Somalia
| Charu cha Wupu wa Somalia |
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| Nyimbo: Qolobaa Calankeed علم أي امة "Every nation has its own flag" |
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 ██ Territory controlled
██ Territory claimed but not controlled (Somaliland)
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| Msumba Waboma kweneso Msumba Usani | Mogadishu | |||||
| Chiyowoyelo chaboma | Somali, Arabic[1] | |||||
| Mitundu ya Ŵanthu (2021) | ||||||
| Vipembezo | Sunni Islam (official)[1] | |||||
| Mwenecharu | Somali[1] | |||||
| Mtundu wa Boma | Federal presidential constitutional republic | |||||
| - | President | Hassan Sheikh Mohamud | ||||
| - | Prime Minister | Hamza Abdi Barre | ||||
| - | House Speaker | Aden Madobe | ||||
| - | Upper house | Senate | ||||
| - | Lower house | House of the People | ||||
| Independence from Italy and the United Kingdom | ||||||
| - | British Somaliland | 1887 | ||||
| - | Italian Somaliland | 1889 | ||||
| - | Independence and union with the State of Somaliland | 1 July 1960 | ||||
| - | Admitted to the United Nations | 20 September 1960 | ||||
| - | Current constitution | 1 August 2012 | ||||
| Ukulu wa Malo | ||||||
| - | Malo | 637,657[1] km2 (43rd) 246,200 sq mi |
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| Chiŵelengelo cha ŵanthu | ||||||
| - | 2023 estimate | 12,693,796[2] (78th) | ||||
| - | Density | 27.2[3]/km2 (199th) 41.73/sq mi |
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| GDP (PPP) | 2022 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | US$20.641 billion (155th) | ||||
| - | Per capita | US$1,322[4] (222nd) | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2022 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | US$7.62 billion[5] (184th) | ||||
| - | Per capita | US$544[6] (211th) | ||||
| HDI (2021) |  0.361[lower-alpha 1]low ·192nd |
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| Ndalama | Somali shilling (SOS) |
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| Mtundu Wanyengo | EAT (UTC+3) | |||||
| Kalembelo kasiku | dd/mm/yyyy | |||||
| Woko la galimoto | right | |||||
| Intaneti yacharu | .so | |||||
Somalia,[lower-alpha 2] mwaboma, Charu cha Somalia[11] (Somali: Jamhuuriyadda Federaalka Soomaaliya; Arabic: جمهورية الصومال الفيدرالية), ni chalo icho chili ku Africa. Charu ichi chili na mphaka na charu cha Ethiopia kumanjiliro gha dazi, Djibouti kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi, Gulf of Aden kumpoto, Indian Ocean kumafumiro gha dazi, na Kenya kumwera kwa kumanjiliro gha dazi. Charu cha Somalia chili na mumphepete mwa nyanja utali comene kuluska vyaru vinyake vyose vya mu Africa. Charu ichi chili na mapiri ghatali, vipalamba, na mapiri.[1] Nyengo zinyake mu charu ichi mukuŵa mphepo zakotcha, ndipo vula zikulokwa mwambura kwenelera. Ku Somalia kuli ŵanthu pafupifupi 17.1 miliyoni, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni ŵakukhala mu msumba ukuru wa Mogadishu. Ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu tawuni iyi ŵalipo pafupifupi 85 peresenti. Ŵanandi mwa ŵanthu aŵa ŵakukhala kumwera. Viyowoyero vya boma vya ku Somalia ni Chisomali na Chiarabic. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu caru ici Mbacisilamu, ndipo ŵanandi mwa iwo Mbacisilamu.[12]
In antiquity, Somalia was an important commercial center.[13][14] It is among the most probable locations of the ancient Land of Punt.[15][16] Mu vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., maufumu ghanandi gha ku Somalia ghakaŵa na mazaza pa malonda gha mu chigaŵa ichi, nga ni Ajuran Sultanate, Adal Sultanate, na Geledi Sultanate.[17]
Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, mafumu gha ku Somalia nga ni Isaaq Sultanate na Majeerteen Sultanate ghakakhalanga mu vyaru vya Italy na Britain. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakambiska vyaru ivi, ndipo ŵakaviŵika mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Pa nyengo iyi, mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu, Ŵaderivi awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Mohammed Abdullah Hassan ŵakalimbana na Abyssinia, Italian Somaliland, na British Somaliland kwa vyaka 20. Ŵataliya ŵakamba kulamulira kumpoto kwa chigaŵa ichi, kumafumiro gha dazi, pakati, na kumwera, ŵakati ŵathereska ŵanthu ŵa ku Majeerteen na Hobyo. Mu 1960, vigaŵa viŵiri ivi vikakolerana na kuzgoka charu chakujiyimira paŵekha cha Somalia.[18]
Siad Barre wa Supreme Revolutionary Council wakatora mazaza mu 1969 ndipo wakambiska boma la Somali Democratic Republic, ndipo wakayezga kukanizga nkhondo ya kujithemba ya Somaliland kumpoto kwa chalo. SRC yikamara mu 1991, apo Nkhondo ya ku Somalia yikambanga. Charu cha Somaliland chikulutilira kulamulira kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Somalia. Kufuma mu nyengo iyi, vigaŵa vinandi vikamba kulondezga malango gha mu charu na chisopa. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 2000, maboma ghakupambanapambana ghakapangika. Boma la Transitional National Government (TNG) likakhazikiskika mu chaka cha 2000, ndipo boma la Transitional Federal Government (TFG) likakhazikiskika mu chaka cha 2004.[1][19]
Mu 2006, na wovwiri wa boma la Ethiopia, boma la TFG likapoka mazaza pa vigaŵa vinandi vya kumwera kwa charu kufuma ku Islamic Courts Union (ICU). Gulu la ICU pamasinda likapambana mu magulu ghakuru, kusazgapo ma jihadists al-Shabaab, agho ghakarwa nkhondo na TFG na ŵabwezi ŵake ŵa AMISOM kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza pa chigaŵa. Kuzakafika pakatikati pa 2012, ŵakugaluka aŵa ŵakataya vigaŵa vinandi ivyo ŵakathereska, ndipo ŵakamba kupenja malo ghakukhazikika gha demokilase. Nangauli vili nthena, ŵasilikari ŵa Somalia ŵachali na mazaza pa chigaŵa chikuru cha pakati na kumwera, ndipo ŵakulongozga mu vigaŵa ivyo boma likuwusa, ndipo msumba wa Jilib ndiwo ni msumba ukuru wa ŵasilikari ŵa Somalia.[20][21] Mu Ogasiti 2012, boma la Somalia likapanga dango liphya lakwamba. Mu mwezi wenewura, boma la Somalia likapangika ndipo nyengo yakuzengaso yikamba mu Mogadishu, nangauli al-Shabaab kanandi waka wakawukiranga ŵanthu.
Charu cha Somalia chili na GDP yichoko chomene pa charu chose, ndipo chili mu gulu la vyaru vyakutalulira. Mu 2019, charu cha Somalia chikaŵa na chiŵelengero chichoko chomene pa charu chose, ndipo mu chaka chenechichi, ŵanthu 69 pa 100 ŵaliwose ŵakakhalanga pasi pa ukavu. Kufika mu 2020, chalo cha Somalia chili pa malo ghaciŵiri pa vyaru ivyo vikusuzgika. Boma ili lili na chuma chakuthupi yayi, ndipo likuthemba chomene pa viŵeto, ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakupeleka ku vyaru vinyake, kweniso pa nkhani ya kutumirana mameseji. Charu ichi chili mu wupu wa United Nations, Arab League, African Union, Non-Aligned Movement, na Organization of Islamic Cooperation.[22]
Mbili
Prehistory
Charu cha Somalia ndicho chikaŵa chakwamba kukhalamo ŵanthu chifukwa cha malo agho chikaŵa. Ŵalwani awo ŵakafumanga mu Africa, ŵakwenera kuti ŵakakhalanga kuno pambere ŵandafume. Mu nyengo ya malibwe, ŵanthu ŵa ku Doian na Hargeisan ŵakakhalanga mu malo agha.[23][24][25][26][27][28] Ukaboni wakale comene wa maluso gha kusungika mu malo ghakusungako ŵakufwa mu caru ca Horn of Africa ngwakufuma ku malo ghakusungako ŵakufwa mu Somalia agho ghakaŵako m'ma 1000 B.C.E. Mu 1909, ŵanthu ŵakamanya kuti vinthu ivi vikafuma ku malo gha ku Jalelo.
Ŵasayansi ŵakuyowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakayowoyanga viyowoyero vya ku Asia ŵakiza mu chigaŵa ichi mu nyengo ya Neolithic kufuma ku malo agho mbumba iyi yikakhalanga mu Dambo la Nayelo.[29]
Malo gha Laas Geel agho ghali kufupi na tawuni ya Hargeisa, kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Somalia, ghakaŵako vyaka pafupifupi 5,000 ivyo vyajumpha. Mu malo ghanyake gha kumpoto kwa chigaŵa cha Dhambalin, muli vithuzithuzi vinyake ivyo vikulongora mulwani uyo wakwera hachi. Vinthu vya mu jalawe ivi vikalembeka mu vyaka vya pakati pa 1,000 na 3,000 B.C.E. Kweniso pakati pa matawuni gha Las Khorey na El Ayo kumpoto kwa Somalia kuli Karinhegane, uko kuli vithuzithuzi vinandi vya vinyama. Pa cithuzithuzi cilicose pali malemba agho ghali kulembeka pasi pake, ndipo ghose ghali na vyaka pafupifupi 2,500.[30][31]
Antiquity and classical era
Vinthu vyakale nga ni mapiramidi, ma mausoleum, misumba iyo yili kubwanganduka, na viliŵa vya malibwe nga ni linga la Wargaade, mbukaboni wakuti kukaŵa ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakakhalanga makora ku Somali. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaguliskanga vinthu ku Eguputo na Greece kufuma mu vyaka vya m'ma 2000 B.C.E., ivyo vikukhozgera fundo yakuti ku Somalia panji ku vigaŵa vinyake kukaŵa charu cha Punt.[32][33] Ŵanthu ŵa ku Punt, awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi, ŵakaguliskanga mure, vyakununkhira, golide, eboni, ng'ombe za masengwe ghafupi, njovu, na lubani na Ŵaeguputo, Ŵafoinike, Ŵababuloni, Ŵahindi, Ŵachinayi, na Ŵaroma. Pa visimi vya mu tempile la Deir el-Bahari, pakalembeka vya ulendo wa ku Eguputo wa ku Punt uwo wakacita Fumukazi Hatshepsut. Mu 2015, ŵasayansi ŵakasanda minthumbo ya vikoko vya ku Punt ivyo ŵakiza navyo ku Eguputo nga ntchawanangwa.
Mu nyengo yakale, ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Macrobian, awo ŵakaŵa ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia, ŵakakhazikiska ufumu wankhongono uwo ukalamuliranga chigaŵa chikuru cha Somalia. Ŵakaŵa na mbiri ya kukhala nyengo yitali na kuŵa ŵasambazi, ndipo ŵakayowoyanga kuti ŵakaŵa "ŵanalume ŵatali na ŵakutowa comene". Ŵanthu ŵa ku Macrobian ŵakaŵa ŵaliska ŵa viŵeto na ŵakwendeska ngalaŵa. Herodotus wakayowoya kuti Themba la ku Peresiya, Cambyses II, likati lakora Eguputo mu 525 B.C.E., likatuma mathenga ku Macrobiya kuti ghazakamupe vyawanangwa vinandi. Fumu ya Macrobiya, iyo yikasankhika cifukwa ca msinkhu wake na kutowa kwake, yikamuzgora na kumuphalira munthu munyake wa ku Peresiya kuti waŵikenge uta: Usange Ŵaperesiya ŵangakwaniska kuwukoma, mbwenu ŵangaŵa na wanangwa wa kuwukira caru cake. Kweni m'paka nyengo iyo, ŵakwenera kuwonga ŵachiuta cifukwa cakuti Macrobiya ŵakakana kuwukira ufumu wawo. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Macrobian ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono comene ndipo ŵakamanyikwanga cifukwa ca luso lwawo lwa kuzenga na usambazi wawo wa golide. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakugomezga kuti ngamila zikaŵako mu nyengo ya pakati pa 2 na 3 B.C.E. Kufuma kura, yikathandazgikira ku Eguputo na ku Maghreb.
Mu nyengo yakale, misumba ya Barbara iyo yikumanyikwaso na mazina ghakuti, Sesia of Mosylon, Opone, Mundus, Isis, Malao, Avalites, Essina, Nikon, na Sarapion, yikaŵa na malonda ghanandi, ndipo yikakolerananga na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Ptolemaic Egypt, Ancient Greece, Phoenicia, Parthian Persia, Saba, Nabataean Kingdom, na Roman Empire. Ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito ngaraŵa yakale ya ku Somalia yakucemeka beden pakunyamura katundu wawo.
