College Of Natural Resources

Macroinvertebrates are important components of biodiversity in headwater streams, and their diversity is
driven by various environmental variables. The study was carried out in Toebirongchhu sub-watershed to
study: (i) the macroinvertebrate diversity and composition within whole study area, three streams and
the reaches, and (ii) relationship between macroinvertebrate diversity and environmental variables. The
study area had low diversity considering Shannon-Weiner diversity (Hˈ=1.69), but high while considering
Simpson diversity (Dˈ=.28), and a total of 829 individuals, 18 families and one class was recorded.
Toebirongchhu stream had the highest H'(1.71) and Jichulum the lowest D'(.07) and the highest taxon
richness (S=16), while reach T1 had the highest H'(1.72), lowest D'(.18), and the highest S (8) along with J1.
Trichoptera (82.03%) the most and Plecoptera (0.24%) the least abundant order, while Hydropsychidae
(37.0%) the most, and Athericidae and Polymitarcyidae (0.1%) the least abundant families. There was no
significant variations in environmental variables among streams and reaches, and pH was slightly alkaline
(7.67-7.97) and temperature ranged from 8-11.6ºC, but conductivity was higher in Jichulum (J1=154.8 μS
cm-1; J3=150.7 μS cm-1). Stream width had significant correlation with Hˈ (τ =.511, p=.04), while conductivity
had the highest correlation coefficient with S (τ =.65, p=.08) and high correlation with H ˈ and Jˈ (τ =-.48,
p=.19). Among diversity indices S had stronger correlation with the maximum environmental variables
showing it to be better diversity indicator in the study area.

The author declares no competing interests. Acknowledgements: I would like to thank Ruffords Small Grants Foundation and Royal University of Bhutan for partially funding the current work. I would like to also thank the Ugyen Wangchuk Institute for Conservation and Environment (UWICE) for letting me participate in the freshwater biodiversity training workshop and workshop participants for dragonfly larvae. My special thanks are to Professor Anne Hartmann, Associate Porfessor Winsor Lowe and Associate Professor Amit Mitra for sharing their articles and / or resources, and students of the B.Sc. Sustainable Development 2 nd Batch, Diploma in Forestry, 22 nd Batch, Assistant Professor D.B. Gurung, College of Natural Resources for the field work in Trongsa, and other students who helped me in numerous field visits. I would also like to thank Mr. Ugyen Thinley, CNR for helping me generate GIS maps for the study area and results. Finally, I would like to thank the anonymous reviewer for their critical review and suggestions that enhanced the quality of the paper.

Bhutan is recognized for conservation success under its pro-environmental development philosophy Gross National Happiness (GNH). However, an increase in area coverage alone cannot track the true contribution of protected areas (PAs) to biodiversity conservation. Capturing PA dynamism by tracking PADDD (PA downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement) and gain events can be used as a more comprehensive evaluation method. Based on existing data, we tracked gain events, enacted and proposed PADDD events, proximate causes of PADDD, and gain and PADDD events trends in Bhutan from 1966 to 2016. We also compared PADDD events recorded in www.PADDDtracker.org with the primary data sourced for our study. We discussed the findings in light of four tenets of GNH: good governance, sustainable socioeconomic development, preservation, and promotion of culture, and environmental conservation. We identified 81 gain and 29 PADDD events. All 12 proposed policy downgrading events in 2004 were proximally caused by infrastructure development, while all degazettement (n = 6) in 1993 and all downsizing events (two in 1984 and one in 1993) were proximally caused by conservation planning. Overall the gain and PADDD events were episodic but policy downgrading events occurred only from 2002. Based on our country data, we recorded 4.8 times more PADDD events than was recorded in www. PADDDtracker.org where even some degazetted PAs were not recorded. All gain events and even PADDD events, excluding one enacted and 12 proposed policy downgrading events caused by hydropower projects were aimed to improve conservation thus aligning with tenets of GNH. However, as hydropower is the specific cause for all proposed PADDD, Bhutan should be concerned about PADDD. Our findings provide further evidence for the dynamic nature of PAs, the widespread nature of PADDD and difficulty in detecting it. Furthermore, they also suggest the need to conduct archival case studies to better detect PADDD and PA dynamism. K E Y W O R D S gain events, hydropower, pro-environmental development philosophy, protected area downgrading downsizing and degazettement, proximate causes

