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The Philosophical Forum, 2024
This paper aims to construct a comprehensive theory of royal succession of Mencius. Basically, th... more This paper aims to construct a comprehensive theory of royal succession of Mencius. Basically, there are three distinct modes of royal succession described in the Mencius: abdication, hereditary succession, and revolution. Abdication involves the voluntary transfer of power by the incumbent ruler to a virtuous minister. Hereditary succession entails the transmission of power to the son of the incumbent ruler. Revolution marks the foundation of a new dynasty by deposing the incumbent ruler. What are their exact relationships. In contrast to hereditary succession, which represents “rule by heredity,” abdication and revolution are often categorized together as “rule by virtue,” which became the backbone of the Confucian virtue politics. However, Mencius' writings, especially 5A5 and 5A6, suggest his clear intention to establish a coherent, or at least, compatible relationship between abdication and hereditary succession. This paper analyzes Mencius' discussions on royal succession to elucidate how he perceived the connection between abdication and hereditary succession, and to explore why he considered revolution as a separate category. In this study, I refer to the former as the “entrenched-trust model” and distinguish the latter as “anticipated-trust model.” The final section of the paper compares the three modes of royal succession in terms of the nature of the people's trust, the susceptibility of the people's approval, and the candidate's disinterest in power.
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『철학』, 157호, 2023
맹자의 성선설에 대한 통상적인 관점은 맹자의 본성 개념에서 생물학적 욕구를 제외시키고 인간만이 가진 고유한 가치인 도덕적 경향성만을 본성으로 강조해왔다. 이 글은 이러한 통상... more 맹자의 성선설에 대한 통상적인 관점은 맹자의 본성 개념에서 생물학적 욕구를 제외시키고 인간만이 가진 고유한 가치인 도덕적 경향성만을 본성으로 강조해왔다. 이 글은 이러한 통상적인 관점을 비판적으로 검토하고, 고자와의 논변을 중심으로 맹자의 성선설이 담고 있는 의미를 재고찰한다. 맹자의 성선설은 인간 본성에 선한 경향성이 있다는 것으로, 이러한 주장이 인간의 본성에 생물학적 욕구가 있다는 점과 상충되지 않는다. 한 걸음 더 나아가 맹자 에서 성선은 생물학적 욕구로서의 본성과 대립 관계에 있기보다 서로 긴밀한 관련성을 가진 포함 관계로 이해할 수 있는데, 이는 비유컨대 ‘물과 기름’의 불연속적 관계보다 두 대상이 서로 밀접하게 결합될 수 있는 ‘물과 소금’의 관계에 가깝다고 할 수 있다. 그리고 맹자의 본성 개념에서 도덕적 경향성과 생물학적 욕구를 대비시켜 이해하도록 하는데 중요
한 기여를 한 「고자 상」 3장을 자세히 분석하면, 맹자와 고자의 인간 본성에 대한 이해가 도덕적 경향성의 측면에서는 달라지지만, 생물학적 욕구의 측면에서는 다르지 않을 수 있다는 점을 알 수 있다. 이러한 맹자와 고자의 논변에 대한 면밀한 분석은 맹자에 대한 올바른 이해를 가능하게 할 뿐만 아니라, 고대 중국의 인간 본성에 대한 논의를 포괄적으로 이해하는 데도 도움을 준다. 이러한 분석을 바탕으로 맹자의 본성론이 생물학적 욕구를 포함하더라도 성선악혼재설(性善惡混在說)과는 구별된다는 점을 밝히고, 마지막으로 맹자가 주요 변론의 대상으로 삼은 것은 성선악혼재설이 아닌 고자의 성무선무불선설(性無善無不善說)임을 밝힌다.
The prevailing perspective on Mencius’ theory of human nature has typically
emphasized the presence of moral inclinations within human nature while excluding biological desires. This paper takes a critical stance toward this conventional viewpoint and undertakes a reexamination of Mencius’s theory of human nature, with a special focus on his debate with Gaozi. According to Mencius, human beings possess natural inclinations towards goodness, but this claim does not preclude the existence of biological desires within human nature. Furthermore, we argue that, in contrast to the conventional viewpoint, Mencius does not portray biological desires and moral inclinations as mutually exclusive or fundamentally opposed. Instead, they are depicted as closely related, akin to the relationship between water and salt, rather than the stark separation of water and oil. Next, we analyze Mengzi 6A3, which makes an important contribution to the conventional understanding of Mencius’ conception of human nature as opposed to biological desires. Particularly, we resort to Peter Geach(1916-2013)’s distinction between predicative and attributive adjectives to show that while there may be disagreement between Mencius and Gaozi regarding moral inclinations, their perspectives on biological desires may not be different. This thorough analysis not only enriches our understanding of Mencius but also contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the discussions on human nature in early China. Based on this analysis, we highlight the divergence between Mencius’s theory of human nature and the theory of the mixture of goodness and badness within human nature. Finally, we emphasize that the main target of Mencius is Gaozi’s theory, which contends that human nature possess neither badness nor goodness.