Ŵaroma ŵakati ŵathereska ufumu wa Nabataean na kuŵapo kwa ŵasilikari ŵa Romu ku Aden kuti ŵaleke kunanga vinthu vyawo, ŵamalonda ŵa ku Arabia na Somalia ŵakakolerana na Ŵaroma kuti ŵaleke kuzomerezga ngaraŵa za ku India kuti zileke kwenda mu misumba ya ku Arabia kuti ŵavikilire ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia na Arabia pa malonda agho ghakacitikanga pakati pa Nyanja Yiswesi na ya Meditereniyani. Ndipouli, ŵamalonda ŵa ku India ŵakalutilira kuguliska vinthu mu misumba ya ku dowoko la Somali, iyo yikaŵa kutali na Ŵaroma. Kwa vyaka vinandi, ŵamalonda ŵa ku India ŵakayeghanga sinamoni yinandi kufuma ku Ceylon na Spice Islands kuluta nayo ku Somalia na Arabia. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti uko kukafuma sinamoni na vyakununkhira vinyake kukaŵa kwakubisika chomene ku ŵamalonda ŵa ku Arabia na Somalia. Phangano ilo ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia na Ŵaarabu ŵakachita likakhozga mtengo wa sinamoni wa ku India na China ku North Africa, ku Near East, na ku Europe, ndipo likapangiska kuti malonda gha sinamoni ghaŵe na phindu, comenecomene ku ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia awo ŵakendeskanga vinthu vinandi pa nyanja na pa mtunda.[34]
Birth of Islam and the Middle Ages
Chisilamu chikapharazgika mu chigaŵa ichi na Ŵasilamu ŵakwambilira ŵa ku Mecca awo ŵakachimbiranga ku khoti pa nyengo ya Hejira wakwamba. Iyi ni yimoza mwa nyumba zakuluska zose mu Africa. Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 800 C.E., Al-Yaqubi wakalemba kuti Ŵasilamu ŵakakhalanga mumphepete mwa nyanja kumpoto kwa Somalia. Wakayowoyaso kuti msumba uwu ndiwo ukaŵa msumba ukuru wa Ufumu wa Adal. Leo Africanus wakati Ufumu wa Adal ukawusikanga na mafumu gha ku Somalia ndipo ufumu wake ukaŵa pakati pa Bab el Mandeb na Cape Guardafui. Ntheura kumwera kukaŵa Ufumu wa Ajuran ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi kukaŵa Ufumu wa Abyssinia.
Mu vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E., ŵanthu ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakaluta ku Somaliland.
Mu 1332, Themba la Adal ilo likaŵa ku Zeila, likakomeka pa nkhondo iyo yikaŵa na cilato ca kukanizga Amda Seyon I, themba la ku Abyssinia, kunjira mu msumba uwu. Mu 1410, Themba Dawit I likakoma Sa'ad ad-Din II, themba la Ifat. Kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1500, msumba ukuru wa Adal ukasamukira ku tawuni ya Dakkar, uko Sabr ad-Din II, mwana mulara wa Sa'ad ad-Din II, wakambiska msasa uphya wati wawerako ku Yemen.[35][36]
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, likuru la Adal likasamuskikaso, ndipo pa nyengo iyi likaluta kumwera ku Harar. Kufuma ku msumba uphya uwu, Adal wakanozga ŵasilikari awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad "Gurey" panji "Gran"; wose ŵakang'anamuranga "mwankhongono") awo ŵakanjira mu ufumu wa Abyssinia. Nkhondo iyi yikacitika mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ndipo yikucemeka kuti Kupoka Abisinia (Futuh al-Habash). Mu nyengo ya nkhondo iyi, Imam Ahmad ndiyo wakamba kugwiliskira ntchito vilwero ivyo Ufumu wa Ottoman ukapeleka, ndipo wakavitora ku Zeila na kuviŵika pa nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa Abyssinia na ŵabwezi ŵawo ŵa ku Portugal. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti nkhondo iyi yikulongora kuti vilwero vya nkhondo nga ni mathipa, futi, na mivi vikaŵa vyakuzirwa chomene.
Mu nyengo ya Ufumu wa Ajuran, misumba ya Merca, Mogadishu, Barawa, Hobyo na madoko ghawo ghakakura chomene ndipo ŵakaguliskanga vinthu ku vyaru vinyake. Vasco da Gama, uyo wakajumpha mu Mogadishu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, wakati msumba uwu ukaŵa ukuru chomene ndipo ukaŵa na nyumba zakudikanya kweniso nyumba zikuruzikuru. Ŵanthu ŵa Harla, awo ŵakaŵa ŵanthu ŵatali chomene ŵa ku Hamitic awo ŵakakhalanga ku Somalia, Tchertcher, na vigaŵa vinyake vya ku Horn, nawo ŵakazenga malaro ghakupambanapambana. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakagomezganga kuti ŵakaŵa ŵasekuru ŵa ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia.
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, Duarte Barbosa wakalemba kuti ngaraŵa zinandi izo zikafumanga ku Ufumu wa Cambaya ku India, zikalutanga ku Mogadishu na salu na vyakununkhira. Barbosa wakayowoyaso za unandi wa nyama, tirigu, balere, mahachi, na vipasi ivyo vikusangika mu misika ya mumphepete mwa nyanja. Mogadishu, msumba uwo ukaŵa na makampani gha vyakuvwara, pamoza na Merca na Barawa, ukaŵa malo ghakwendakwenda gha ŵamalonda ŵa Chiswahili ŵakufuma ku Mombasa na Malindi. Ŵamalonda Ŵachiyuda ŵakufuma ku Hormuz ŵakizanga na vyakuvwara vyawo vya ku India na vipambi ku Somali kuti ŵazakapeleke tirigu na nkhuni.
Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1500, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuguliska malaya, ambergris, na porcelain. Viyuni vya girafu, zebra, na vyakununkhira vikatolekera ku Ufumu wa Ming ku China, uko ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia ŵakamba kuchita malonda pakati pa East Asia na Horn. Ŵamalonda ŵa Chihindu ŵakufuma ku Surat na ŵa ku Southeast Africa ŵakufuma ku Pate, ŵakakhumbanga kujumphizga chigaŵa cha ku India icho Ŵapwitikizi ŵakaŵakanizganga (pamanyuma pake, ku Oman), ndipo ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito malo gha ku Merca na Barawa ku Somalia (uko kukaŵavya ŵamazaza ŵa vyaru viŵiri ivi) kuti ŵaguliskenge vinthu vyawo mwakufwasa kweniso kwambura suzgo.[37]
Early modern era and the scramble for Africa
Mu nyengo yakwambilira, maufumu agho ghakalondezganga Ufumu wa Adal na Ajuran ghakamba kukura mu Somalia. Ŵakaŵa Hiraab Imamate, Geledi Sultanate (Gobroon dynasty), Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia), na Hobyo Sultanate (Obbia). Iwo ŵakalutilira kuzenga vipata na kwenda pa nyanja nga umo vikaŵira mu maufumu ghanyake gha ku Somalia.
Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim, uyo wakaŵa wachitatu kufuma mu nyumba ya Gobroon, ndiyo wakamba muwuso wa ufumu wa Gobroon. Ŵasilikari ŵake ŵakathereska nkhondo ya Bardheere Jihad, iyo yikawezgerapo bata mu cigaŵa ici na kuwezgerapo malonda gha njovu ku East Africa. Kweniso wakaŵa paubwezi uwemi na ŵanthu ŵa mu maufumu ghapafupi na kutali nga ni Oman, Witu, na Yemen.
Mwana wa Sultan Ibrahim, Ahmed Yusuf, ndiyo wakaŵa munthu wakuzirwa comene mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800 ku East Africa. Mu Somalland, ufumu wa Isaaq ukapangika mu 1750. Ufumu wa Isaaq ukaŵa ufumu wa Somalia uwo ukalamuliranga vigaŵa vinyake vya mu Africa mu vyaka vya m'ma 1700 na 1800. Malo agha ghakaŵa gha fuko la Isaaq, ilo likafuma ku fuko la Banu Hashim, mu malo agho sono ni Somaliland na Ethiopia. Ufumu wa Rer Guled ndiwo ukalamuliranga ufumu uwu. Ufumu uwu ndiwo ukaŵa wakwamba kwa charu cha Somaliland.[38]
Mwakuyana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakayowoya, pambere muwuso wa Guled undafike, mbumba ya Isaaq yikalongozgekanga na muwuso wa Tolje'lo. Pakaŵa mafumu ghankhondi na ghatatu gha Tolje'lo, kwambira na Boqor Harun (Lang-so) uyo wakawusa ufumu wa Isaaq kwa vyaka vinandi kwambira mu 13th century. Mulongozgi waumaliro wa ŵa Tolje'lo, Garad Dhuh Barar, wakathereskeka na mbumba za Isaaq. Ŵanthu ŵa fuko la Tolje'lo awo ŵakaŵa ŵankhongono ŵakambininika ndipo ŵakabisama ku ŵanthu ŵa Habr Awal awo ŵacali kukhala nawo.[39][40][41][42][43][44][45]
Kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, pamanyuma pa ungano wa ku Berlin mu 1884, ŵamazaza ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kulimbana kuti ŵatore charu cha Africa. Mu caka ici, caru ca Britain cikamba kulamulira cigaŵa cinyake ca Somalia, ico cili mumphepete mwa Africa, kufupi na South Yemen. Pakwamba, cigaŵa ici cikaŵa pasi pa ofesi ya ku India, ndipo cikaŵa cigaŵa ca Ufumu wa India. Mu 1898, London ndiyo yikaŵa na mazaza pa cigaŵa ici. Mu 1889, boma la Italy likakhazikiska boma la Italy ku Somalia, ndipo pamasinda likamba kulamulira charu ichi.
Gulu la Dervish likathereska ufumu wa Britain maulendo ghanayi ndipo likapangiska kuti uwelere ku vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja. Ŵa Darawiish ŵakathereska ŵamazaza ŵa ku Italy, Britain, Abyssinia kanandi waka, chomenechomene mu 1903, apo Suleiman Aden Galaydh ndiyo wakathereska ŵamazaza ŵa ku Cagaarweyne. Paumaliro, mu 1920, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵakathereska ŵasilikari aŵa.
Nkhondo ya fascism yikamba mu ma 1920 ndipo yikapangiska kuti Italy yisinthe nthowa zake, chifukwa chakuti ma sultanates gha kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi gha charu ichi ghakeneranga kunjizgika mu chigaŵa cha La Grande Somalia ("Greater Somalia") mwakuyana na ndondomeko ya Fascist Italy. Apo Kazembe Cesare Maria De Vecchi wakizanga pa Disembala 15, 1923, vinthu vikamba kusintha mu chigaŵa ichi. Malo ghaumaliro agho Italy ghakapoka ku Somalia ghakaŵa Oltre Giuba, mu cigaŵa ca Jubaland, mu 1925.
Ŵa Italiya ŵakamba kuzenga vipatala, minda, na masukulu. Mu 1935, boma la Fascist la Italy, pasi pa muwuso wa Benito Mussolini, likawukira Abyssinia (Ethiopia) na cilato cakuti liŵawukire. Wupu wa League of Nations ukasuska nkhondo iyi, kweni pakaŵavya ico cikacitikapo kuti ulekeske panji kufwatura Ethiopia. Mu 1936, chalo cha Italy cha Somalia chikaŵa mu chigaŵa cha Italy East Africa, pamoza na Eritrea na Ethiopia. Pa 3 Ogasiti 1940, ŵasilikari ŵa Italy, kusazgapo maboma gha Somalia, ŵakambuka kufuma ku Ethiopia kuti ŵanjire mu British Somaliland, ndipo pa 14 Ogasiti, ŵakakwaniska kutora Berbera ku British.
Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa Britain, kusazgapo ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa, ŵakamba nkhondo mu Janyuwale 1941 kufuma ku Kenya kuti ŵafwature Somaliland na Ethiopia. Kuzakafika mu Febuluwale, chigaŵa chikuru cha Somaliland cha ku Italy chikaŵa kuti chazengeka, ndipo mu Malichi, chigaŵa cha British Somaliland chikazengeka. Ŵasilikari ŵa ufumu wa Britain awo ŵakagwiranga nchito mu Somaliland ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari ŵa ku South Africa, West Africa, na East Africa. Ŵakawovwirika na ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Somalia awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Abdulahi Hassan, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa mu fuko la Isaaq, Dhulbahante, na Warsangali ndiwo ŵakawovwirapo. Chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakakhalanga ku Somalia chikamba kuchepa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose yikati yamara, ndipo mu 1960 chikaŵa pasi pa 10,000.[46]
Independence (1960–1969)
Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya pa Charu Chose yikati yamara, Britain yikalutilira kulamulira chigaŵa cha British Somaliland na Italian Somaliland. Mu 1945, pa ungano wa ku Potsdam, wupu wa United Nations ukapeleka ku Italy mazaza ghakulongozga chigaŵa cha Italian Somaliland nga ni malo ghakulongozga chigaŵa cha Somaliland, pa fundo iyo yikayowoyeka na wupu wa Somali Youth League (SYL) na mawupu ghanyake gha ndyali gha ku Somalia, nga ni Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) na Somali National League (SNL) kuti Somalia yisange wanangwa mu vyaka 10. Charu cha British Somaliland chikaŵa pasi pa Britain m'paka mu 1960.
Pakuti caru ca Italy cikaŵa na mazaza gha wupu wa UN, nduna iyi yikapeleka mwaŵi ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia kuti ŵasambire vya ndyali za ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Ivi vikaŵa vyandulo ivyo charu cha British Somaliland, icho chikeneranga kuŵa mu boma liphya la Somalia, chikaŵavya. Nangauli mu ma 1950, ŵalara ŵa boma la Britain ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵamazge suzgo ili, kweni boma la Britain likalutilira yayi. Vyaru viŵiri ivi vikaŵa vyakupambana comene pa nkhani ya vyachuma ndiposo vya ndyali.[47]
Pa nyengo yeneyira, mu 1948, cifukwa ca kukakamizgika na ŵabwezi ŵawo ŵa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, ndipo ici cikakwiyiska comene ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia, ŵa ku Britain ŵakawezgera Haud (malo ghakuŵeta gha ku Somalia agho ghakwenera kuti ghakavikilirika na mapangano gha Britain na ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia mu 1884 na 1886) na cigaŵa ca Somali ku Ethiopia.