Khar, which literally means 'house', is an age old oral tradition of riddle games in Tshanglakha (Sharchopkha) speaking communities of eastern Bhutan. This paper attempts to explain the terminology khar for the game of riddles. The preliminary survey of its presence in other dialectic groups of eastern Bhutan, explanation of the terminology for the game, comparison amongst the riddles in different dialectic communities and the way of playing the riddles as well the occasions during which it is played will be discussed. An attempt has been made to find similar oral traditions within other linguistic and dialectic communities in other parts of the country. A modest attempt of finding its prevalence in neighboring and other states of India is made, and comparison is drawn between that of Bhutan and those of other states so as to prove its importance as an age old tradition spread all over the region. This paper also attempts to put forward the importance of khar, as an oral tradition, to lives of rural communities and the causes of its diminishing popularity in present times.

The aim of this study was to model improvement options for village poultry production in different systems. Data from 38 households in Denchhukha and 39 households in Yoeseltse under Samtse district were collected through household survey using a semi-structured questionnaire on poultry rearing and production. Flock data and production data for the period September 2009 to September 2010 were collected through the interview. The VIPOSIM ® simulation model was used to test different intervention options for improvement in flock size and production as compared to base situation. Daytime housing of chickens, chick housing and crossbreeding were used as improvement options for simulation. Poultry rearing was for dual purpose of meat and egg production in Denchhukha while in Yoeseltse, it was mainly for eggs in Buddhist communities and for dual purpose in Hindu communities. Predation is the most important constraint in both the blocks. Simulations with different interventions showed that daytime housing had the maximum positive effect on the flock size but resulted in net loss to the farmers. Chick housing seemed to be economically the most effective intervention in Denchhukha and Yoeseltse dual purpose production. Field experiments to test improvement options can be costly and time consuming. Computer simulation can be a very useful tool and cost-effective method to test improvement options and thus aid in decision making.

This study was carried out with the objective to find reasons for high indigenous chicken populations and get an in depth understanding of the characteristics of village chicken production. The study was carried out in Yoeseltse and Denchhukha blocks under Samtse District. Thirty-eight households in Denchhukha and 39 households in Yoeseltse were randomly sampled and a semi-structured questionnaire survey was conducted. SPSS 16.0 was used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics, chi square test and ANOVA were used. Indigenous chickens virtually make up the chicken flocks in the villages in both Denchhukha and Yoeseltse. Chickens were reared under scavenging system in both the blocks. Chickens provided households with meat and eggs for consumption, household necessities such as grains through barter and with cash income. In Denchhukha, chickens were reared for dual-purpose. In Yoeseltse, it was mainly for eggs in Buddhist communities and for dual-purpose in Hindu communities. The average flock size in Yoeseltse egg production system was significantly lower (P<0.05) than those in Denchhukha and Yoeseltse dual-purpose production. Forty-three percent of the respondents preferred to continue rearing indigenous chickens while 13% said that they want to try rearing exotic chickens with indigenous chickens. Predation and diseases were the major constraints in rearing the existing flocks. These diseases are usually treated with traditional methods which are quite effective when detected early. Inadequate feed was the most important hindrance to increase their flock size. The reasons for preference of these farmers for indigenous chickens under scavenging system are thus obvious. Any interventions in poultry sector should give due consideration of the constraints faced by the farmers.