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Religions, 2023
This article examines the thought of Yi Ik 李瀷 (1681–1763), a prominent Confucian scholar in the l... more This article examines the thought of Yi Ik 李瀷 (1681–1763), a prominent Confucian scholar in the late period of the Joseon 朝鮮 dynasty (1392–1910). In a broader context of the Confucian classics, as well as in the later development of neo-Confucian tradition in China and Korea, Yi Ik built an elaborate and comprehensive account of human psychology in his New Compilation of the Four–Seven Debate (Sachil sinpyeon 四七新編). He offers us a new perspective on the unresolved tension between the universal concern for others in general and the natural affection for the family by introducing the binary concepts of gong 公 and sa 私. In his system, successful moral agents do more than develop and strengthen their compassion with respect to the suffering of others, and they regard the suffering of others in the same way that they regard their own suffering. I believe that Yi Ik’s thought sheds new light on the Mencian program of cultivation and how to better lead our complex moral lives.
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Philosophy East & West, 2022
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『철학』, 149호, 2021
이 글은 『상서』의 성왕들에게 나타나는 구체적인 모습으로서의 겸손(謙遜)의 기원 또는 그 계기를 『상서』 내부에서 찾아본다. 이를 위해, 성왕들이 세상을 이해하는 방식을 복선... more 이 글은 『상서』의 성왕들에게 나타나는 구체적인 모습으로서의 겸손(謙遜)의 기원 또는 그 계기를 『상서』 내부에서 찾아본다. 이를 위해, 성왕들이 세상을 이해하는 방식을 복선화음(福善禍淫: 착한 사람은 복을 받고 나쁜 사람은 재앙을 받음)의 원리로 규정하고, 이를 ‘확신의 윤리(ethics of confidence)’라고 명명한다. 반면, 성왕들은 덕에 대한 특정한 이해, 왕이라는 정치적 지위와 책무, 자기 행위의 한계성으로 인해 자신의 덕에 대해 확신하지 못하는데, 이를 ‘불확신의 윤리(ethics of uncertainty)’라고 명명한다. 이런 불확신의 윤리는 확신의 윤리에서 비롯될 수 있는 자만과 교만, 그로 인한 방탕과 사치, 태만, 타인에 대한 부정적인 평가 등 같은 부작용으로부터 성왕들을 보호해주는 최선의 방책이 된다. 따라서, 성왕들은 세상에 대한 확신과 자신에 대한 불확신 사이의 긴장의 마음 상태를 성공적으로 유지하는 자들이라고 하겠다. 그리고 우리가 보통 미덕이라고 부르는 성왕들의 겸손은 바로 불확신의 윤리에서 비롯된 것임을 밝힌다.
This paper examines sage kings’ attitude of humility in the Book of Documents. In order to do so, I describe the particular way of thinking about the world in the Book of Documents as the prosperity of the good and the suffering of the bad, and call it “the ethics of confidence.” On the other hand, due to their particular understanding of virtue, their political position as a king, and the limitation of their agency, sage kings cannot be certain about their own virtues. I call this “the ethics of uncertainty.” The ethics of uncertainty prevents sage kings from falling into conceit and arrogance and their ensuing side effects, such as extravagance, laxity, and adverse comparative judgment on others, which are likely to be caused by the ethics of confidence. Accordingly, sage kings are the ones who maintains a fine balance between the ethics of confidence and the ethics of uncertainty. What we call humility of sage kings relates to the ethics of uncertainty.