Nangauli Britain yikaŵikapo dango lakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵalutilire kujilamulira ŵekha, kweni Etiyopiya nayo wakakhumbanga kuti malo agha ghaŵe ghake. Ici cikapangiska kuti mu 1956 Britain yilute ku Somalia kuti yikagure malo agho yikagaŵako. Kweniso boma la Britain likapelekaso boma la Northern Frontier District (NFD) ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Kenya. Ivi vikacitika nangauli pakaŵa maungano gha ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerana na fundo yakuti ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Somalia ŵakukhumba kuŵa ku cigaŵa ca Somalia.
Mu 1958, ku Djibouti (uko kale kukachemekanga French Somaliland) kukachitika referendum. Pa ungano uwu, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakakolerana na fundo yakuti ŵaŵe ŵamoza na France. Pakaŵaso upusikizgi ukuru comene, ndipo Ŵacifurenci ŵakacimbizga ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Somalia pambere ŵanthu ŵandafike ku mavoti.
Ŵanandi awo ŵakazomera yayi ŵakaŵa ŵa ku Somalia awo ŵakakolerana na fundo ya umo boma la Somalia lingakhalira pamoza, nga umo Mahmoud Harbi, wachiŵiri kwa pulezidenti wa boma wakacitira. Pakati pajumpha vyaka viŵiri, Harbi wakafwa pa ngozi ya ndege. Mu 1977, Djibouti wakafwatuka ku France, ndipo Hassan Gouled Aptidon, wa ku Somalia uyo wakachitanga kampeni kuti ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi ŵavomerepo pa referendum ya mu 1976, wakazgoka pulezidenti wakwamba wa Djibouti.
Pa Julayi 1, 1960, mazuŵa ghankhondi kufuma apo chigaŵa icho kale chikaŵa pasi pa boma la British Somaliland chikapokera wanangwa wake, chigaŵa ichi chikasazgikana na chigaŵa icho chikaŵa pasi pa boma la Somaliland. Boma likapangika na Abdullahi Issa na Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal pamoza na mamembala ghanyake gha boma la wupu wakulongozga, na Abdulcadir Muhammed Aden nga ni purezidenti wa chalo cha Somalia, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar nga ni purezidenti wa chalo cha Somalia, ndipo Abdirashid Ali Shermarke nga nd nd nd nd nd nduna yikuru (panyuma kuti waŵe purezidenti kufuma 1967 mpaka 1969). Pa 20 Julayi 1961 ndipo kwizira mu referendum, chikazomerezgeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia pasi pa Italy. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Somaliland Protectorate ŵakakhumba yayi kutora chigaŵa mu referendum, nangauli ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ŵa ku Somaliland awo ŵakakhumba kutora chigaŵa mu referendum ŵakavotera kukana dango liphya, ilo likanozgeka mu 1960. Mu 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal wakaŵa nduna yikuru, ndipo Shermarke ndiyo wakamusankha. Egal wakazgoka purezidenti wa chigaŵa cha Somaliland kumpoto kwa kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Somalia.
Pa Okutobala 15, 1969, apo wakalutanga ku tawuni ya Las Anod, pulezidenti wa ku Somalia, Abdirashid Ali Shermarke, wakakomeka na yumoza wa ŵavikiliri ŵake. Kufwa kwake kukalondezgana mwaluŵiro na kuzgoka kwa boma kwa ŵasilikari pa 21 Okutobala 1969 (zuŵa lakulondezgapo nyifwa yake), umo ŵasilikari ŵa Somalia ŵakatora mazaza kwambura kukumana na ŵanthu ŵakugaluka. Nkhondo iyi yikalongozgeka na Major General Mohamed Siad Barre, uyo pa nyengo iyo wakalongozganga ŵasilikari ŵa boma.[48]
Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1991)
Pamanyuma pa Barre, Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) iyo yikapoka mazaza pamanyuma pa kukomeka kwa Pulezidenti Sharmarke yikalongozgekanga na Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye na Chief of Police Jama Korshel. Kediye wakaŵa na zina lakuti "Wiske wa Nkhondo", ndipo Barre wakazgoka mulongozgi wa SRC. Kufuma apo, SRC yikasintha zina la charu ichi kuŵa Somali Democratic Republic, yikawuskapo nyumba ya malango na Khoti Likuru Chomene, ndipo yikalekeska ntchito ya dango.
Gulu la ŵasilikari likakhazikiska mapulogiramu ghakurughakuru ghakovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye kuŵazga na kulemba. Padera pa ndondomeko ya kukanizga vyalo na vyaru, boma liphya la Somalia likaŵika mtima pa kukolerana kwa visopa na vyaru vya Ŵaarabu. Mu chaka chenechicho, Barre wakaŵaso mulongozgi wa wupu wa Organisation of African Unity (OAU).
Mu Julayi 1976, SRC ya Barre yikagaŵikana ndipo yikakhazikiska chipani cha Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP), boma la chipani chimoza ilo likajintha pa socialism ya sayansi na visambizgo vya Chisilamu. SRSP yikaŵa nthowa yakuyezgera visambizgo vya boma na visambizgo vya chisopa cha boma mwa kusintha visambizgo vya Marxist ku vinthu vya mu caru. Ŵakaŵikapo mtima chomene pa fundo za Chisilamu za chitukuko, kuyana, na urunji, izo boma likayowoya kuti ni fundo yikuru ya chisopa cha sayansi, kweniso likayowoyanga chomene vya kujikora, umo ŵanthu ŵakugwilira ntchito, na kuwusa ŵanthu. Nangauli SRSP yikakhozgeranga ndalama za ŵanthu ŵekha mu vigaŵa vichoko waka, kweni boma ili likaŵa lachikomyunizimu.[49]
Mu Julayi 1977, Nkhondo ya Ogaden yikamba pamanyuma pakuti boma la Barre likagwiliskira ntchito chilato cha kukolerana na ŵanthu ŵa ku Ethiopia kuti likhazikiske chigaŵa cha Ogaden icho chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia. Mu sabata yakwamba ya nkhondo iyi, ŵasilikari ŵa Somalia ŵakatora chigaŵa cha kumwera na chapakati cha Ogaden. Kufika mu Seputembala 1977, Somalia yikaŵa na mazaza pa chigaŵa cha Ogaden ndipo yikapoka misumba yakuzirwa nga ni Jijiga. Pamanyuma pa kukanizgika kwa Harar, ŵasilikari ŵa Soviet ŵakaŵikapo mtima kuti ŵawovwire boma la Ethiopia. Kuzakafika mu 1978, ŵasilikari ŵa Somalia ŵakacimbizgika mu Ogaden. Boma la Barre likakhuka chomene apo likapokera wovwiri wa Soviet Union. Paumaliro, boma la United States, ilo likakolerana na boma la Somalia kwa nyengo yitali, likakolerana na boma la Soviet Union. Paumaliro, ubwezi uwo ukaŵa pakati pa Somalia na Soviet Union, kweniso pakati pa iyo na United States, ukawovwira kuti charu ichi chiŵe na ŵasilikari ŵanandi comene mu Africa.
Mu 1979, boma likapeleka dango liphya lakuti paŵe maungano gha ŵanthu. Ndipouli, boma la Barre likalutilira kulamulira. Mu Okutobala 1980, SRSP yikamara, ndipo Supreme Revolutionary Council yikakhazikiskikaso. Pa nyengo iyi, boma la Barre likamba kutchuka yayi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Somalia ŵakakhuŵara na umo vinthu vikaŵira mu charu cha ŵasilikari.
Boma la Somalia likalutilira kuchepa mu ma 1980 apo Nkhondo Yakuzizima yikamaranga. Boma likalutilira kuŵa na mazaza, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakamba kulimbana na boma la Ethiopia. Pakati pa magulu agha pakaŵa chipani cha Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), United Somali Congress (USC), Somali National Movement (SNM) na Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), pamoza na chipani cha Democratic Movement (SDM), Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA) na Somali Manifesto Group (SMG).
Somalia Civil War
Apo boma la Barre likalutilira kunangika, ŵanthu ŵanandi ku Somalia ŵakakhuŵara na umoyo wa ŵasilikari. Kuzakafika pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1980, magulu ghakwimikana na boma la Ethiopia ghakawuka. Barre wakazgora na kuŵalangura kuti ŵalangire awo ŵakakolerana na gulu la ŵakugaluka, comenecomene awo ŵakaŵa kumpoto. Kulimbana uku kukusazgapo kuponya mabomba mu misumba, na malo gha Hargeisa kumpoto kwa charu cha Somalia, malo ghakukhazikika gha Somali National Movement (SNM), pakati pa malo agho ghakapwetekeka mu 1988. Nkhondo iyi yikalongozgekanga na Jenerale Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan, mukweni wa Barre.
Mu 1990, mu msumba wa Mogadishu, ŵanthu ŵakakanizgika kuwungana pa wumba wa ŵanthu ŵakujumpha ŵatatu panji ŵanayi. Chifukwa cha kusoŵa kwa mafuta, magalimoto ghakaŵa mu mizere yitali pa malo ghakuŵikapo mafuta. Chifukwa cha kukwera kwa ndalama, mtengo wa tchizi (tchizi wakomira wa ku Italy, uwo ukaŵa wakukhumbikwa chomene pa nyengo iyo) ukakwera kufika pa madola 5 pa kilogalamu. Mtengo wa khat, uyo ŵakamuguliskanga zuŵa lililose kufuma ku Kenya, nawo ukaŵa madola ghankhondi gha ku America. Ndalama za mapepara zikaŵa za mtengo ucoko comene mwakuti pakakhumbikwanga ndalama zinandi kuti munthu wapeleke cakurya.
Mu msumba uwu mukaŵa msika wakufipa, chifukwa mabanki ghakasuzgikanga kusanga ndalama zakwendakwenda. Usiku, msumba wa Mogadishu ukaŵa mu mdima. Ŵanthu wose ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake awo ŵakizanga ku malo agha ŵakalondezgekanga. Ŵakaŵa na malango ghakusuzga ghakwendeskera ndalama za caru cinyake. Nangauli ŵalendo ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kuluta ku caru cinyake, kweni ŵakazomerezgekanga yayi kutorapo vithuzi vya malo ghanandi. Muhanya ku Mogadishu, ŵasilikari ŵa boma ŵakawonekanga bweka yayi. Ndipouli, pa ivyo boma likayowoya kuti likucita usiku, ŵanthu "ŵakazgeŵa" mu nyumba zawo.
Mu 1991, boma la Barre likathereskeka na gulu la ŵanthu ŵakususkana na boma la Ethiopia la Derg na Libya. Pamanyuma pa ungano wa Somali National Movement na ŵalara ŵa mafuko gha kumpoto, chigaŵa cha kumpoto kwa charu ichi icho kale chikaŵa pasi pa Britain chikapharazga kuti chajiyimira paŵekha. Nangauli charu ichi ntchakujiyimira paŵekha ndipo ntchakukhora pakuyaniska na vyaru vya kumwera, kweni palije boma la ku vyaru vinyake ilo likuchimanya.[50][51]
Pamanyuma, magulu ghanandi ghakwimikana nagho ghakamba kuphalizgana kuti ghaŵe na mazaza mu boma ilo likaŵa pasi pa Barre. Ku chigaŵa cha kumwera, magulu gha nkhondo agho ghakalongozgekanga na ŵalaŵiliri ŵa USC, Jenerale Mohamed Farah Aidid na Ali Mahdi Mohamed, ŵakasangana apo waliyose wakakhumbanga kuwusa msumba ukuru. Mu 1991, ku Djibouti kukachitika ungano wa mitundu yose wakukhwaskana na Somalia. Aidid wakakana ungano wakwamba cifukwa ca kususka.
Cifukwa ca kuzomerezgeka kwa Muhammad na ungano wa ku Djibouti, pamanyuma pake wupu wa vyaru vyose ukamuzomera kuŵa pulezidenti muphya wa Somalia. Djibouti, Egypt, Saudi Arabia na Italy vikaŵa pakati pa vyaru ivyo vikazomera boma la Muhammad. Wakaŵa na mazaza pa vigaŵa vinyake vya msumba ukuru yayi. Mu malo mwake, ŵanthu ŵakakwesananga na ŵalongozgi ŵa magulu ghanyake kumwera kwa Somalia na vyaru vinyake vya kumpoto. Pamanyuma pa ungano wa ku Djibouti, pakaŵa mapangano ghaŵiri ghambura kukwaniliskika ghakukhwaskana na kuwezgerapo mtende na kufumiska vilwero, agho ghakasayinika na ŵandyali 15.
Kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1990, cifukwa cakuti boma la Somalia likaŵavya muwuso, likamba kucemeka kuti "mboma lakutondeka". Ken Menkhaus, uyo wakusanda vya ndyali, wakati vinthu vikulongora kuti mu ma 1980, charu ichi chikaŵa kuti chamba kale kuŵa na masuzgo. Rotberg nayo wakayowoya kuti boma likaleka kuwusa pambere Barre wandawuskike. Hoehne (2009), Branwen (2009) na Verhoeven (2009) nawo ŵakagwiliskira nchito Somalia mu nyengo iyi nga ni ciyerezgero ca kususka vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana vya nkhani ya "kutondeka kwa boma".[53]
Transitional institutions
Boma la Transitional National Government (TNG) likakhazikiskika mu mwezi wa Epulero/Meyi 2000 pa ungano wa Somalia National Peace Conference (SNPC) uwo ukachitikira ku Arta, Djibouti. Abdiqasim Salad Hassan wakasankhika kuŵa purezidenti wa boma liphya la Transitional National Government (TNG), boma la kanyengo kachoko ilo likapangika kuti lilongozge Somalia ku boma lake lachitatu. Suzgo izo TNG yikaŵa nazo mukati zikapangiska kuti Prime Minister wasinthike kanayi mu vyaka vitatu, ndipo wupu uwu ukaleka kugwira ntchito mu Disembala 2003. Mulimo wake ukamalira penepapo.