This study aimed to understand the importance of village poultry systems and explore improvement options in Bhutan. Two geogs (sub-districts)- Yoeseltse and Denchhukha under Samtse dzongkhag (district) were selected for this study. It employed a group meeting in Denchhukha and involved four key informants in each geog to understand the livelihoods and access to services and resources for the village households. Thirty-eight households in Denchhukha and 39 households in Yoeseltse were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire on poultry rearing and production. The VIPOSIM simulation model was used to test different improvement options and were compared to the base situation. Simulation was done for 12 time-steps; each time step equals to three months, which is one reproduction cycle. In Denchhukha, poultry rearing was for dual-purpose of meat and egg production. In Yoeseltse, it was mainly for eggs in Buddhist communities and for dual-purpose in Hindu communities. Chickens se...

Introduction: Despite known alcohol abuse among adolescence, precise information on the prevalence and pattern of drinking in Bhutan remain sparse. This study, therefore, assesses the pattern of alcohol drinking and consequences including its effects on academic performance among high school students in Thimphu. Methods: Multistage random sampling was employed and a survey was conducted in November 2014 using a self-administered semi-structured questionnaire. A total of 403 students were invited, however, 3 students were absent during the time of survey and 13 respondents were rejected due to incompleteness of the questionnaire. Thus, the findings are based on a sample size of 387. Results: Prevalence of long term alcohol drinkers were 38.8% and 26.6% were current drinkers. The mean age of onset of alcohol use was 15.5 (± 2.6). Binge drinking (≥ four times a week) and GPA (grade point average) were significantly correlated (p≤ 0.01, r = - 0.120). Therefore, students involved in binge drinking ≥ four times a week are likely to obtain less GPA. Conclusions: Students, comprising both males and females, drink
alcohol and those who are involved in frequent binge drinking are more likely to have lower GPA.
Keywords: Alcohol; Consequences; Higher secondary students; Thimphu.

This study attempted to assess the factors affecting the success of Small Agro-Enterprises (SAEs) in Bhutan. Although SAEs contribute to economic development of the country, their success factors are not fully understood. The scarcity of empirical studies motivated authors to study the subject matter. This study interviewed 320 owners of the SAEs using the structured questionnaire in four Districts of Bhutan. We conducted factor analysis, Pearson's correlation, and multiple linear regression. The result showed that Leadership and Management (1), Government Policies and Infrastructures (2), Market and Customer Orientation (3), and Technology Adoption (4) significantly contributed to the success of SAEs. Overall, these factors contributed 32.4% to SAEs success. Besides maintaining the conducive business environment, we suggest the need for ensuring identified factors to realize the goal of SAEs development in the country.

Bhutanese farmers have traditionally practised integrated subsistence farming, producing crops and livestock and utilising forest products. However, they are increasingly practising entrepreneurial farming today. The study of agricultural transformation is valuable for understanding the evolution of Bhutan's agriculture systems. Therefore, the current study reviews the five components of agriculture responsible for the transformation of Bhutanese farmers from peasants to entrepreneurial farmers: urbanisation, farm mechanisation, community institutions, high-value products and youth aspirations. Given the current rate of globalisation and improvements in agribusiness, the number of entrepreneurial farmers in Bhutan is likely to rise in the future. However, relevant stakeholders must still strive to create a conducive environment for agribusiness in Bhutan.

Successful small agro-enterprises (SAEs) play a vital role in the economy of an agrarian country like Bhutan. Although entrepreneurial factors, amongst others, affect the success of SAEs, there is a dearth of empirical studies on this topic in Bhutan. Such studies will help entrepreneurs and agribusiness promoters understand entrepreneurial factors affecting the success of SAEs. Therefore, we studied the relationship between entrepreneurial factors and the success of SAEs in Bhutan. Using multistage quota sampling, we selected four districts (1), eight sub-districts (2), 32 chiwogs (3), and 320 entrepreneurs of SAEs (4) for the study. We interviewed 320 entrepreneurs using structured questionnaire and analyzed data using IBM SPSS version 23. We found a significant and positive relationship between the success of SAEs and entrepreneurs' motivation (r = .44, P = .000) and personal entrepreneurial competencies (PECs) (r = .39, P = .000). However, there was no statistically significant relationship between entrepreneurs' age and success of SAEs (r = .02, P = .707). Overall, entrepreneurs' motivation and PECs contributed 20.7% to the success of SAEs in Bhutan. We recommend relevant authorities to continue supporting entrepreneurship education and training programs to motivate and build entrepreneurial competencies.