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Journal of World Philosophies, 2021
This paper examines the thoughts of two prominent Korean Confucians of the late Goryeo 高麗 period ... more This paper examines the thoughts of two prominent Korean Confucians of the late Goryeo 高麗 period (918-1392), Yi Saek 李穡 (1328-1396) and Jeong Do-jeon 鄭道傳 (1342-1398). Although they were both renowned as followers of Zhu Xi's Neo-Confucianism, they held differing views on several important issues. One of these issues was the royal successions of King U 禑王 (32 nd) and King Chang 昌王 (33 rd). Yi Saek considered them to be legitimate rulers of Goryeo, while Jeong Do-jeon denied their legitimacy and accused those involved in their enthronements of treason. In order to conceptualize their differences, I first explain the distinction between the ownership conception and the service conception of political authority introduced by Joseph Chan. Based on this philosophical framework, I analyze and compare the thoughts of Yi Saek and Jeong Dojeon. My conclusion is that they based political legitimacy on different grounds: for Yi Saek, legitimacy is based on the founder's achievements in setting up the cultural and political foundation of Goryeo, whereas for Jeong Do-jeon, it is based on the founding king himself, who established the dynasty in 918. Accordingly, I call their views the "founding service" conception and the "founder's ownership" conception of political authority, respectively. I hope this analysis and comparison of their differing conceptions of political authority can contribute to a better understanding of their political thoughts and the development of the concept of political legitimacy in Korean history.
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Early China, 2020
This paper examines the story of Shun’s 舜 ascension to the throne. This story has drawn considera... more This paper examines the story of Shun’s 舜 ascension to the throne. This story has drawn considerable attention throughout Chinese history because of its significance with regard to political succession. However, in this paper, I shed light on a different dimension of the story: its relevance to the issue of contingency. I investigate four texts, two excavated and two transmitted: Qiongda yi shi 窮達以時 (Failure and Success Depend on Times), Tang Yu zhi dao 唐虞之道 (The Way of Yao and Shun), the Mengzi 孟子, and the Xunzi 荀子. At one extreme, Qiongda yi shi highlights that Shun became a king by pure chance, while at the other extreme, Xunzi interprets the event as a necessary one, emphasizing that Shun cannot but succeed Yao. The other two texts fall somewhere in between the two extremes. I use these four texts to showcase different ways of thinking about areas over which humans are believed to lack control. My claim is that these four texts offer different accounts of the same event of Shun’s ascension, because they see the event from different perspectives: from a perspective of the chosen, from a perspective of the chooser, from a mise-en-scène, and from a perspective of not of this world, respectively. I argue that the diverse perspectives of these texts entail the different understandings of several related issues such as the degree of human control over the event, the important features of the event, and the content of the moral and political lesson that we draw from the event.
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Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy, 2019
Mozi’s doctrine of impartial care (jian’ai 兼愛) has been interpreted predominantly through the len... more Mozi’s doctrine of impartial care (jian’ai 兼愛) has been interpreted predominantly through the lens of Mengzi: i.e. as “love without distinctions” vs. “love with distinctions.” However, I think Mengzi saw only half of the picture, since his focus was exclusively on the difference between Confucianism and Mohism in regard to the scope, intensity, and sequence of love. In this essay, I argue that Mozi’s impartial care is also characteristically different in kind from the Confucian notion of humaneness (ren 仁). My analysis and comparison of their usage of the word ai 愛 shows that Mozi’s ai is material-oriented care, while Confucian ai is emotion-oriented care. I further argue that Mozi had this particular understanding of care largely because he held a quite negative view of human emotions. For him, human emotions are unreliable and harmful for the practice of care.
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Asian Philosophy 28.2 (May, 2018): 97-116., 2018
One significant feature of Jeong Yakyong’s丁若鏞 (1762-1836) thought is his deconstruction of Zhu Xi... more One significant feature of Jeong Yakyong’s丁若鏞 (1762-1836) thought is his deconstruction of Zhu Xi’s朱熹 (1130-1200) moral universe based on li 理 and qi 氣. For Zhu Xi, the world in its entirety was a moral place, but Jeong Yakyong distinguished non-moral domains from the moral domain. One question that follows in pursuing a comparison of their philosophies on this topic is what each thinker meant by “moral” and, in particular, whether they meant the same thing. In this paper, I delve deeper into this topic by comparing their respective perspectives on whether nonhuman animals are moral. Interestingly, they held exactly opposite views: Zhu Xi believed that certain actions on the part of nonhuman animals manifest moral values, whereas Jeong Yakyong claimed that none of the actions of nonhuman animals has moral value. In comparing their views, I introduce Mark Rowlands’s distinction between “moral subjects” and “moral agents.”