Pa 10 Okutobala 2004, ŵa malango ŵakasora Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed kuŵa purezidenti wakudanga wa Transitional Federal Government (TFG), wakulondezgapo wa Transitional National Government. TFG yikaŵa boma laciŵiri la nyengo yicoko ilo likakhumbanga kuwezgerapo maboma gha chalo ku Somalia pamanyuma pa kuwa kwa boma la Siad Barre mu 1991 na nkhondo ya cikaya iyo yikati yacitika.
Boma la Transitional Federal Government (TFG) ndilo likaŵa boma la Somalia ilo likamanyikwa pa caru cose mpaka pa Ogasiti 20, 2012, apo nyengo yake ya kuwusa yikamara. Likakhazikiskika nga ni yimoza mwa maboma gha Transitional Federal Institutions (TFIs) nga umo likulongosolera mu Transitional Federal Charter (TFC) ilo likapokeka mu Novembala 2004 na Transitional Federal Parliament (TFP). Boma la Transitional Federal likaŵa na wupu wakulongozga, ndipo TFP ndiyo yikaŵa wupu wakulongozga. Boma likalongozgekanga na pulezidenti wa Somalia, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa boma. Ndipouli, likang'anamuraso vigaŵa vyose vitatu.[54]
Islamic Courts Union
Mu 2006, Islamic Courts Union (ICU), yikamba kuwusa chigaŵa chikuru cha kumwera kwa charu ichi kwa myezi 6 na kukhazikiska dango la Sharia. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa UN ŵakuti nyengo iyi yikaŵa 'nyengo ya golide' mu mbiri ya ndyali za ku Somalia.[55][56]
Transitional Federal Government
Boma la Transitional Federal likayezga kuwezgerapo mazaza ghake, ndipo, na wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia, ŵasilikari ŵa African Union na wovwiri wa ndege wa United States, ŵakafumiska ICU na kukhozga muwuso wake. Pa 8 January 2007, Mulongozgi wa TFG, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed, wakanjira mu Mogadishu na wovwiri wa ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia kakwamba kufuma apo wakasankhikira. Boma likasamukira ku Villa Somalia mu msumba wa Baidoa. Aka kakaŵa kakwamba kufuma apo boma la Siad Barre likathereskeka mu 1991, kuti boma la Britain liŵe na mazaza pa caru cose.[57]
Al Shabaab insurgency
Al-Shabaab ŵakasuska kuŵapo kwa ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia mu Somalia ndipo ŵakalutilira kuwukira boma la TFG. Mu 2007 na 2008, gulu la Al-Shabaab likapambana nkhondo, ndipo likapoka misumba yikuruyikuru na virwa vya ku Somalia. Mu Janyuwale 2009, Al-Shabaab na magulu ghanyake ghakacicizga ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia kuti ŵawelere, ndipo ŵakasida ŵasilikari ŵa African Union awo ŵakaŵa na vilwero vyakukwana yayi kuti ŵawovwire ŵasilikari ŵa Transitional Federal Government.
Chifukwa cha kusoŵa ndalama na ŵanthu, kukanizgika kugwiliskira nchito vilwero ivyo vikapangiska kuti ciŵe cakusuzga kuwezgerapo ŵasilikari ŵa boma, kweniso cifukwa cakuti caru cose cikaŵa cambura kupwelelera, Yusuf wakawona kuti nchakukhumbikwa kutuma ŵasilikari ŵanandi kufuma ku Puntland kuluta ku Mogadishu kuti ŵakawovwire nkhondo yakwimikana na ŵasilikari ŵakugaluka ku cigaŵa ca kumwera kwa caru ici. Boma la chigaŵa ichi ndilo likawovwira pa ntchito iyi. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Puntland na ŵantchito ŵa boma ŵaleke kusanga ndalama zinandi.
Pa 29 Disembala, 2008, Yusuf wakapharazga panthazi pa pharalamende yakukolerana mu Baidoa kuti wafumengepo pa udindo wa Pulezidenti wa Somalia. Mu kayowoyero kake, ako kakapharazgika pa wayilesi ya caru cose, Yusuf wakayowoya kuti wakaŵa na citima cifukwa ca kutondeka kumazga nkhondo iyo yacitika mu caru ici kwa vilimika 17, nga umo boma lake likalangulira. Wakasuskaso wupu wa vyaru vyakupambanapambana cifukwa ca kutondeka kovwira boma, ndipo wakati speaker wa nyumba ya ma parliament ndiyo wazamunjira mu malo ghake kuyana na chitupa cha Transitional Federal Government.[58]
End of transitional period
Pakati pa Meyi 31 na Juni 9, 2008, ŵimiliri ŵa boma la Somalia na Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia (ARS) ŵakanjilirapo pa maungano gha mtende mu Djibouti agho ghakacitikanga na Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah uyo wakaŵa thenga lapadera la United Nations ku Somalia. Ungano uwu ukamara na phangano lakuti ŵasilikari ŵa Ethiopia ŵafumemo mu charu ichi. Nyumba ya malango yikasazgikira ku malo 550 kuti yikhazikiske mamembala gha ARS, agho ghakasora Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed kuŵa pulezidenti.[1]
Na wovwiri wa gulu licoko waka la ŵasilikari ŵan African Union, TFG yikamba kucitapo kanthu mu Febuluwale 2009 kuti yambe kuwusa chigaŵa ca kumwera kwa caru ici. Kuti yikhozge muwuso wake, TFG yikapangiska mgwirizano na Islamic Courts Union, mamembala ghanyake gha Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia, na Ahlu Sunna Waljama'a, gulu la ma Sufi. Kweniso, Al-Shabaab na Hezbol Islam, magulu ghaŵiri ghakurughakuru gha Islamist agho ghakwimikana, ghakamba kurwa nkhondo pakati pawo mu 2009. Mu Malichi 2009, boma la TFG likapharazga kuti lizamuwezgerapo dango la Sharia kuŵa dango lakuzomerezgeka. Ndipouli, nkhondo yikalutilira kumwera na pakati pa caru ici. Mu myezi yichoko waka, boma la TFG likamba kulamulira vigaŵa 70 pa vigaŵa 70 vya kumwera na pakati kwa Somalia, ndipo likaluza vigaŵa vyakujumpha 80 pa vigaŵa vyose ivyo vikaŵa na mphindano.
Mu Okutobala 2011, ntchito yakukolerana, Operation Linda Nchi pakati pa ŵasilikari ŵa Somalia na Kenya na ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinandi yikamba kwimikana na Al-Shabaab kumwera kwa Somalia. Kufika mu Seputembala 2012, ŵasilikari ŵa Somalia, Kenya, na Raskamboni ŵakakwaniska kupoka msumba wa Kismayo, uwo ukaŵa msumba waumaliro wa Al-Shabaab. Mu Julayi 2012, maofesi ghatatu gha wupu wa European Union ghakamba kugwira ntchito na Somalia: EUTM Somalia, EU Naval Force Somalia Operation Atalanta kufupi na Horn of Africa, na EUCAP Nestor.[59]
Monga chigawo cha "Roadmap for the End of Transition", ndondomeko yandale yomwe inapereka njira zomveka zomwe zimatsogolera ku mapangidwe a mabungwe osatha a demokalase ku Somalia, ulamuliro wa Federal Transitional Government unatha pa 20 August 2012. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Somalia yikamba kulamulira.[54]
Federal government
Boma la Somalia, ndilo likaŵa lakwamba kulamulira kwamuyirayira mu charu ichi kufuma apo nkhondo yikambira. Mu Ogasiti 2014, boma la Somalia likambiska ntchito ya Indian Ocean pa malo agho ŵakugaluka ŵakukhala.[60]
Makhalilo gha charu
Charu cha Somalia chili kumafumiro gha dazi na charu cha Ethiopia, kumpoto na Gulf of Aden, kumafumiro gha dazi na Nyanja ya Somalia na Guardafui Channel, ndipo kumwera na kumanjiliro gha dazi na Kenya. Charu cha Somalia chili na malo ghakukwana makilomita 637,657. Mphepete mwa nyanja iyi muli makilomita ghakujumpha 3,333, ndipo ni mtunda utali chomene pa vyaru vyose vya mu Africa. Ŵanyake ŵakuti chili nga ni "nambara 7".
Ku chigaŵa chakutali cha kumpoto, mapiri gha Ogo agho ghali kumafumiro gha dazi na kumanjiliro gha dazi ghali pa mtunda wakupambanapambana na nyanja ya Gulf of Aden. Nyengo zinyake mu charu ichi mukuŵa chithukivu chaka chose. Ŵasayansi ŵakuti ku malo agha kuli visulo vinandi. Charu cha Somalia chili kutali na vyaru vya Seychelles na Nyanja ya Somalia, ndipo chili kutali na Socotra na Mlonga wa Guardafui.[61]
Administrative divisions
Boma la Somalia lili kugaŵika vigaŵa 13 na vigaŵa 5 (gobollada, singular gobol). Vigaŵa ivi ni:[1]
| Region | Area (km2) | Population | Capital |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bari | 70,088 | 719,512 | Bosaso |
| Nugal | 26,180 | 392,697 | Garowe |
| Mudug | 72,933 | 717,863 | Galkayo |
| Galguduud | 46,126 | 569,434 | Dusmareb |
| Hiran | 31,510 | 520,685 | Beledweyne |
| Middle Shabelle | 22,663 | 516,036 | Jowhar |
| Banaadir | 370 | 1,650,227 | Mogadishu |
| Lower Shabelle | 25,285 | 1,202,219 | Barawa |
| Bakool | 26,962 | 367,226 | Xuddur |
| Bay | 35,156 | 792,182 | Baidoa |
| Gedo | 60,389 | 508,405 | Garbahaarreey |
| Middle Juba | 9,836 | 362,921 | Bu'aale |
| Lower Juba | 42,876 | 489,307 | Kismayo |
| Claimed region | Area (km2) | Population | Capital |
|---|---|---|---|
| Awdal | 21,374 | 673,263 | Borama |
| Woqooyi Galbeed | 28,836 | 1,242,003 | Hargeisa |
| Togdheer | 38,663 | 721,363 | Burao |
| Sanaag | 53,374 | 544,123 | Erigavo |
| Sool | 25,036 | 327,428 | Las Anod |
Kumpoto kwa Somalia pasono kuli vigaŵa viŵiri, Puntland (iyo yikujiwona kuti ni boma lakujiyimira palekha) na Somaliland (iyo yikujiyimira yekha kweni njambura kuzomerezgeka). Mu chigaŵa chapakati cha Somalia, Galmudug ni chigaŵa chinyake icho chili kumwera kwa Puntland. Chigaŵa cha Jubaland, icho chili kumwera kwa charu ichi, ndicho ntchigaŵa chachinayi mu charu ichi. Mu 2014, boma liphya la Southwestern Somalia nalo likapangika. Mu Epulero 2015, ŵakaŵaso na ungano wa umo ŵangapangira chigaŵa chiphya cha Central Regions.
Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Somalia yili na mulimo wa kusankha chiŵelengero na mphaka za vyaru vya ku Somalia.[62][63]
Location
Charu cha Somalia chili kumafumiro gha dazi na Kenya, kumpoto na Gulf of Aden, kumafumiro gha dazi na Guardafui Channel na Indian Ocean, ndipo kumanjiliro gha dazi na Ethiopia. Charu ichi chikuyowoya kuti chili na mphaka na Djibouti kwizira mu chigaŵa cha Somaliland kumpoto kwa charu ichi. Chigaŵa ichi chili pakati pa latitude 2°S na 12°N, kweniso longitude 41° na 52°E. Charu ichi chili pa malo ghawemi chomene pa mulomo wa Bab el-Mandeb, uko kukunjira Nyanja Yiswesi na Suez Canal.[1][64]
Waters
Chilumba cha Somalia chili na mtunda wa makilomita 3,333. Malo agha ghali na mapiri ghatali, mapiri ghatali, na mapiri ghatali. Charu ichi chili na malo ghakukwana 637,657 square kilometres (246,201 sq mi) agho ghali na maji 10,320 square kilometres (3,980 sq mi). Malire gha charu cha Somalia ghakukwana makilomita 2,340 (1,450 mi); makilomita 58 (36 mi) mwa agha ghali na Djibouti, makilomita 682 (424 mi) na Kenya, na makilomita 1,626 (1,010 mi) na Ethiopia. Malo agha ghakusazgapo maji gha mu vigaŵa ivyo vili pa mtunda wa makilomita 370.
Chirwa cha Somalia chili na virwa vinandi na virwa vinyake ivyo vili mumphepete mwa nyanja. Virwa ivi ni Bajuni Islands na Saad ad-Din Archipelago.
Habitat
Mu charu cha Somalia muli vyaru vinkhondi na viŵiri: nkhorongo za ku Ethiopia, nkhorongo za kumpoto kwa Zanzibar, nkhorongo za ku nyanja za ku Inhambane, nkhorongo za ku Somalia, nkhorongo za ku Ethiopia, nkhorongo za ku Hobyo, nkhorongo za ku Somalia, nkhorongo za ku East Africa.
