On 13 March 2021, anthropologist Leiu Hea post celebrated her 85th birthday; 19 October marks 60 ... more On 13 March 2021, anthropologist Leiu Hea post celebrated her 85th birthday; 19 October marks 60 years of her active membership in the Estonian Natu ralists' Society. Estonian anthropologists are happy to congratulate the most distinctive anthropologist of Estonia, to wish her continuing strength and energy. The most delightful feature about Leiu Heapost is her versatility. Leiu is an anthropologist with excellent education who, on the one hand, has worthily continued and supplemented the work of her teacher, Juhan Aul, in the studies of humans. On the other hand, Leiu has always been ready to try something entirely new and innovative for Estonia. So, for example, she has laid the foundation to population genetic studies of Estonians according to blood groups. This, however, is not all-Leiu has also studied the Estonian people based on bone remnants to get an idea what Estonians were like long ago. She has conducted thorough-going research on Estonians' craniology, has studied people's body height and proportions at present and in the past. Leiu has excellent knowledge of odontology, discrete features of the skeleton, pathological changes on bones, and she has ample experience of working with very different bone material collected by archaeologists, including incinerated bones found from cremation burials. Special mention should be made of Leiu's deep interest in the formation history of the Estonian people and Finno-Ugric peoples' anthropology. This deep interest and sense of mission led her to the publication of an impressive book-Physical Anthropo logy of Finno-Ugric peoples. In the book, Leiu has summed up the results of 25 years'
Introduction The Maidla graves of the 5th-7th and 10th-13th centuries have been archaeologically ... more Introduction The Maidla graves of the 5th-7th and 10th-13th centuries have been archaeologically investigated by Mati Mandel, who published the results in a monograph (Mandel 2003). The same volume contains the results of an analysis of the osteological finds from the graves (Allmae 2003; Maldre 2003). The osteological material is stored in the collections of the Estonian History Museum. The aim of the present study was to determine the age and sex of the buried people, to estimate the size of the community using the 10th-13th-centuries stone grave of Maidla and to describe the life-cycle of the population. Anthropological data of Poanse stone graves 1 and 2 as well as of Maidla 1 were used for comparison. Methods First, the general state of the bones recovered from the grave was assessed, sorting them into cremated and unburned bones. Second, the skull fragments in bone assemblages were counted to discover the possible locations of skulls and, thus, to identify the presumable buria...
In 2008 and 2010, two partly destroyed ship burials were discovered near Salme on the island of S... more In 2008 and 2010, two partly destroyed ship burials were discovered near Salme on the island of Saaremaa. During the archaeological excavations, at least 41 wholly or partially preserved skeletons were discovered, and a large number of artefacts were found, including a dozen singlesided antler combs. On the basis of the finds, as well as radiocarbon dating, the ship burials were dated to the PreViking Period, while both the isotopic and archaeological evidence point towards central Sweden as the most probable origin of the buried individuals. The combs from Salme have features that are generally consistent with the 8th century, with the closest parallels coming from the Mälar region of central Sweden. According to ZooMS and aDNA analyses, they are made of elk (Alces alces) and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) antler. Elk inhabited the Mälar region, but reindeer antler had its origin in more northern regions. Most combs were clearly manufactured with great skill, and finished with care, though some details indicate differences in the skills of comb makers.
While the series of events that shaped the transition between foraging societies and food produce... more While the series of events that shaped the transition between foraging societies and food producers are well described for Central and Southern Europe, genetic evidence from Northern Europe surrounding the Baltic Sea is still sparse. Here, we report genome-wide DNA data from 38 ancient North Europeans ranging from ~9500 to 2200 years before present. Our analysis provides genetic evidence that hunter-gatherers settled Scandinavia via two routes. We reveal that the first Scandinavian farmers derive their ancestry from Anatolia 1000 years earlier than previously demonstrated. The range of Mesolithic Western hunter-gatherers extended to the east of the Baltic Sea, where these populations persisted without gene-flow from Central European farmers during the Early and Middle Neolithic. The arrival of steppe pastoralists in the Late Neolithic introduced a major shift in economy and mediated the spread of a new ancestry associated with the Corded Ware Complex in Northern Europe.