Keywords Zhu Xi, Jeong Yakyong, animal, moral agent, moral subject, moral patient
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Journal of Religious Ethics 46.1 (2018): 37-62., 2018
This paper examines the role of virtue and the status of non-moral goods in conceptions of the go... more This paper examines the role of virtue and the status of non-moral goods in conceptions of the good human life through an exploration of the thought of Confucius and Mencius. Both Confucius and Mencius lived in a quite similar world, but their conceptualizations of the world differed from each another. This difference led them to hold different views on the role of virtue and the status of non-moral goods. On the one hand, Confucius highlighted the self-sufficiency of virtue, but he acknowledged and appreciated the intrinsic and instrumental value of non-moral goods. On the other hand, while Mencius underscored the role of virtue as the best means to the best ends, he tried to depreciate the value of non-moral goods. As a consequence, even though their conceptions of the good life were essentially predicated on virtue, they parted company concerning the status of non-moral goods in human life.
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Philosophy East and West 67, 4 (2017): 1092-1117., 2017
This paper examines Mozi’s 墨子 doctrine of Jian’ai (兼愛). The secondary literature on Mozi’s jian’a... more This paper examines Mozi’s 墨子 doctrine of Jian’ai (兼愛). The secondary literature on Mozi’s jian’ai has been written primarily based on the Mengzian contrast between Mozi’s jian’ai as “love without distinctions” and Ruist ren (仁 benevolence) as “love with distinctions.” According to Mengzi’s simple appraisal of “love without distinctions,” Mozi’s jian’ai has been interpreted as prescribing strict universal obligations, meaning that all beings have the same ethical duties toward all other beings. However, in this paper, I argue that Mozi’s jian’ai is a complex and multilayered system that promotes universal obligations and, at the same time, incorporates particular obligations as well. I also show that it embraces all the characteristics of “impartiality,” “inclusivity,” and “universality.”
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Journal of Confucian Philosophy and Culture 27 (2017): 1-22., 2017
Generally speaking, Shang divination has been interpreted as a divine communication between human... more Generally speaking, Shang divination has been interpreted as a divine communication between human beings and spirits. Through crack-making, Shang kings and diviners, acting as intermediaries between the human realm and the spiritual realm, sought knowledge about issues that are beyond human control and comprehension. The cracks on the bones were thus deciphered as the spirits' responses to the diviners. However, within the oracle-bone inscriptions we cannot find any clear evidence that Shang kings communicated with spirits. The question of who actually answered Shang diviners is the focus of this paper. I try to track down the identity of the one addressed in divination by investigating the nature of the Shang pantheon. In the first section, I propose three possible divinees: Di as a representative of the Shang pantheon, di as a collective body of all the spirits, and different spirits for different divinations. However, none of these possibilities seems to match the nature of the Shang pantheon. In the second section, I introduce another hypothesis by Sarah Allan that Shang divination was not a two-party communication between human beings and spirits, but a one-party interpretive act on the part of humans. This means that Shang diviners were not communicating with spirits but reading the cosmic signs revealed on oracle-bones. In the final section, I argue that the major reason scholars have regarded Shang divination as a divine communication is that they viewed the Shang cosmos based on a strict binary conception of the sacred and the profane, principally informed by Mircea Eliade. If we divest ourselves of this binary lens, a new hypothesis renders a different cosmological model of the Shang dynasty; that is, both spirits and human beings are parts of the Shang cosmos.
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Traditional Korean Philosophy: Problems and Debates, 147-176, Nov 8, 2016
This paper examines the conceptions of the sage in the thought of Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130-1200) of Song C... more This paper examines the conceptions of the sage in the thought of Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130-1200) of Song China and Jeong Yagyong 丁若鏞 (1762-1836) of Joseon Korea. I argue that they held completely contrasting views of the sage: for Zhu Xi, sages are set apart from ordinary human beings, whereas for Jeong, sages are one of us; for Zhu Xi, sages appear and function in the world in the manner of “non-intentional action” (無為wuwei), whereas for Jeong in the manner of “intentional action” (作為 zuowei). I further argue that from this analysis and comparison of their differing views of the sage, we can discern two distinct versions of moral equality: for Jeong, at least in the moral realm, human beings are equal in potentiality as well as in capacity to become a sage, whereas for Zhu Xi, human beings are equal in a negative sense that we may not all be capable of becoming a sage. These different conceptualizations of moral equality led them to devise their self-cultivation programs in different directions: the individual project of me becoming a sage vs. the collective project of us producing a sage.