Kumpoto kwa charu ichi kuli mapopa ghanandi agho ghakumara yayi. Cikaŵa na usani wa makilomita 12 kumanjiliro gha dazi na makilomita ghaŵiri kumafumiro gha dazi. Para vula yalokwa, makuni na utheka vikusintha na kuŵa vyakumera. Mphepete mwa nyanja iyi muli vyakumera vya ku Ethiopia.
Cal Madow ni phiri ilo lili kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa caru ici. Chilumbachi chili pamtunda wa makilomita angapo kumadzulo kwa mzinda wa Bosaso mpaka kumpoto chakumadzulo kwa Erigavo, chili ndi phiri lalitali kwambiri ku Somalia, Shimbiris, lomwe lili pamtunda wa mamita 2,416 (7,927 ft). Mapiri gha Karkaar agho ghali kumafumiro gha dazi na kumanjiliro gha dazi, nagho ghali mukati mwa nyanja ya Gulf of Aden. Mu vigaŵa vyapakati, mapiri gha kumpoto kwa charu ichi ghali na mapiri ghakunyang'amira na maji ghakukhoma. Ndipo chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Ogo chikunjira mu Haud, malo ghakuŵeta viŵeto.
Ku Somalia kuli milonga yiŵiri pera, Jubba na Shabele, iyo yikwamba mu mapiri gha ku Ethiopia. Milonga iyi yikwenda kumwera, ndipo Jubba wakunjira mu nyanja ya Indian Ocean ku Kismaayo. Nyengo yinyake, mlonga wa Shabele ukafikanga ku nyanja kufupi na Merca, kweni sono ukufika kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Mogadishu. Pamanyuma pake, malo agha ghakaŵa na vyakumera na malo ghakomira pambere ghandaleke kuwoneka mu mapopa gha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Jilib, kufupi na Mlonga wa Jubba.[64]
Environment
Charu cha Somalia chili na vyakumera vinandi chomene. Wupu wakwamba wakovwira ŵanthu pa nkhani ya chilengiwa ukaŵa wa Ecoterra Somalia na Somali Ecological Society. Wose ŵaŵiri ŵakawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵamanye makora chilengiwa na kwambiska mapulogiramu ghakovwira ŵanthu pa nkhani ya chilengiwa. Kwambira mu 1971, boma la Siad Barre likamba kulima makuni ghanandi mu caru cose kuti likanizge makuni ghanandi gha mchenga agho ghakaŵa pafupi kubira mu matawuni, misewu, na minda. Kuzakafika mu 1988, mahekitala 265 pa mahekitala 336 agho ghakeneranga kuzengeka ghakaŵa kuti ghazengeka. Mu 1986, Ecoterra International yikakhazikiska wupu wakuwona vya vinyama na vyakumera (Wildlife Rescue, Research and Monitoring Centre), uwo ukaŵa na cilato ca kovwira ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye umo ŵangapwelelera vyamoyo. Mu 1989, boma la Somalia likadumura kuti likolerane na CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora).
Pamanyuma, Fatima Jibrell, uyo wakaŵa wakuvikilira malo ku Somalia, wakambiska upharazgi wakovwira kuti makuni ghakale gha makuni gha akasiya agho ghali kumpoto kwa Somalia ghaleke kunangika. Makuni agha, agho ghakukhala vyaka 500, ghakadumulikanga kuti ghapangire makara agho ghakaŵa ghakuzirwa comene mu caru ca Arabia, uko ŵanthu ŵa ku Bedouin ŵakagomezganga kuti khuni la akasiya ndakupatulika.[65][66][67] Ndipouli, nangauli ng'anjo njakudura yayi ndipo yikukhorweska munthu, kweni kanandi yikupangiska kuti makuni ghaphye na kuzgoka mapopa. Kuti ŵamazge suzgo ili, Jibrell pamoza na wupu wa Horn of Africa Relief and Development Organization (Horn Relief; sono Adeso), uwo wakambiska na kulongozga, ŵakasambizga ŵawukirano ŵanyake kuti ŵasambizge ŵanthu za uheni uwo ungaŵapo para munthu wapanga malasha. Mu 1999, wupu wa Horn Relief ukalongozga ungano wa mtende mu chigaŵa cha Puntland, kumpoto kwa Somalia, kuti ŵamazge nkhondo za makara. Chifukwa cha ivyo Jibrell wakachitanga, boma la Puntland likakanizga ŵanthu kuguliska makala mu 2000. Kufuma waka pa nyengo iyi, boma likakanizga vyakurya ivi, ndipo vikapangiska kuti vyakurya ivi vichepeko na 80 peresenti. Mu 2002, Jibrell wakapokera chawanangwa chakuchemeka Goldman Environmental Prize chifukwa cha kulimbana na kunangika kwa chilengiwa. Mu 2008, wakapokera chawanangwa cha National Geographic Society/Buffett Foundation Award for Leadership in Conservation.
Pamanyuma pa tsunami uyo wakacitika mu Disembala 2004, pakaŵaso ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakayowoya kuti apo nkhondo ya mukati mu caru ya ku Somalia yikambanga kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1980, mtunda utali na wakutali comene wa ku Somalia ukaŵa malo ghakusungiramo viswaswa. Mafunde ghakuru agho ghakatimba kumpoto kwa Somalia pamanyuma pa tsunami, ghakwenera kuti ghakatumphuska matani ghanandi gha vyakuponthora vya nyukiliya na vyakofya ivyo vikwenera kuti vikaŵikika mu charu ichi na makampani gha ku vyaru vinyake.
Gulu la European Green Party likati lawona ivyo vikachitika, likapeleka ku ŵapharazgi na ku Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Europe mu Strasbourg, tumakope twa mapangano agho ghakalembeka na makampani ghaŵiri gha ku Europe, kampani ya ku Italy ya ku Switzerland yakucemeka Achair Partners, na kampani ya ku Italy yakucemeka Progresso, pamoza na ŵalongozgi ŵa pulezidenti wa Somalia, Ali Mahdi Mohamed, kuti ŵapokere matani 10 gha viswaswa vya poyizoni mu mtengo wa madola 80 miliyoni (panthazi pake pafupifupi mapaundi 60 miliyoni).
Lipoti la United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) likulongora kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala kufupi na tawuni ya Hobyo na Benadir, ku mpoto kwa nyanja ya Indian Ocean, ŵakusuzgika na matenda gha radiation sickness. UNEP yikusazgirapo kuti vinthu ivyo vikucitika mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Somalia ni vyakofya comene ku malo agha kweniso ku cigaŵa ca kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa.[68]
Climate
Cifukwa cakuti Somalia yili pafupi na equator, nyengo yikusintha yayi. Nyengo zinyake mu charu ichi mukuŵa chithukivu, ndipo nyengo zinyake kukuwa vula. Pa zuŵa, matenthedwe ghakujumpha 30°C mpaka 40°F. Mwaciyelezgero, mu mwezi wa Epulero, mu Mogadishu, muhanya wakuzizima comene ni 28 mpaka 32 °C. Ku Berbera, kumpoto cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, kukuŵa kotcha chomene, ndipo kufuma mu Juni m'paka Seputembala, kukuŵa kotcha chomene. Pa caru cose, zuŵa lililose para maji ghamara ghakuŵa pakati pa 15 na 30 °C. Nyengo yikuru chomene yili kumpoto kwa Somalia, uko mu Julayi mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja, nyengo zinyake kuzizima kwake kukujumpha 45 °C. Ku chigaŵa ichi, chithukivu chikuŵa pa 40 peresenti namise mpaka 85 peresenti usiku. Mwakupambana na vyaru vinyake ivyo vili pa latitude iyi, ku Somalia nyengo njakomira comene kumpoto ca kumafumiro gha dazi na pakati pa caru. Ku chigaŵa cha kumpoto na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa charu ichi, kukulokwa maji ghachoko chomene pa chaka. Ndipouli, kumpoto ca kumanjiliro gha dazi na kumwera ca kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa caru ici, kukulokwa vula yinandi comene, pafupifupi 510 m'paka 610 mm pa caka. Nangauli mu vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja mukuŵa chithukivu kweniso maji ghakututuka chaka chose, kweni mu vigaŵa vya mukati mwa charu mukuŵa chithukivu kweniso moto.
Pali nyengo zinayi zikuruzikuru izo zikupangiska kuti viŵeto vilimenge na kulima. Kufuma mu Disembala m'paka mu Malichi, nyengo ya Jilal ndiyo njakusuzga comene. Nyengo yikuru ya vula, yakucemeka Gu, yikwamba mu Epulero mpaka Juni. Nyengo iyi yikulongora kuti nyengo ya mphepo ya kumwera kwa charu ichi yikwiza, ndipo yikovwira kuti malo gha viŵeto ghaŵe ghawemi, chomenechomene mu chigaŵa chapakati. Kufuma mu Julayi m'paka Seputembala, nyengo yachiŵiri ya chilangalanga yikuchemeka Xagaa. Nyengo ya chivula iyo yikuŵa yifupi comene ni Dayr, ndipo yikumalira mu Okutobala m'paka Disembala. Nyengo ya tangambili iyo yili pakati pa nyengo ziŵiri izi (Okutobala-Novembala na Malichi-Meyi) njakutenthera ndiposo njakuthukira.[64][64]
Wildlife
Ku Somalia kuli vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana chifukwa cha malo na nyengo. Viyuni vinyake ivyo vichalipo ni cheetah, nkhalamu, giraffe, babuini, serval, njovu, nkhumba za mu thengere, mbuzi, ibex, kudu, dik-dik, oribi, mbunda ya ku Somalia, mbunda ya ku Reedbuck na Grévy, njovu ya shrew, rock hyrax, golden mole na antilope. Kweniso kuli ngamila zinandi.
Ku Somalia kuli viyuni vya mitundu pafupifupi 727. Pa vyamoyo ivi, vinkhondi na viŵiri ni vyamoyo vya pa caru cose, cimoza ni vyamoyo ivyo ŵanthu ŵakanjizga, ndipo cimoza ni vyamoyo ivyo vikusangika bweka yayi. Pa caru cose pali vyamoyo 14 ivyo vili pangozi. Viyuni ivyo vikusangika mu charu ichi ni nkhunda ya ku Somalia, Alaemon hamertoni (Alaudidae), Lesser Hoopoe-Lark, Heteromirafra archeri (Alaudidae), Archer's Lark, Mirafra ashi, Ash's Bushlark, Mirafra somalica (Alaudidae), Somali Bushlark, Spizocorys obbiensis (Alaudidae), Obbia Lark, Carduelis johannis (Fringillidae), na Warsangli Linnet.
Malo agha ndigho ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuloŵera somba za mu nyanja nga ni tuna. Pa malo agha pali somba zinandi na vyakumera vinyake. Viyuni vinyake ivyo vikusangika mu charu ichi ni Cirrhitichthys randalli (Cirrhitidae), Symphurus fuscus (Cynoglossidae), Parapercis simulata OC (Pinguipedidae), Cociella somaliensis OC (Platycephalidae), na Pseudochromis melanotus (Pseudochromidae).
Pali vyamoyo pafupifupi 235 vya mitundu yakupambanapambana. Pa ŵanthu aŵa, pafupifupi hafu ŵakukhala kumpoto. Viyuni vinyake ivyo vikukhala mu Somalia ni Hughes' saw-scaled viper, Southern Somali garter snake, racer (Platyceps messanai), diadem snake (Spalerosophis josephscorteccii), the Somali sand boa, the angled worm lizard, a spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastyx macfadyeni), Lanza's agama, a gecko (Hemidactylus granchii), the Somali semaphore gecko, and a sand lizard (Mesalina or Eremias). Njoka yakuchemeka colubrid (Aprosdoketophis andreonei) na njoka yakuchemeka Haacke-Greer's skink (Haackgreerius miopus) ni vyamoyo ivyo vikukhala mu charu ichi.[69]
Ndale na boma
Boma la Somalia ni boma la demokilase. Purezidenti wa Somalia ndiye mutu wa boma ndi mkulu wa asilikali a Somalia ndipo amasankha Prime Minister kuti achite ntchito ngati mutu wa boma.
Nyumba ya Malamulo ya ku Somalia ni nyumba ya mafumu ya chalo cha Somalia. Wupu Wakulongozga uwo uli na nyumba ziŵiri, ni Nyumba ya Wupu Wakulongozga (low house) na Senate (upper house). Nyumba ya malango yikusora pulezidenti, pulezidenti wa nyumba ya malango, na madirector. Kweniso lili na mazaza ghakuzomerezga malango na kuŵika veto.
Boma la Somalia likulongosoreka na Dango lakwamba la boma la Somalia. Pa 1 Ogasiti 2012 wupu wa National Constitutional Assembly ku Mogadishu ndiwo ukalemba chikalata ichi. Likovwira kuti boma la Germany liŵe na mazaza.
Makhoti gha mu vyaru ivi ghali na makhoti ghatatu: Khoti la Malango, makhoti gha boma na gha boma. Wupu wa Judicial Service Commission uwo uli na ŵanthu 9, ndiwo ukusora munthu waliyose wa mu wupu uwu.
Dango la Somalia lili kufuma ku malango ghatatu: malango gha boma, malango gha Chisilamu, na malango gha mitheto.
