilson, célèbre l’effort de fusionner le milieu
artistique et le milieu académique en exposant, entre
autres, des oeuvres d’artistes de la région et des photographies
réalisées par les chercheurs du projet. Un amalgame
d’artistes employant différents médiums fera partie de cette
exposition, défiant ainsi la frontière entre la connaissance
dite académique et la connaissance dite artistique. Cette exposition fit partie du programme culturel de la conférence finale du projet de l'Université de Leyde 'Se connecter en temps de contrainte (2012-2018)
Blogs by Catherina Wilson
Counter Voices in Africa, 2015
Short films by Catherina Wilson
During the 2013 crisis in the Central African Republic (CAR) many people fled the country. Refuge... more During the 2013 crisis in the Central African Republic (CAR) many people fled the country. Refugee camps mushroomed in Cameroon, DR Congo and Chad. These camps are mostly situated in rural areas and offer a grim perspective for young urbanites. Some youngsters prefer to bypass the camps altogether and look for greener pastures in the cities. This video relates the story and struggles of a group of Central African student/refugees who arrived in Kinshasa (DR Congo) in search of study opportunities.
Arnold (21) is a Central African refugee in Kinshasa (DR Congo) who chose not to stay in a refuge... more Arnold (21) is a Central African refugee in Kinshasa (DR Congo) who chose not to stay in a refugee camp in order to pursue his studies in the capital. He is therefore not assisted by the UNHCR. Arnold is trying to round up his last year of high school, with his own money. In addition to school, he has developed a passion for music. In this video you will learn more about Arnold’s philosophy of life, his pleas and his complaints. He has witnessed several attempts to encourage the rule of law in his country. But he has also seen how all these attempts have failed. He invites Centrafricans to revise all the reconciliation programs that at the end have not brought any reconciliation. He criticizes the politicians for manipulating the youth in the pursuit of their own interests. He criticizes international organizations for allowing violence to emerge over and over in his country. Yet, at the same time, he pleas these organizations for help. But more importantly, he underlines that it is the people who need to take their destiny in their own hands. Arnold believes that they do not need to do this alone. Africans have one another. Arnolds is a fierce believer of African solidarity.
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Articles by Catherina Wilson
Book Chapters by Catherina Wilson
status and to present themselves as solution finders, leading them to a potential income. This Kindoubil is not completely unintelligible to outsiders. On the other hand, in the outskirts of the city, young people speak Inverted Kindoubil. In comparison to the former, this language is unintelligible to the non-initiated
and serves the purposes of secrecy and in-group identity.
Theses by Catherina Wilson
option, but possibly of greater importance is that youngsters seek to embody the prestige that envelops Lingala in order to prove they are in the know. Lingala, as such, is made an asset that can be negotiated in the linguistic marketplace. The thesis then turns to treat the general socio-economic background and livelihood of the Yankee, who is considered to be a master of survival strategies. It aims at
explaining how the informal economy works and how it is de facto formalized. This is achieved by describing the mechanism of the “co-ops”, or opportunities in precariousness. The Yankee is an ambivalent character, thus rather than attempting to define the Yankee, the thesis continues to analyze the possible features and registers of conduct of Kiyankee (Yankee-hood). When embodied, these features can be interpreted either positively or negatively. For example, lucidity is a quality needed for excelling in business, while at the same time essential for being a thief. In all cases, the Yankee relies on ingenuity and resourcefulness in order to survive and to be respected for his knowledge. Stagnation is the cause of his frustrations, but also a trigger for creativity. Because language is one of the only tools over which youth can have control, one of the best ways to embody Kiyankee is by adapting one’s
language use. By speaking Kindoubil, the Yankee creates an alternative reality onto which he grafts an egotistical discourse of success. Yet there seems to be more than
one of type Kindoubil. The one the Yankee deliberately chooses to speak is one that is unrecognized as arbitrary. It carefully weaves elements of modernity, urbanity, prestige and success and derives its power from being exclusive, because those who do not speak it reluctantly look up to it. Moving a step further, the adoption of Kindoubil culminates in youngsters consciously altering their identity. They create
instances of power where the dream of turning into a man of respect becomes momentarily real. The Yankee constructs an onstage existence, an alternative dream-like adulthood to which he does have access and when successfully dramatized appears real. Appearance permeates reality blurring the line between what is real and what is a dream.