Yersinia pestis, the etiologic agent of plague, is a bacterium associated with wild rodents and t... more Yersinia pestis, the etiologic agent of plague, is a bacterium associated with wild rodents and their fleas. Historically it was responsible for three pandemics: the Plague of Justinian in the 6th century AD, which persisted until the 8th century [1]; the renowned Black Death of the 14th century [2, 3], with recurrent outbreaks until the 18th century [4]; and the most recent 19th century pandemic, in which Y. pestis spread worldwide [5] and became endemic in several regions [6]. The discovery of molecular signatures of Y. pestis in prehistoric Eurasian individuals and two genomes from Southern Siberia suggest that Y. pestis caused some form of disease in humans prior to the first historically documented pandemic [7]. Here, we present six new European Y. pestis genomes spanning the Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age (LNBA; 4,800 to 3,700 calibrated years before present). This time period is characterized by major transformative cultural and social changes that led to cross-European net...
Recent ancient DNA studies have revealed that the genetic history of modern Europeans was shaped ... more Recent ancient DNA studies have revealed that the genetic history of modern Europeans was shaped by a series of migration and admixture events between deeply diverged groups. While these events are well described in Central and Southern Europe, genetic evidence from Northern Europe surrounding the Baltic Sea is still sparse. Here we report genome-wide DNA data from 24 ancient North Europeans ranging from ~7,500 to 200 calBCE spanning the transition from a hunter-gatherer to an agricultural lifestyle, as well as the adoption of bronze metallurgy. We show that Scandinavia was settled after the retreat of the glacial ice sheets from a southern and a northern route, and that the first Scandinavian Neolithic farmers derive their ancestry from Anatolia 1000 years earlier than previously demonstrated. The range of Western European Mesolithic hunter-gatherers extended to the east of the Baltic Sea, where these populations persisted without gene-flow from Central European farmers until aroun...
The aim of the present research was to determine chemical elements using the inductive plasma mas... more The aim of the present research was to determine chemical elements using the inductive plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) in Estonian archaeological human bones to establish the possible content of the menu in different communities. Among the studied material clear differentiation can be made between the Pärnu cemetery of St John's church (the cemetery of the Pärnu garrison) from the 16-18 th cc. and the Tääksi village cemetery from the 14-18 th century. The material from the 12-13 th cc. Pada cemetery remains between the two abovementioned cemeteries concerning the content of the observed elements. The initial data show only the differences of the general trends of the content of chemical elements between the inland and the coastal areas, the village and the town, the higher and the lower social status communities. The contents of chemical elements in the Estonian archaeological bones were similar to the respective contents in Latvia.
Several Estonian burial places with cremations were investigated in the period 1997 to 2011. duri... more Several Estonian burial places with cremations were investigated in the period 1997 to 2011. during the research, various descriptive and metric data on cremated bone materials was observed. The present paper is an attempt to systematise and interpret the data collected, in order to provide some generalisations on Estonian cremations. A comparative study of graves on the basis of the minimum number of buried individuals and the number of determined bone finds in graves, as well as bone fragmentation, is presented. Radiocarbon dating (AMS method) of burnt human bones from six investigated graves was conducted in order to specify the usage time of the graves. Some conclusions on possible temporal changes and cultural differences in burial practices are made on the basis of these characteristics.
... The proposed reasons to explain this phenomenon vary from suggesting that the bones of infant... more ... The proposed reasons to explain this phenomenon vary from suggesting that the bones of infants (burnt and unburnt) were too fragile to survive (Walker et al. 1988; Holck 1995), the infants may have been buried elsewhere, or have been lost in cemeter-ies due to continuous ...
In the autumn of 2008 human and animal bones came to light during the cabling works in the villag... more In the autumn of 2008 human and animal bones came to light during the cabling works in the village of Salme, on the island of Saaremaa, Estonia. Some days later a contour of an ancient boat was discovered. The ancient boat, as well as human and animal bones inside it, dates to the second half of the 7th century or the beginning of the 8th century. The osteological analyses of the human bone material featured the specific quality of this burial-skeletal remains of seven men, which are unknown in the boat- and ship-burials around the Baltic Sea and in the broader context of Northern Europe. The absence of bones of dogs and horses, which are very common in Scandinavian boat- and ship-burials, is also exceptional.