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European Journal for Philosophy of Religion 8, 1 (Spring, 2016): 51-77., 2016
This paper examines the Confucian concept of tian, conventionally translated into English as “Hea... more This paper examines the Confucian concept of tian, conventionally translated into English as “Heaven.” The secondary literature on tian has primarily focused on the question of what tian is: e.g., whether tian is an anthropomorphic deity or a naturalistic force, or whether tian is transcendent or immanent. Instead, this paper locates tian with respect to the ethical life of human beings, and argues that the two conflicting concepts of “moral economy” and “contingency” are main characteristics of tian. This paper further investigates these characteristics in Kongzi’s and Mengzi’s ethical thought: how they conceptualized moral economy and contingency, and how their different conceptualizations shaped their respective ethical programs: Kongzi’s ethics of faith and Mengzi’s ethics of confidence.
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Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy 14, 2 (2015): 255-274., Jun 2015
This essay examines the Ru 儒 notion of ming 命, usually translated into English as “fate,” with an... more This essay examines the Ru 儒 notion of ming 命, usually translated into English as “fate,” with an emphasis on the thought of two prominent Ru thinkers, Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130–1200) of Song 宋 China and Jeong Yagyong 丁若鏞 (Dasan 茶山, 1762–1836) of Joseon 朝鮮 Korea. Although they were faithful followers of the tradition of Kongzi 孔子and Mengzi 孟子, they held very different views on ming. Zhu Xi saw the realm of fate as determined by contingent movements of psychophysical force, whereas Jeong Yagyong believed it to be utterly contingent upon the unfathomable deity, Shangdi 上帝. These differences have important consequences for their conceptions of the good human life as well as the development of their respective cultivation programs. In conclusion, I argue that their differences are directly related to their different stances on the goal of Ru study. Zhu Xi, in confrontation with Buddhism, tried to put all people on the road to becoming a sage, while Jeong Yagyong aimed at the actual attainment of sagehood even if only some people could do so.
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Book Reviews by Youngsun Back
Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy, 2023
Reviewed by Youngsun Back, Sungkyunkwan University.
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Philosophy East and West 68.2 (April, 2018): 626-629. , 2018
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Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews
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한 기여를 한 「고자 상」 3장을 자세히 분석하면, 맹자와 고자의 인간 본성에 대한 이해가 도덕적 경향성의 측면에서는 달라지지만, 생물학적 욕구의 측면에서는 다르지 않을 수 있다는 점을 알 수 있다. 이러한 맹자와 고자의 논변에 대한 면밀한 분석은 맹자에 대한 올바른 이해를 가능하게 할 뿐만 아니라, 고대 중국의 인간 본성에 대한 논의를 포괄적으로 이해하는 데도 도움을 준다. 이러한 분석을 바탕으로 맹자의 본성론이 생물학적 욕구를 포함하더라도 성선악혼재설(性善惡混在說)과는 구별된다는 점을 밝히고, 마지막으로 맹자가 주요 변론의 대상으로 삼은 것은 성선악혼재설이 아닌 고자의 성무선무불선설(性無善無不善說)임을 밝힌다.
The prevailing perspective on Mencius’ theory of human nature has typically
emphasized the presence of moral inclinations within human nature while excluding biological desires. This paper takes a critical stance toward this conventional viewpoint and undertakes a reexamination of Mencius’s theory of human nature, with a special focus on his debate with Gaozi. According to Mencius, human beings possess natural inclinations towards goodness, but this claim does not preclude the existence of biological desires within human nature. Furthermore, we argue that, in contrast to the conventional viewpoint, Mencius does not portray biological desires and moral inclinations as mutually exclusive or fundamentally opposed. Instead, they are depicted as closely related, akin to the relationship between water and salt, rather than the stark separation of water and oil. Next, we analyze Mengzi 6A3, which makes an important contribution to the conventional understanding of Mencius’ conception of human nature as opposed to biological desires. Particularly, we resort to Peter Geach(1916-2013)’s distinction between predicative and attributive adjectives to show that while there may be disagreement between Mencius and Gaozi regarding moral inclinations, their perspectives on biological desires may not be different. This thorough analysis not only enriches our understanding of Mencius but also contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the discussions on human nature in early China. Based on this analysis, we highlight the divergence between Mencius’s theory of human nature and the theory of the mixture of goodness and badness within human nature. Finally, we emphasize that the main target of Mencius is Gaozi’s theory, which contends that human nature possess neither badness nor goodness.