Working Papers by Catherina Wilson
understanding of protracted displacement through a ‘figurational approach’, which stresses the networks and the interdependencies of urban refugees in Dar es Salaam, across Tanzania, and across national borders. Refugees’ social relations do not unfold in a vacuum but are shaped by the regimes of aid and asylum that govern their lives. In a context of constant fear of imprisonment and deportation, this working paper gives particular attention to the alliances that the vulnerable
migrants build within Dar es Salaam. It underlines their agency and coping strategies, as they bring with them many valuable skills. Capitalising on these skills can result in longstanding partnerships between vulnerable migrants and locals. Spaces of freedom where displaced people do not need to live in a perpetual state of fear
and uncertainty are equally important. More than focusing on constraints, this paper underlines the urban refugees’ agency and survival strategies. We pay particular attention to the mobility and connectivity of female urban refugees, also within a digital context.
Through (social media) entrepreneurship, women in refugee- like situations have managed to overcome immobilisation and create new opportunities for themselves. By analysing a variety of life situations
throughout this paper, we seek to recognise and promote urban refugees’ agency and dignity.
Edited Books by Catherina Wilson
Ce livre est écrit par Max-Landry Kassaï, Catherina Wilson est éditrice de ce projet.
The Tragedy Of The Stupid Nation retraces three decades of political instability during which the people of the Central African Republic suffered from several waves of violence that lead to the breakdown of the social cohesion between the different communities (first along ethnic, then along religious lines). This book is a personal and collective account of the massacres, looting and fleeing and an indictment of misgovernance, nepotism and political inequality. The consequences of which are, too often, carried by the population. Combining different literary genres, Max-Landry Kassaï gives the reader an appreciation of what it is to come of age in the Central African Republic.
La tragédie d'une nation débile retrace cinq décennies d'instabilité politique au cours desquelles le peuple centrafricain a souffert de plusieurs maux qui ont abouti à l'éclatement de la cohésion sociale entre les communautés. C'est un récit personnel et collectif des massacres, tueries, et pillages indescriptibles, qui ont fait couler le sang centrafricain. Et tout cela sort d'une crise de gestion de la chose publique, des inégalités sociales et politiques dues au népotisme et régionalisme, caractérisant les différents régimes qui ont eu lieu.
Exhibitions by Catherina Wilson
Catherina Wilson, célèbre l’effort de fusionner le milieu
artistique et le milieu académique en exposant, entre
autres, des oeuvres d’artistes de la région et des photographies
réalisées par les chercheurs du projet. Un amalgame
d’artistes employant différents médiums fera partie de cette
exposition, défiant ainsi la frontière entre la connaissance
dite académique et la connaissance dite artistique. Cette exposition fit partie du programme culturel de la conférence finale du projet de l'Université de Leyde 'Se connecter en temps de contrainte (2012-2018)
Blogs by Catherina Wilson
Short films by Catherina Wilson
status and to present themselves as solution finders, leading them to a potential income. This Kindoubil is not completely unintelligible to outsiders. On the other hand, in the outskirts of the city, young people speak Inverted Kindoubil. In comparison to the former, this language is unintelligible to the non-initiated
and serves the purposes of secrecy and in-group identity.