On 13 March 2021, anthropologist Leiu Hea post celebrated her 85th birthday; 19 October marks 60 ... more On 13 March 2021, anthropologist Leiu Hea post celebrated her 85th birthday; 19 October marks 60 years of her active membership in the Estonian Natu ralists' Society. Estonian anthropologists are happy to congratulate the most distinctive anthropologist of Estonia, to wish her continuing strength and energy. The most delightful feature about Leiu Heapost is her versatility. Leiu is an anthropologist with excellent education who, on the one hand, has worthily continued and supplemented the work of her teacher, Juhan Aul, in the studies of humans. On the other hand, Leiu has always been ready to try something entirely new and innovative for Estonia. So, for example, she has laid the foundation to population genetic studies of Estonians according to blood groups. This, however, is not all-Leiu has also studied the Estonian people based on bone remnants to get an idea what Estonians were like long ago. She has conducted thorough-going research on Estonians' craniology, has studied people's body height and proportions at present and in the past. Leiu has excellent knowledge of odontology, discrete features of the skeleton, pathological changes on bones, and she has ample experience of working with very different bone material collected by archaeologists, including incinerated bones found from cremation burials. Special mention should be made of Leiu's deep interest in the formation history of the Estonian people and Finno-Ugric peoples' anthropology. This deep interest and sense of mission led her to the publication of an impressive book-Physical Anthropo logy of Finno-Ugric peoples. In the book, Leiu has summed up the results of 25 years'
Introduction The Maidla graves of the 5th-7th and 10th-13th centuries have been archaeologically ... more Introduction The Maidla graves of the 5th-7th and 10th-13th centuries have been archaeologically investigated by Mati Mandel, who published the results in a monograph (Mandel 2003). The same volume contains the results of an analysis of the osteological finds from the graves (Allmae 2003; Maldre 2003). The osteological material is stored in the collections of the Estonian History Museum. The aim of the present study was to determine the age and sex of the buried people, to estimate the size of the community using the 10th-13th-centuries stone grave of Maidla and to describe the life-cycle of the population. Anthropological data of Poanse stone graves 1 and 2 as well as of Maidla 1 were used for comparison. Methods First, the general state of the bones recovered from the grave was assessed, sorting them into cremated and unburned bones. Second, the skull fragments in bone assemblages were counted to discover the possible locations of skulls and, thus, to identify the presumable buria...
In 2008 and 2010, two partly destroyed ship burials were discovered near Salme on the island of S... more In 2008 and 2010, two partly destroyed ship burials were discovered near Salme on the island of Saaremaa. During the archaeological excavations, at least 41 wholly or partially preserved skeletons were discovered, and a large number of artefacts were found, including a dozen singlesided antler combs. On the basis of the finds, as well as radiocarbon dating, the ship burials were dated to the PreViking Period, while both the isotopic and archaeological evidence point towards central Sweden as the most probable origin of the buried individuals. The combs from Salme have features that are generally consistent with the 8th century, with the closest parallels coming from the Mälar region of central Sweden. According to ZooMS and aDNA analyses, they are made of elk (Alces alces) and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) antler. Elk inhabited the Mälar region, but reindeer antler had its origin in more northern regions. Most combs were clearly manufactured with great skill, and finished with care, though some details indicate differences in the skills of comb makers.
While the series of events that shaped the transition between foraging societies and food produce... more While the series of events that shaped the transition between foraging societies and food producers are well described for Central and Southern Europe, genetic evidence from Northern Europe surrounding the Baltic Sea is still sparse. Here, we report genome-wide DNA data from 38 ancient North Europeans ranging from ~9500 to 2200 years before present. Our analysis provides genetic evidence that hunter-gatherers settled Scandinavia via two routes. We reveal that the first Scandinavian farmers derive their ancestry from Anatolia 1000 years earlier than previously demonstrated. The range of Mesolithic Western hunter-gatherers extended to the east of the Baltic Sea, where these populations persisted without gene-flow from Central European farmers during the Early and Middle Neolithic. The arrival of steppe pastoralists in the Late Neolithic introduced a major shift in economy and mediated the spread of a new ancestry associated with the Corded Ware Complex in Northern Europe.
Yersinia pestis, the etiologic agent of plague, is a bacterium associated with wild rodents and t... more Yersinia pestis, the etiologic agent of plague, is a bacterium associated with wild rodents and their fleas. Historically it was responsible for three pandemics: the Plague of Justinian in the 6th century AD, which persisted until the 8th century [1]; the renowned Black Death of the 14th century [2, 3], with recurrent outbreaks until the 18th century [4]; and the most recent 19th century pandemic, in which Y. pestis spread worldwide [5] and became endemic in several regions [6]. The discovery of molecular signatures of Y. pestis in prehistoric Eurasian individuals and two genomes from Southern Siberia suggest that Y. pestis caused some form of disease in humans prior to the first historically documented pandemic [7]. Here, we present six new European Y. pestis genomes spanning the Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age (LNBA; 4,800 to 3,700 calibrated years before present). This time period is characterized by major transformative cultural and social changes that led to cross-European net...