Pamanyuma pakuti Somalia yabwanganduka mu 1991, pakaŵavya kukolerana pakati pa boma la Somaliland, ilo likati ni caru, na boma la Somalia.[70][71]
Foreign relations
Boma la Somalia likwendeskeka na pulezidenti uyo ni mulongozgi wa boma, nduna yikuru iyo ni mulongozgi wa boma, ndipo ofesi ya munthavi ya boma ndiyo yikwendeska vinthu vya mu charu ichi.[72]
Kuyana na ndime 54 ya dango la chalo, kugaŵikana kwa mazaza na vyakukhumbikwa pakati pa boma la Somalia na vyaru ivyo vili mu boma la Somalia vikudumbiskana na kukolerana na boma la Somalia na vyaru ivyo vili mu boma la Somalia, padera pa nkhani zakukhwaskana na vyaru vya kuwaro, kuvikilira chalo, wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia, na ndyali. Ndime 53 yikulongosoraso kuti boma la Germany likudumbiskana na boma la Germany pa nkhani zikuruzikuru zakukhwaskana na mapangano gha caru cose, kusazgapo nkhani zakukhwaskana na malonda gha ku caru cinyake, vya ndalama na mapangano. Boma la Germany likuŵa paubwezi na maboma ghanyake gha caru cose. Vinyake mwa vyaru ivi ni Djibouti, Ethiopia, Egypt, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Turkey, Italy, United Kingdom, Denmark, France, United States, People's Republic of China, Japan, Russian Federation na South Korea.
Kuonjezera apo, Somalia ili na maofesi gha vyaru vinyake. Paliso maboma na mawupu gha vyaru vinyake mu Mogadishu, msumba ukuru wa charu ichi.
Charu cha Somalia chili mu wupu wa United Nations, African Union na Arab League. Mu 1969, charu ichi chikaŵa yumoza wa awo ŵakambiska wupu wa Islamic Cooperation Organization. Maboma ghanyake agho ghali mu wupu uwu ni African Development Bank, Group of 77, Intergovernmental Authority on Development, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, International Civil Aviation Organization, International Development Association, International Finance Corporation, Non-Aligned Movement, World Federation of Trade Unions na World Meteorological Organization.[73]
Military
Gulu la ŵasilikari la Somalia (SAF) ni gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Somalia. Ŵakulongozgeka na pulezidenti uyo ni mulara wa ŵasilikari ndipo ŵali na mazaza kuti ŵavikilire muwuso wa caru, wanangwa wawo, na malo ghawo.
Pakwamba, ŵasilikari ŵa boma ŵakaŵa ŵasilikari ŵa nkhondo, ŵasilikari ŵa ku nyanja, ŵasilikari ŵa ku mphepo, ŵapolisi, na ŵasilikari ŵa boma. Pakati pajumpha nyengo kufuma apo charu ichi chikapokera wanangwa, chikaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵanandi chomene pa charu chose. Nkhondo ya mukati mu caru yikacitika mu 1991, ndipo yikapangiska kuti gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Somalia lileke kugwira nchito.
Mu 2004, ndondomeko ya kuzenga ŵasilikari yikanjira m'malo na kukhazikiska boma la Transitional Federal Government (TFG). Gulu la ŵasilikari la Somalia sono likulaŵilirika na Unduna wa vya Vyankhondo wa boma la Somalia, ilo likapangika pakati pa 2012. Mu Janyuwale 2013, boma la Somalia likambaso kuzenga ofesi ya wupu wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu ku Mogadishu, ndipo likasintha zina la ofesi iyi kuŵa National Intelligence and Security Agency (NISA). Boma la Somaliland na la Puntland lili na mawupu gha ŵapolisi na ŵaboma.[74]
Human rights
Ŵanalume na ŵanakazi awo ŵakugonana na ŵanalume ŵanyawo ŵakuŵa ŵambura kuzomerezgeka na dango.
Pa Okutobala 3, 2020, mulaŵiliri wa UN wakuwona vya wanangwa wa ŵanthu wakadandawura chifukwa cha boma la Somalia kuleka kufiska ivyo likukhumba. Kuyana na ivyo mulaŵiliri wa kafukufuku uyu wakasanga, boma la Somalia likuleka kufiska ivyo likakhumbanga kuvikilira wanangwa wa ŵanthu pa nkhani ya vyachuma, umoyo wa ŵanthu na mitheto.[75]
Chuma
Kuyana na CIA na Central Bank of Somalia, nangauli ku Somalia kuli vivulupi, kweni chalo ichi chili na chuma chakukhora yayi, ndipo chikuthemba pa viŵeto, makampani ghakwendeska ndalama na ma telefoni. Cifukwa ca kusoŵa kwa maukaboni gha boma ndiposo nkhondo iyo yikacitika sonosono apa, nchakusuzga kumanya ukuru wa cuma panji umo cikukulira. Mu 1994, wupu wa CIA ukati caru cikaŵa na ndalama zakukwana madola 3.3 biliyoni. Mu 2001, ndalama izi zikaŵa pafupifupi madola 4.1 biliyoni. Kufika mu 2009, CIA yikati GDP yikakura kufika pa $5.731 biliyoni, ndipo yikaghanaghananga kuti yikurenge pa 2.6%. Kuyana na lipoti la wupu wa British Chambers of Commerce wa mu 2007, nchito ya ŵanthu ŵekha yikakura, comenecomene mu nchito ya mauteŵeti. Mwakupambana na nyengo iyo nkhondo yikaŵa kuti yindacitike, apo maofesi ghanandi gha boma na vyamalonda vikaŵa mu mawoko gha boma, maboma ghakaŵa na ndalama zinandi chomene mu vyamalonda. Munthu munyake wakusanda vya cuma, zina lake Peter Leeson, wakati cifukwa ca kusazgikira kwa vinthu mu caru ici ni dango la cikaya la ku Somalia.[76]
Kuyana na banki ya ku Somalia, GDP ya munthu yumoza mu charu ichi mu 2012 yikaŵa $226, ndipo yikakhira pachoko kufuma mu 1990. Ŵanthu pafupifupi 43% ŵakukhala na ndalama zakuchepera dola limoza pa zuŵa, ndipo ŵanthu pafupifupi 24% ŵakukhala mu matawuni ndipo 54% ŵakukhala ku mizi.
Chuma cha ku Somalia chikupangika na vinthu vya mazuŵa ghano kweniso vya kale. Ku Somalia ndiko kuli ngamila zinandi chomene pa charu chose. Kuyana na banki yikuru ya ku Somalia, ŵanthu pafupifupi 80 pa 100 ŵali na viŵeto vya mbuzi, mberere, ngamila na ng'ombe. Ŵalendo aŵa ŵakusangaso vyakumera vinyake kuti ŵasange ndalama.[77]
Agriculture
Vyaru ni vyakurya vyakuzirwa comene mu Somalia. Vinthu ivi vikupangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵagwire nchito. Viŵeto vikupangiska kuti GDP yiŵe pafupifupi 40 peresenti, ndipo vyakufumira ku vyaru vinyake vikupangiska kuti vyakurya ivi vipelekeke ku vyaru vinyake. Vinthu vinyake ivyo ŵakuguliska ni somba, makara, na nthochi. Kuyana na banki yikuru ya ku Somalia, katundu uyo wakunjira mu caru ici wakukwana madola 460 miliyoni pa caka. Vinthu ivyo vikuguliskika ku vyaru vinyake, ivyo vikukwana pafupifupi madola 270 miliyoni pa caka, vikuluska ivyo vikaguliskikanga pambere nkhondo yindambe. Boma la Somalia lili na suzgo la ndalama pafupifupi madola 190 miliyoni pa chaka, kweni ndalama izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakutumizga ku vyaru vinyake zikuluska ndalama izi.
Ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia ŵakulimbana na boma la Australia chifukwa chakuti lili pafupi na chirwa cha Arabia. Pa cifukwa ici, vyaru vya ku Gulf vyamba kupanga ndalama mu caru ici, ndipo Saudi Arabia yikuzenga malo ghakuliskako viŵeto ndipo United Arab Emirates yikugura malo ghakurughakuru. Charu cha Somalia ndicho chikupanga lubani na mure.[78]
Makampani gha vyakurya agho ghakupanga vyakurya, ghakupanga 10% ya GDP ya Somalia. Kuyana na wupu wakuwona vya malonda na vyamakampani ku Somalia, makampani gha ndege ghakujumpha 6 ghakupeleka maulendo gha ndege ku vyaru vinyake, nga ni Daallo Airlines, Jubba Airways, African Express Airways, East Africa 540, Central Air na Hajara. Mu 2008, boma la Puntland likasaina phangano la madola mamiliyoni ghanandi na Lootah Group wa ku Dubai, gulu la vyamalonda ilo likugwira ntchito ku Middle East na Africa. Mwakuyana na phangano ili, cigaŵa cakwamba ca ndalama izi cili na ndalama zakukwana 170 million Dhs. Wupu wa Bosaso Airport Company ndiwo uzamunozga chiŵanja cha ndege ichi kuti chikolerane na fundo za pa charu chose.
Pambere nkhondo ya pawenenawene yindambe mu 1991, makampani 53 gha boma ghakurughakuru, gha pakati na ghakurughakuru ghakaleka kugwira nchito. Ndipouli, cifukwa ca ndalama zinandi izo ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakugwiliskira nchito, maofesi ghanandi gha ku Somalia ghajulika ndipo ghanyake ghapangika. Vinthu ivi ni vyakusungiramo somba na vyakusungiramo nyama mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto, kweniso mafakitale pafupifupi 25 mu msumba wa Mogadishu, agho ghakupanga makaroni, maji gha mafuta, vyakununkhira, mathumba gha pulasitiki, salu, vikumba na vikumba vya nyama, munkhwala wakugeziskira na sopo, aluminiyamu, matiresi na makuseŵe gha visulo, maboti ghakuloŵera somba, kupakira vinthu, na kupanga malibwe. Mu 2004, mu tawuni iyi mukajulikaso fakitare ya Coca-Cola ya mtengo wa madola 8.3 miliyoni. Makampani ghanyake gha vyaru vyakupambanapambana nga ni General Motors na Dole Fruit, nagho ghakasanga ndalama mu vyaru ivi.[79]
Monetary and payment system
Banki ya ku Somalia ndiyo yikulaŵilira ndalama mu Somalia. Pa nkhani ya ndalama, iyo wakugwira nchito ya kupanga na kufiska ndondomeko ya ndalama.
Cifukwa ca kuleka kugomezga ndalama za ku Somalia, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira nchito dola ya ku America. Nangauli ndalama za ku Somalia zikwenda pa dollar, kweni ndalama izi zikukwera chomene, comenecomene pa malonda gha ndalama zicoko. Kuyana na banki iyi, vinthu ivi vizamumara para iyo wayamba kulamulira ndalama na kunjira mu malo mwa ndalama za boma.
Nangauli boma la Somalia likaŵavya boma lakulamulira ndalama kwa vyaka vyakujumpha 15 kufuma apo nkhondo yikambira mu 1991 m'paka apo boma la Somalia likambiraso kulamulira mu 2009, kweni ndalama izo likagwiliskiranga ntchito zikwenda makora chomene.
Makampani ghakupeleka ndalama agha (hawalas) ghazgoka makampani ghakurughakuru mu Somalia, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake ŵakupeleka ndalama zakukwana madola 1.6 biliyoni pa chaka. Ŵanandi mwa iwo ŵali mu wupu wa Somali Money Transfer Association (SOMTA), wupu uwo ukwendeska ntchito ya kutumizga ndalama mu charu ichi. Kampani yikuru comene ya ku Somalia ni Dahabshiil, kampani iyo yikugwira nchito ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2,000 mu vyaru 144.[80]
As the reconstituted Central Bank of Somalia fully assumes its monetary policy responsibilities, some of the existing money transfer companies are expected in the near future to seek licenses so as to develop into full-fledged commercial banks. This will serve to expand the national payments system to include formal cheques, which in turn is expected to reinforce the efficacy of the use of monetary policy in domestic macroeconomic management.[81]
Chifukwa chakuti vinthu vikenda makora mu charu ichi, ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakamba kuwelera ku caru cawo kuti ŵazakasange ndalama. Ndalama za ku Somalia zikukwera comene cifukwa ca ndalama za ku caru cinyake. Kuzakafika mu Malichi 2014, ndalama izi zikaŵa kuti zakwera pafupifupi 60 peresenti pakuyaniska na dola ya ku United States. Shilling ya ku Somalia ndiyo yikaŵa yakukhora comene pa ndalama zakupambanapambana zakukwana 175 izo Bloomberg yikaguliskanga.
Somalia Stock Exchange (SSE) ni msika wa ku Somalia. Bungwe ili likakhazikiskika mu 2012 na Idd Mohamed wa ku Somalia, uyo ni nthumi yachilendo na wachiŵiri wa nthumi ya United Nations. Boma la Somalia likakhazikiska SSE kuti likopere ndalama kufuma ku makampani gha ku Somalia na gha pa caru cose kuti liŵawovwire kunozga vinthu mu Somalia.[82]
Energy and natural resources
Banki ya Caru Cose yikupharazga kuti sono ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugura magesi mu vyaru ivi. Mu vyaru ivi muli kampani yinyake yakuchemeka Somali Energy Company, iyo yikugwira ntchito ya kupanga, kutumizga na kupeleka magesi. Mu 2010, caru ici cikapanga magesi 310 miliyoni na kugwiliskira nchito magesi 288.3 miliyoni, ndipo cikaŵa pa malo 170 na 177, kuyana na CIA.[1]
Boma la Somalia lili na vinthu vinandi vyakuthupi nga ni uranium, iron ore, tin, gypsum, bauxite, mkuwa, mchere na gasi. Wupu wa CIA ukati pali magesi ghakukwana mabiliyoni 5,663.