Climate change carries immense threat to the livelihood and food security of smallholder farmers in Bhutan and it is therefore crucial to enhance their adaptive capacity.  However, building resiliency to climate impact require information on vulnerability of the system of interest. Therefore, this study assessed smallholder farmers’ vulnerability to impacts of climate change and variability in central regions (Bumthang and Trongsa) of Bhutan. Data was collected from 247 randomly selected households by administering a pre-tested survey questionnaire. Data was analyzed using composite index approach (LVI) and IPCC framework approach (LVI-IPCC). The LVI analysis revealed that Bumthang was more vulnerable in terms of Socio-demographic profile (0.55), social networks (0.45), health (0.31) and natural disasters and climate variability (0.47) compared to Trongsa. Whereas, Trongsa was more vulnerable in terms of livelihood strategies (0.31) and water (0.13). Vulnerability score on the food ...

A rapid market appraisal and consumer survey was carried out in the capital city of Thimphu. A total of 75 consumers-hoteliers, civil servants, and businessmen-were smallholder dairy in mixed farming systems of the HKH 20 covered by the survey as well as 17 retailers of locally produced and imported dairy products. The information was collected through structured questionnaires. DAIRY PRODUCTION SYSTEMS The majority of the population of Bhutan (overall 79% rural and 21% urban) eke a subsistence living from agriculture and most of these are smallholders. Smallholder dairy farming is an integral component of the mixed smallholder farming system in Bhutan and has been a focus of many rural development projects and plans. Considerable efforts and money have been spent on dairy development through the 5 th to 8 th 5-Year Plans (1982-2002) (Roder et al. 2001), and substantial improvement and development has been achieved so far. However, little has been documented about the achievements or related problems. Cattle production in Bhutan can be categorised into two broad systems: transhumant and sedentary. Transhumant system The more traditional transhumant system involves cattle migration. In summer (May-June), cattle move to the cooler regions where they are herded on traditional grazing land (tsamdok) at altitudes of about 1,200-3,000m. By late autumn they move down to the subtropical regions. A subsystem, share herding, is practised in places like Paro and Haa. In this subsystem a special herding partnership is formed between cattle owners from the cooler regions and those from the subtropical regions. The herding responsibility changes hands with the migration but the ownership of the cattle remains with the original owner. The herd sizes range from about 20 to some 80-100 cattle, and the predominant breed is the local Siri and Mithun crossbreed.

This paper describes the mobilization processes of Smallholder Dairy Farmers’ Groups (SDFG) and its relevance to the process of community development in an integrated crop livestock forestry farming system in Bhutan. The group approach aims to ensure effective delivery of dairy services for strengthening collective self-help capacity, promoting self-reliance, group cooperation and solidarity of poor rural farmers through collective action. Data for the study were generated through focused group interviews and workshop organized among the relevant stakeholders involved in formation and development of dairy farmers’ groups. The study found that the group mobilization processes demanded new competences in managing the different stages of group formation and development processes with professional support backed by new knowledge and skills. While the government encourages and supports the mobilization of dairy groups, the process of forming a group is still difficult due to a wide range...

Collective action through farmers' groups is increasingly being recognized as a positive force for rural development in Bhutan. The present study describes an assessment of the performance of smallholder dairy farmers' groups (N=7) in the west and east central regions of Bhutan. The data were collected from 176 respondents through a structured questionnaire survey supplemented by open participatory group discussions. Six functional tasks associated with the dairy groups' performance were identified and evaluated; i) production support ii) marketing support iii) processing efficiency iv) members' representation v) records and accounting and vi) group management, using a Likert-type rating scale. The limited group capacity, poor sense of ownership and inactive participation by the members, heavy dependence on government support, dispersed location and complacent members' attitude were found affecting performance of dairy groups.