Recent ancient DNA studies have revealed that the genetic history of modern Europeans was shaped ... more Recent ancient DNA studies have revealed that the genetic history of modern Europeans was shaped by a series of migration and admixture events between deeply diverged groups. While these events are well described in Central and Southern Europe, genetic evidence from Northern Europe surrounding the Baltic Sea is still sparse. Here we report genome-wide DNA data from 24 ancient North Europeans ranging from ~7,500 to 200 calBCE spanning the transition from a hunter-gatherer to an agricultural lifestyle, as well as the adoption of bronze metallurgy. We show that Scandinavia was settled after the retreat of the glacial ice sheets from a southern and a northern route, and that the first Scandinavian Neolithic farmers derive their ancestry from Anatolia 1000 years earlier than previously demonstrated. The range of Western European Mesolithic hunter-gatherers extended to the east of the Baltic Sea, where these populations persisted without gene-flow from Central European farmers until aroun...
The aim of the present research was to determine chemical elements using the inductive plasma mas... more The aim of the present research was to determine chemical elements using the inductive plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) in Estonian archaeological human bones to establish the possible content of the menu in different communities. Among the studied material clear differentiation can be made between the Pärnu cemetery of St John's church (the cemetery of the Pärnu garrison) from the 16-18 th cc. and the Tääksi village cemetery from the 14-18 th century. The material from the 12-13 th cc. Pada cemetery remains between the two abovementioned cemeteries concerning the content of the observed elements. The initial data show only the differences of the general trends of the content of chemical elements between the inland and the coastal areas, the village and the town, the higher and the lower social status communities. The contents of chemical elements in the Estonian archaeological bones were similar to the respective contents in Latvia.
Several Estonian burial places with cremations were investigated in the period 1997 to 2011. duri... more Several Estonian burial places with cremations were investigated in the period 1997 to 2011. during the research, various descriptive and metric data on cremated bone materials was observed. The present paper is an attempt to systematise and interpret the data collected, in order to provide some generalisations on Estonian cremations. A comparative study of graves on the basis of the minimum number of buried individuals and the number of determined bone finds in graves, as well as bone fragmentation, is presented. Radiocarbon dating (AMS method) of burnt human bones from six investigated graves was conducted in order to specify the usage time of the graves. Some conclusions on possible temporal changes and cultural differences in burial practices are made on the basis of these characteristics.
... The proposed reasons to explain this phenomenon vary from suggesting that the bones of infant... more ... The proposed reasons to explain this phenomenon vary from suggesting that the bones of infants (burnt and unburnt) were too fragile to survive (Walker et al. 1988; Holck 1995), the infants may have been buried elsewhere, or have been lost in cemeter-ies due to continuous ...
In the autumn of 2008 human and animal bones came to light during the cabling works in the villag... more In the autumn of 2008 human and animal bones came to light during the cabling works in the village of Salme, on the island of Saaremaa, Estonia. Some days later a contour of an ancient boat was discovered. The ancient boat, as well as human and animal bones inside it, dates to the second half of the 7th century or the beginning of the 8th century. The osteological analyses of the human bone material featured the specific quality of this burial-skeletal remains of seven men, which are unknown in the boat- and ship-burials around the Baltic Sea and in the broader context of Northern Europe. The absence of bones of dogs and horses, which are very common in Scandinavian boat- and ship-burials, is also exceptional.
Recent ancient DNA studies have revealed that the genetic history of modern Europeans was shaped ... more Recent ancient DNA studies have revealed that the genetic history of modern Europeans was shaped by a series of migration and admixture events between deeply diverged groups. While these events are well described in Central and Southern Europe, genetic evidence from Northern Europe surrounding the Baltic Sea is still sparse. Here we report genome-wide DNA data from 24 ancient North Europeans ranging from ~7,500 to 200 calBCE spanning the transition from a hunter-gatherer to an agricultural lifestyle, as well as the adoption of bronze metallurgy. We show that Scandinavia was settled after the retreat of the glacial ice sheets from a southern and a northern route, and that the first Scandinavian Neolithic farmers derive their ancestry from Anatolia 1000 years earlier than previously demonstrated. The range of Western European Mesolithic hunter-gatherers extended to the east of the Baltic Sea, where these populations persisted without gene-flow from Central European farmers until around 2,900 calBCE when the arrival of steppe pastoralists introduced a major
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