Palije ukaboni wakuti ku Somalia kuli mafuta ghanandi. Wupu wa CIA ukuti m'paka mu 2011, mu charu ichi mulije mafuta ghakukwana, apo wupu wa UNCTAD ukuti mafuta ghanandi agho ghalipo mu Somalia ghali kumpoto kwa charu ichi, mu chigaŵa cha Somaliland. Gulu la mafuta ilo lili na katundu mu Sydney, Range Resources, likati chigaŵa cha Puntland kumpoto kwa charu ichi chili na mafuta ghakukwana mabarali 5 biliyoni (790×106 m3) m'paka 10 biliyoni (1.6×109 m3), pakuyaniska na mabarali 6.7 biliyoni gha mafuta gha mu Sudan. Chifukwa cha ivyo vikachitika, boma likakhazikiska wupu wa Somalia Petroleum Corporation.
Kuumaliro wa m'ma 1960, ŵasayansi ŵa UN ŵakasanga kuti ku Somalia kuli usambazi ukuru wa uranium na vinthu vinyake vyakununkhira. Ŵasayansi ŵakaghanaghananga kuti malo agha ghakaŵa ghakujumpha 25 peresenti ya malo ghakukwana matani 800,000 gha uranium agho ghakasangika pa charu chose. Mu 1984, IUREP Orientation Phase Mission ku Somalia yikati caru ici cikaŵa na matani 5,000 gha uranium reasonably assured resources (RAR), matani 11,000 gha uranium estimated additional resources (EAR) mu calcrete deposits, kweniso matani 0150,000 gha uranium speculative resources (SR) mu sandstone na calcrete deposits. Somalia yikazgoka caru cikuru ico cikupanga uranium, ndipo makampani gha ku America, UAE, Italy na Brazil ghakakwesananga kuti ghapoke. Natural Link Resources yili na chigaŵa mu chigaŵa chapakati, ndipo Kilimanjaro Capital yili na chigaŵa mu chigaŵa cha Amsas-Coriole-Afgoi (ACA), icho chikusazgapo kupenja uranium.
Trans-National Industrial Electricity and Gas Company ni kampani ya vya magesi iyo yili ku Mogadishu. Wakawovwira makampani ghanayi ghakuru gha ku Somalia gha malonda, vya ndalama, kuvikilira na kwendera mauthenga gha pa foni. Pakwamba, kampani iyi yikaŵa na ndalama zakukwana madola 1 biliyoni ndipo yikambiska ntchito ya Somalia Peace Dividend Project.
Kuyana na Banki yikuru ya Somalia, apo chalo ichi chikuluta ku nthowa yakuzengaso, chuma cha chalo ichi chikulindizgika kuti chizamukwaniska waka ivyo vikaŵako pambere nkhondo yindambe, kweniso kuti chizamukulirakulira chifukwa cha vinthu vyakuthupi vyambura kugwiliskirika nchito.[77]
Telecommunications and media
Nkhondo yikati yayamba, makampani ghanyake ghakwendeska mawupu ghakamba kupanga mawupu agha. Makampani agha ghakupokera ndalama kufuma ku ŵamalonda ŵa ku Somalia na wovwiri wakufuma ku China, South Korea na Europe. Ŵalendo ŵangatumizga ndalama (nga umo ŵakuchitira na Dahabshiil) na mabanki ghanyake pa mafoni, kweniso ŵangasanga Intaneti.
Pamanyuma pa kukolerana na makampani ghanyake nga ni Sprint, ITT na Telenor, makampani agha sono ghakupeleka mauthenga ghapachanya kweniso ghakudura chomene mu Africa. Makampani agha ghakwendeskaso ma telefoni mu misumba yose ya ku Somalia. Pasono pali ma telefoni pafupifupi 25 pa ŵanthu 1,000, ndipo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugwiliskira ntchito telefoni kuluska mu vyaru vinyake. Makampani gha telecommunication gha ku Somalia ghakumanyikwa ni Golis Telecom Group, Hormuud Telecom, Somafone, Nationlink, Netco, Telcom na Somali Telecom Group. Hormuud Telecom yekha ndiyo wakupeleka ndalama pafupifupi madola 40 miliyoni pa caka. Nangauli pali mphindano, kweni mu 2005, ŵabwezi ŵa vyamaseŵera aŵa ŵakasazga phangano lakuti ŵaŵikengepo mtengo wa vinthu ivyo ŵakuguliska, kuŵawovwira kuti ŵalutilire kukhozga na kusazgirako maunyoro ghawo, kweniso kuti ŵaleke kuthera pa mphindano.
Kugwiliskira nchito ndalama mu vyakupharazga ni cimanyikwiro cakuti cuma ca Somalia cikulutilira kukura nangauli mu vigaŵa vinyake muli nkhondo.[83]
Televizioni ya boma ya Somalia ndiyo yikupharazga pa TV. Pakati pajumpha vyaka 20, siteshoni iyi yikambaso pa Epulero 4, 2011. Wupu wa Radio Mogadishu nawo ukupeleka mauthenga kufuma ku msumba uwu. TV ya ku Somaliland na Puntland TV na Radio zikufuma ku vigaŵa vya kumpoto.
Kweniso, ku Somalia kuli mawayilesi ghanandi na mawayilesi. Vinyake mwa vyaru ivi ni Horn Cable Television na Universal TV. Manyuzipepara gha Xog Doon, Xog Ogaal, na Horyaal Sports ghakupharazga mu tawuni iyi. Kweniso pali manyuzipepara ghanandi agho ghakulemba nkhani za mu charu ichi, nga ni Garowe Online, Wardheernews, na Puntland Post.
Chigaŵa cha pa Intaneti (country code top-level domain, ccTLD) cha Somalia ni.so. Pa Novembala 1, 2010 yikambaso kugwira ntchito. Boma la Japan ndilo likulemba makalata agha.
Pa Malichi 22, 2012, nduna za boma la Somalia nazo zikakolerana na dango lakuyowoya vya mawupu. Ndondomeko iyi yikovwira kuti paŵe wupu wakuwona vya mawupu gha pa caru cose pa nkhani ya kwimba na kwimba.
Mu Novembala 2013, pamanyuma pa Memorandum of Understanding iyo yikalembeka na Emirates Post mu Epulero chaka chenechichi, Unduna wa vya Makalata na Mafoni ukazengaso ofesi ya ku Somalia Postal Service (Somali Post). Mu Okutobala 2014, ofesi iyi yikambaso kupeleka makalata kufuma ku vyaru vinyake. Ndondomeko ya kutumizga makalata iyi yikunozgekera mu vigaŵa vyose 18 vya mu charu ichi.[84]
Tourism
Ku Somalia kuli malo ghanandi agho ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kuluta, nga ni malo ghakusungirako vinthu vyakale, milyango ya nyanja, vimaji, mapiri, na malo ghakutowa. Ntchito ya kwendakwenda yikulongozgeka na Unduna wa vya Ulendo. Vigaŵa vya Puntland na Somaliland vili na maofesi ghawo ghakwendakwenda. Bungwe la Tourism Association la ku Somalia (SOMTA) likupeleka ulongozgi ku ŵanthu ŵa mu charu ichi.[85] Mu Malichi 2015, Unduna wa Vyakwendakwenda na Vinyama wa ku South West State ukati ukukhumba kukhazikiska malo ghanyake ghakusungirako nyama. Boma la United States likucenjezga ŵalendo kuti ŵaleke kuluta ku Somalia.
Vinyake ivyo ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kuwona ni mphanji za Laas Geel izo zili na vinthu vyakuzengeka kufuma ku miyala; mapiri gha Cal Madow, Golis Mountains, na Ogo Mountains; maji gha Iskushuban na Lamadaya; Hargeisa National Park, Jilib National Park, Kismayo National Park, na Lag Badana National Park.
Transport
Misewu ya ku Somalia yili na utali wa makilomita 22,100. Mu 2000, misewu ya makilomita 2,608 yikaŵa ya pawaro ndipo makilomita 19,492 yikaŵa yambura pawaro. Msewu wa makilomita 750 (470 mi) ukukumana na matawuni ghakuru gha kumpoto kwa charu, nga ni Bosaso, Galkayo na Garowe, na matawuni gha kumwera.
Boma la Somalia Civil Aviation Authority (SOMCAA) ni boma la Somalia ilo likuwona vya ndege. Pamanyuma pa nyengo yitali yakulamulirika na wupu wa Civil Aviation Caretaker Authority for Somalia (CACAS), wupu wa SOMCAA ukwenera kuwusa malo gha mu Somalia m'paka pa 31 Disembala 2013.
Ku Somalia kuli ma eyapoti 62, ndipo 7 mwa ma eyapoti agha ghali na misewu. Pa malo agha, ghanayi ghali na misewu ya mamita ghakujumpha 3,047 (9,997 ft); ghaŵiri ghali pakati pa mamita 2,438 na 3,047 (7,999 na 9,997 ft) ndipo limoza lili na mamita 1,524 m'paka 2,437 (5,000 m'paka 7,995 ft). Pali ma eyapoti 55 agho ghalije malo ghakukwelera. Yimoza yili na mtunda wa mamita ghakujumpha 3,047; zinayi zili pakati pa mamita 2,438 na 3,047 mu utali; makumi ghaŵiri ghali na mtunda wa mamita 1,524 mpaka 2,437; makumi ghaŵiri na ghanayi ghali na mtunda wa mamita 914 mpaka 1,523; ndipo ghankhondi na limoza ghali pasi pa mamita 914. Malo ghakurughakuru gha ndege mu chalo ichi ni Aden Adde International Airport mu Mogadishu, Hargeisa International Airport mu Hargeisa, Kismayo Airport mu Kismayo, Baidoa Airport mu Baidoa, na Bender Qassim International Airport mu Bosaso.
Ndege ya Somali Airlines yikakhazikiskika mu chaka cha 1964. Gulu ili likamara kugwira nchito mu nyengo ya nkhondo. Ndipouli, boma la Somalia ilo likambaso kuwusa likamba kunozgekera mu 2012 kuti ndege iyi yikwambireso kugwira ntchito, ndipo ndege yakwamba ya Somali Airlines yikeneranga kupelekeka kuumaliro wa Disembala 2013. Kuyana na wupu wakuwona vya malonda na vyamalonda wa ku Somalia, malo agho ghakaŵa ghambura ntchito chifukwa cha kujara kwa ndege iyi ghazuzgika na ndege zinyake za ku Somalia. Makampani gha ndege ghakujumpha ghankhondi na limoza ghakupeleka maulendo gha ndege ku vyaru vinyake, nga ni Daallo Airlines, Jubba Airways, African Express Airways, East Africa 540, Central Air na Hajara.
Pakuti ku Somalia kuli nyanja yitali chomene pa charu chose, kuli maboma ghanandi. Malo ghakwendeskera vinthu pa nyanja ghali mu misumba ya Mogadishu, Bosaso, Berbera, Kismaayo na Merca. Paliso sitima yinyake ya pa nyanja. Wakapangika mu 2008, ndipo wakwendeska katundu.[1]
Demographics
| Population[86][87] | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Million | ||
| 1950 | 2.3 | ||
| 2000 | 9.0 | ||
| 2021 | 17.1 | ||
Ku Somalia kulije maukaboni ghakugomezgeka ghakukhwaskana na unandi wa ŵanthu. Charu ichi chikaŵa na ŵanthu pafupifupi 17.1 miliyoni mu 2021; unandi wa ŵanthu kuyana na kalembera wa 1975 ukaŵa 3.3 miliyoni. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakachitika mu 2013 na 2014 na wupu wa United Nations Population Fund, wakalongora kuti mu charu ichi muli ŵanthu 12,316,895.
Pafupifupi ŵanthu 85 pa ŵanthu 100 awo ŵakukhala mu chigaŵa ichi mba fuko la Chisomali. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakakhalanga mu vigaŵa vyakupambanapambana, nga ni vigaŵa vya viŵeto, maufumu, mafumu, na misumba. Nkhondo ya mukati mu vyaka vya m'ma 1990 yikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Somalia ŵafumemo mu charu ichi.
Ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakufuma ku vigaŵa vinyake ŵakufuma ku vigaŵa vinyake. Ŵanyake mwa ŵanthu aŵa mba Bravanese, Bantus, Bajuni, Ŵaetiyopiya (makamaka Ŵaoromo), Ŵayemeni, Ŵaindiya, Ŵaperesiya, Ŵaitaliya, na Ŵabritani. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantus, ndiwo mbanandi chomene mu Somalia, ndipo mbana ŵa ŵazga awo ŵakatoleka ku Africa na ŵamalonda ŵa ku Arabia na Somalia. Mu 1940, ku Italian Somaliland kukaŵa ŵanthu pafupifupi 50,000 ŵa ku Italy. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Europe ŵakafumako ku Somalia ŵakati ŵajiyimira ŵekha.
Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa ku Somalia ŵakukhala mu vyaru vya ku Western, nga ni United States (mwakudumura mu chigaŵa cha Minnesota) na United Kingdom (mwakudumura mu London), Sweden, Canada, Norway, Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Finland, Australia, Switzerland, Austria, na Italy. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia awo ŵakukhala mu vyaru vinyake ŵakunjilirapo comene pa ndyali na vinthu vya mu caru ici. Purezidenti wa Somalia, Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed, wakaŵa wa ku Somalia ndipo wakaŵa na wanangwa wa kukhala ku America.