option, but possibly of greater importance is that youngsters seek to embody the prestige that envelops Lingala in order to prove they are in the know. Lingala, as such, is made an asset that can be negotiated in the linguistic marketplace. The thesis then turns to treat the general socio-economic background and livelihood of the Yankee, who is considered to be a master of survival strategies. It aims at
explaining how the informal economy works and how it is de facto formalized. This is achieved by describing the mechanism of the “co-ops”, or opportunities in precariousness. The Yankee is an ambivalent character, thus rather than attempting to define the Yankee, the thesis continues to analyze the possible features and registers of conduct of Kiyankee (Yankee-hood). When embodied, these features can be interpreted either positively or negatively. For example, lucidity is a quality needed for excelling in business, while at the same time essential for being a thief. In all cases, the Yankee relies on ingenuity and resourcefulness in order to survive and to be respected for his knowledge. Stagnation is the cause of his frustrations, but also a trigger for creativity. Because language is one of the only tools over which youth can have control, one of the best ways to embody Kiyankee is by adapting one’s
language use. By speaking Kindoubil, the Yankee creates an alternative reality onto which he grafts an egotistical discourse of success. Yet there seems to be more than
one of type Kindoubil. The one the Yankee deliberately chooses to speak is one that is unrecognized as arbitrary. It carefully weaves elements of modernity, urbanity, prestige and success and derives its power from being exclusive, because those who do not speak it reluctantly look up to it. Moving a step further, the adoption of Kindoubil culminates in youngsters consciously altering their identity. They create
instances of power where the dream of turning into a man of respect becomes momentarily real. The Yankee constructs an onstage existence, an alternative dream-like adulthood to which he does have access and when successfully dramatized appears real. Appearance permeates reality blurring the line between what is real and what is a dream.
understanding of protracted displacement through a ‘figurational approach’, which stresses the networks and the interdependencies of urban refugees in Dar es Salaam, across Tanzania, and across national borders. Refugees’ social relations do not unfold in a vacuum but are shaped by the regimes of aid and asylum that govern their lives. In a context of constant fear of imprisonment and deportation, this working paper gives particular attention to the alliances that the vulnerable
migrants build within Dar es Salaam. It underlines their agency and coping strategies, as they bring with them many valuable skills. Capitalising on these skills can result in longstanding partnerships between vulnerable migrants and locals. Spaces of freedom where displaced people do not need to live in a perpetual state of fear
and uncertainty are equally important. More than focusing on constraints, this paper underlines the urban refugees’ agency and survival strategies. We pay particular attention to the mobility and connectivity of female urban refugees, also within a digital context.
Through (social media) entrepreneurship, women in refugee- like situations have managed to overcome immobilisation and create new opportunities for themselves. By analysing a variety of life situations
throughout this paper, we seek to recognise and promote urban refugees’ agency and dignity.
Ce livre est écrit par Max-Landry Kassaï, Catherina Wilson est éditrice de ce projet.
The Tragedy Of The Stupid Nation retraces three decades of political instability during which the people of the Central African Republic suffered from several waves of violence that lead to the breakdown of the social cohesion between the different communities (first along ethnic, then along religious lines). This book is a personal and collective account of the massacres, looting and fleeing and an indictment of misgovernance, nepotism and political inequality. The consequences of which are, too often, carried by the population. Combining different literary genres, Max-Landry Kassaï gives the reader an appreciation of what it is to come of age in the Central African Republic.
La tragédie d'une nation débile retrace cinq décennies d'instabilité politique au cours desquelles le peuple centrafricain a souffert de plusieurs maux qui ont abouti à l'éclatement de la cohésion sociale entre les communautés. C'est un récit personnel et collectif des massacres, tueries, et pillages indescriptibles, qui ont fait couler le sang centrafricain. Et tout cela sort d'une crise de gestion de la chose publique, des inégalités sociales et politiques dues au népotisme et régionalisme, caractérisant les différents régimes qui ont eu lieu.
Catherina Wilson, célèbre l’effort de fusionner le milieu
artistique et le milieu académique en exposant, entre
autres, des oeuvres d’artistes de la région et des photographies
réalisées par les chercheurs du projet. Un amalgame
d’artistes employant différents médiums fera partie de cette
exposition, défiant ainsi la frontière entre la connaissance
dite académique et la connaissance dite artistique. Cette exposition fit partie du programme culturel de la conférence finale du projet de l'Université de Leyde 'Se connecter en temps de contrainte (2012-2018)