This paper examines sage kings’ attitude of humility in the Book of Documents. In order to do so, I describe the particular way of thinking about the world in the Book of Documents as the prosperity of the good and the suffering of the bad, and call it “the ethics of confidence.” On the other hand, due to their particular understanding of virtue, their political position as a king, and the limitation of their agency, sage kings cannot be certain about their own virtues. I call this “the ethics of uncertainty.” The ethics of uncertainty prevents sage kings from falling into conceit and arrogance and their ensuing side effects, such as extravagance, laxity, and adverse comparative judgment on others, which are likely to be caused by the ethics of confidence. Accordingly, sage kings are the ones who maintains a fine balance between the ethics of confidence and the ethics of uncertainty. What we call humility of sage kings relates to the ethics of uncertainty.
Keywords Zhu Xi, Jeong Yakyong, animal, moral agent, moral subject, moral patient
Book Reviews by Youngsun Back
http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/heaven-and-earth-are-not-humane-the-problem-of-evil-in-classical-chinese-philosophy/
Talks by Youngsun Back
한 기여를 한 「고자 상」 3장을 자세히 분석하면, 맹자와 고자의 인간 본성에 대한 이해가 도덕적 경향성의 측면에서는 달라지지만, 생물학적 욕구의 측면에서는 다르지 않을 수 있다는 점을 알 수 있다. 이러한 맹자와 고자의 논변에 대한 면밀한 분석은 맹자에 대한 올바른 이해를 가능하게 할 뿐만 아니라, 고대 중국의 인간 본성에 대한 논의를 포괄적으로 이해하는 데도 도움을 준다. 이러한 분석을 바탕으로 맹자의 본성론이 생물학적 욕구를 포함하더라도 성선악혼재설(性善惡混在說)과는 구별된다는 점을 밝히고, 마지막으로 맹자가 주요 변론의 대상으로 삼은 것은 성선악혼재설이 아닌 고자의 성무선무불선설(性無善無不善說)임을 밝힌다.
The prevailing perspective on Mencius’ theory of human nature has typically
emphasized the presence of moral inclinations within human nature while excluding biological desires. This paper takes a critical stance toward this conventional viewpoint and undertakes a reexamination of Mencius’s theory of human nature, with a special focus on his debate with Gaozi. According to Mencius, human beings possess natural inclinations towards goodness, but this claim does not preclude the existence of biological desires within human nature. Furthermore, we argue that, in contrast to the conventional viewpoint, Mencius does not portray biological desires and moral inclinations as mutually exclusive or fundamentally opposed. Instead, they are depicted as closely related, akin to the relationship between water and salt, rather than the stark separation of water and oil. Next, we analyze Mengzi 6A3, which makes an important contribution to the conventional understanding of Mencius’ conception of human nature as opposed to biological desires. Particularly, we resort to Peter Geach(1916-2013)’s distinction between predicative and attributive adjectives to show that while there may be disagreement between Mencius and Gaozi regarding moral inclinations, their perspectives on biological desires may not be different. This thorough analysis not only enriches our understanding of Mencius but also contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the discussions on human nature in early China. Based on this analysis, we highlight the divergence between Mencius’s theory of human nature and the theory of the mixture of goodness and badness within human nature. Finally, we emphasize that the main target of Mencius is Gaozi’s theory, which contends that human nature possess neither badness nor goodness.
This paper examines sage kings’ attitude of humility in the Book of Documents. In order to do so, I describe the particular way of thinking about the world in the Book of Documents as the prosperity of the good and the suffering of the bad, and call it “the ethics of confidence.” On the other hand, due to their particular understanding of virtue, their political position as a king, and the limitation of their agency, sage kings cannot be certain about their own virtues. I call this “the ethics of uncertainty.” The ethics of uncertainty prevents sage kings from falling into conceit and arrogance and their ensuing side effects, such as extravagance, laxity, and adverse comparative judgment on others, which are likely to be caused by the ethics of confidence. Accordingly, sage kings are the ones who maintains a fine balance between the ethics of confidence and the ethics of uncertainty. What we call humility of sage kings relates to the ethics of uncertainty.
Keywords Zhu Xi, Jeong Yakyong, animal, moral agent, moral subject, moral patient
http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/heaven-and-earth-are-not-humane-the-problem-of-evil-in-classical-chinese-philosophy/