Ŵanthu ŵa mu Somalia ŵakukura na 1,75% pa caka, ndipo pa ŵanthu 1,000 ŵakubabika 40.87. Chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakubabika mu Somalia ni ŵana 6.08 pa mwanakazi yumoza (kuyana na kafukufuku wa mu 2014), ndipo ni chachinayi pa charu chose, kuyana na CIA World Factbook. Ŵanandi awo ŵakukhala mu malo agha mbawukirano, ndipo ŵali na vyaka 17.7; ŵanthu 44% ŵali na vyaka vyapakati pa 0 na 14, 52.4% ŵali na vyaka vyapakati pa 15 na 64, ndipo 2.3% ŵali na vyaka vyapakati pa 65 na kujumpha apa. Ŵanalume na ŵanakazi ŵakuyana waka.
Palije maukaboni ghakugomezgeka ghakulongora kuti mu Somalia muli misumba yinandi. Ŵakuwona kuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakukhala mu matawuni ghakurughakuru ndipo ŵakukwaniska 4.79% pa chaka. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵa mafuko ghachoko ŵali kusama kufuma ku mizi kuluta ku misumba kufuma apo nkhondo yikambira, comenecomene ku Mogadishu na Kismaayo. Mu 2008, ŵanthu 37.7% mu charu ichi ŵakakhalanga mu matawuni.[1]
Languages
Viyowoyero vya boma mu Somalia ni Chisomali na Chiarabic. Chiyowoyero cha ku Somalia ndicho ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakuyowoya. Chiyowoyero ichi chili mu gulu la viyowoyero vya Cushitic vya mu banja la viyowoyero vya Afro-Asia. ChiSomali ndicho ntchiyowoyero chakumanyikwa chomene pa viyowoyero vyose vya ku Kushiti, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakasambirapo viyowoyero ivi pambere chaka cha 1900 chindafike.[88][89][72][1]
Viyowoyero vya ku Somalia vili kugaŵika mu magulu ghatatu: Northern, Benadir na Maay. Chiyowoyero cha Northern Somali (panji Northern-Central Somali) ndicho chili pakwamba kulemba chiyowoyero ichi. Chinenero cha Benadir (chomwe chimadziwikanso kuti ChiSomali cha m'mphepete mwa nyanja) chimayankhulidwa m'mphepete mwa nyanja ya Benadir, kuchokera ku Adale mpaka kumwera kwa Merca kuphatikizapo Mogadishu, komanso m'dera lakumbuyo. Viyowoyero vya mumphepete mwa nyanja vili na mazgu ghanyake agho mulije mu Chisomali. Chiyowoyero cha Maay chikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵa ku Digil na Mirifle (Rahanweyn) awo ŵakukhala kumwera kwa Somalia. Chinenero cha Benadiri ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene mu charu ichi, mwakupambana na chiyowoyero cha Northern Somali icho chikuyowoyeka chomene mu Somaliland.
Kwa vyaka vinandi, ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito nthowa zakupambanapambana pakulemba chiyowoyero cha Chisomali. Pa vilembo ivi, vilembo vya Chisamariya ndivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito chomene, ndipo ndivyo vikulembeka mu boma la Somalia kufuma waka apo Wupu Wakulongozga ukaŵikapo mu Okutobala 1972. Chilembo ichi chikapangika na nkhwantha ya chiSomali Shire Jama Ahmed chomenechomene pa chiSomali, ndipo chikugwiliskira ntchito vilembo vyose vya chiLatin cha Chingelezi padera pa p, v na z. Padera pa cilembo ca ciLatini ca Ahmed, vilembo vinyake ivyo vyalembeka kwa vilimika vinandi kuti ŵalembe ciyowoyero ca Cisobali ni cilembo ca Ciarabu na ca Wadaad. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵakamba kulemba vilembo vya Osmanya, Borama, na Kaddare.
Padera pa Chisomali, Chiarabu ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene mu Somalia. Ŵanthu ŵakujumpha 2 miliyoni ŵakuyowoya ciyowoyero ici cifukwa ca kukolerana na caru ca Ŵaarabu kwa vyaka vinandi, kweniso cifukwa ca nkhani za mu mabuku gha Cirabu, kweniso kusambizgika vya cisopa.[90][91][92]
Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya na kusambizga Cingelezi. Chiyowoyero ichi chikaŵa chiyowoyero cha boma mu chigaŵa cha British Somaliland ndipo chifukwa cha kusintha kwa vinthu pa charu chose, sono chikuyowoyeka chomene mu Somalia. Chingelezi ndicho chikusambizgika pa ma yunivesite ghanandi mu Somalia, ndipo ni chiyowoyero chimoza mwa viyowoyero vikuruvikuru ivyo mabungwe ghambura vya boma ghakuchita mu Somalia.[93][94][95][96] Chiitaliya chikaŵa chiyowoyero cha boma mu chigaŵa cha Italian Somaliland kweniso mu nyengo ya muwuso wa boma, kweni chikamba kuchepa chomene. Mazuŵa ghano, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakuyowoya mazgu agha, kusazgapo ŵalaraŵalara ŵa boma na ŵanthu ŵakusambira.[90][97]
Viyowoyero vinyake ivyo vikuyowoyeka na ŵanthu ŵachoko ni Bravanese, chiyowoyero icho ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu ŵakuyowoya mu Swahili.
Urban areas
Template:Largest cities of Somalia
Religion
Kuyana na wupu wa Pew Research Center, ŵanthu 99.8 pa 100 ŵaliwose mu Somalia Mbacisilamu.[98]Ŵanandi ŵali mu chisopa cha Sunni na cha Shafi'i. Chisopa cha Sufism, icho ntchisopa cha chisopa cha Chisilamu, nacho chili na ŵanthu ŵanandi awo ŵakutemwa kusopa. Ndondomeko ya boma la Somalia yikulongosora kuti cisopa ca Cisilamu ni cisopa ca boma la Somalia, ndipo dango la Cisilamu la Sharia ndilo likulongozga malango gha caru. Kweniso likusambizga kuti palije dango ilo lingaŵa lakususkana na fundo za Sharia.
Chisopa cha Cisilamu cikanjira mu cigaŵa ici mwaluŵiro comene, apo gulu la Ŵasilamu awo ŵakatambuzgikanga ŵakapenja malo ghakubisamamo kujumpha mu Nyanja Yiswesi mu mphinjika ya Africa cifukwa ca kuciskika na nchimi ya Cisilamu, Muhammad.[99] Ntheura, cisopa ca Ciisilamu cikwenera kuti cikamba mu Somalia pambere cisopa ici cindajinthe misisi mu caru ici.
Kweniso, mu vyaka vinandi ivyo vyajumpha, ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵali kusambizga ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Cisilamu, ndipo ŵanandi ŵa iwo ŵali kusintha chomene masambiro gha Cisilamu mu caru ca Horn of Africa, Arabia, na kunyake. Pakati pa ŵasambizgi aŵa pakaŵa Uthman bin Ali Zayla'i wa ku Zeila, uyo wakalembako buku lakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya chisopa cha Chisilamu.
Chikhristu ntchisopa cha ŵanthu ŵachoko waka ku Somalia, ndipo ŵanthu awo ŵakulondezga chisopa ichi ŵalipo ŵachoko chomene kuluska 0.1% mu 2010. Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti mu Somalia muli Ŵakhristu pafupifupi 1,000. Mu caru cose ici, muli Diocese ya Mogadishu, iyo yikati mu 2004, mu caru ici mukaŵa ŵadokotala ŵa Katolika pafupifupi 100.
Mu 1913, mu nyengo yakwambilira ya muwuso wa boma la Britain, mu vigaŵa vya Somali, mukaŵavya Ŵakhristu. Mu nyengo yeneyiyi, mu Somaliland mukaŵavya ŵapharazgi ŵa Katolika. Mu ma 1970, mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Marx ku Somalia, masukulu agho ghakaŵa gha matchalitchi ghakajalika ndipo ŵamishonale ŵakaŵatuma kukwawo. Kwamba mu 1989, mu caru ici mulije bishopu mulara, ndipo tchalitchi likuru la ku Mogadishu likaparanyika comene pa nyengo ya nkhondo. Mu Disembala 2013, Unduna wa vya Malango na Vyachisopa ukafumiskaso dango lakukanizga vikondwelero vya Chikhristu mu charu ichi.
Kuyana na lipoti la Pew Research Center, mu 2010 ŵanthu ŵachoko waka pa ŵanthu wose ŵa ku Somalia ndiwo ŵakalondezganga visopa. Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa ŵa mitundu yinyake iyo yikaŵa ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa charu ichi. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu ŵakasambira mitheto iyi ku ŵasekuru ŵawo ŵa ku Southeast Africa.
Kweniso, kuyana na kafukufuku wa Pew Research Center, mu 2010 ŵanthu ŵacoko comene pa ŵanthu wose ŵa mu Somalia ŵakaŵa ŵa cisopa ca Ciyuda, Cihindu, Cibuddha, panji ŵa visopa vinyake.[98]
Health
Mpaka apo boma la Somalia likamalira mu 1991, nduna ya vyaumoyo ndiyo yikalongozganga ndyali. Ŵalaraŵalara ŵa munthavi ŵakaŵa na mazaza, kweni vyose vikendanga makora. Boma la Siad Barre, uyo wakaŵa purezidenti wa Somalia, likalekeska ntchito ya udokotala mu 1972. Ndalama zinandi izo boma likagwiliskiranga ntchito pa nkhondo zikapelekeka ku ŵasilikari.
Ndondomeko ya vyaumoyo ya ku Somalia yikaparanyika comene mu nyengo ya nkhondo ya cikaya. Nga umo vikaŵira na vigaŵa vinyake ivyo vikaŵa vya boma kale, ŵapharazgi ŵambura kuzomerezgeka ŵanjira mu malo mwa boma ndipo ŵanjira m'malo mwa boma. Pa nyengo iyi, maofesi ghanandi gha munthavi, maofesi gha munthavi, vipatala, na madokotala ghapangika mu Somalia. Ndalama zakwendeskera maofesi agha ni zicoko comene, ni $5.72 pa ulendo umoza mu vipatala (pa ŵanthu awo ŵalipo 95 peresenti) na $1.89-$3.97 pa ulendo umoza wa pa cipatala na $7.83-$13.95 pa zuŵa mu vipatala vyakwambilira na vyapacanya.
Para tingayaniska nyengo ya 2005 na 2010 na vyaka 50 pambere nkhondo yindambe (1985 na 1990), umoyo ukaŵa utali comene kwa ŵanalume na ŵanakazi. Mwakuyana waka, chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵa chaka chimoza awo ŵali kupokera munkhwala wakulwera nthenda ya nthomba chikakwera kufuma pa 30% mu 1985 kufika pa 40% mu 2000 m'paka mu 2005, ndipo chiŵelengero cha awo ŵali kupokera munkhwala wakulwera nthenda ya chikhoso cha TB chikakwera pafupifupi 20% kufuma pa 31% kufika pa 50% mu nyengo yeneyiyi.[100][101][100][101][100][102][103]
Chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakababika ŵachoko chikakhira kufuma pa 16 pa ŵanthu 1,000 kufika pa 0.3, ndipo pa nyengo yeneyiyi chikachepa na 15%.[100][104] Pakati pa 2005 na 2010, chiŵelengero cha ŵana awo ŵakufwa para ŵababa 1,000 chikakhira kufuma pa 152 kufika pa 109.6.[100][102] Kufwa kwa ŵanakazi pa ŵana 100,000 kukakhira kufuma pa 1,600 pambere nkhondo yindambe mu 1985 m'paka 1990 kufika pa 1,100 mu 2000 m'paka 2005.[100][105] Chiŵelengero cha ŵadokotala pa ŵanthu 100,000 nacho chikakwera kufuma pa 3.4 kufika pa 4 mu nyengo yeneyiyi, ndipo chiŵelengero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vinthu vyakutowa chikakwera kufuma pa 18% kufika pa 26%.[100][101][100][101]
Kuyana na umo wupu wa United Nations Population Fund ukulongosolera, ku Somalia kuli ŵamama 429 awo ŵakugwira ntchito ya wovwiri wa ŵanakazi. Pasono mu caru ici muli maofesi gha ŵabwezi 8, ndipo ghaŵiri mwa maofesi agha nga ŵanthu ŵekha. Mapulogiramu gha kusambizga ŵabwezi ghakutora myezi 12 m'paka 18. Ŵasambiri awo ŵanjira sukulu iyi ŵakukwana 100 peresenti, ndipo mu 2009 ŵakaŵa 180. Boma ndilo likulongozga ntchito iyi, ndipo munthu wakwenera kuŵa na layisensi. Kweniso pali kulembeska ŵabwezi awo ŵali na malayisensi. Kweniso, ŵamama awo ŵakovwira ŵanakazi awo ŵababa ŵana mu caru ici ŵakwimira wupu wa ŵamama awo ŵali na mamembara 350.[106]
Kuyana na ivyo wupu wa vyaumoyo wa pa caru cose ukayowoya mu 2005, ŵanakazi na ŵasungwana 97.9% ŵa ku Somalia ŵakakomekanga na nthumbo. Ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakuchiska ŵanthu kuti ŵachitenge nthena.[107][108] Kufika mu 2013, wupu wa UNICEF pamoza na boma la Somalia, ukati chiŵelengero cha ŵana ŵasungwana ŵa vyaka 1 m'paka 14 mu vigaŵa vya kumpoto kwa Puntland na Somaliland chachepa kufika pa 25%. Ŵanalume pafupifupi 93% mu Somalia nawo ŵakukotoleka.[109]
Charu cha Somalia chili na ŵanthu ŵachoko chomene pa charu chose chapasi awo ŵali na HIV. Ici nchifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia mba Cisilamu ndipo ŵakulondezga malango gha Cisilamu. Nangauli mu 1987 (mu chaka icho ŵanthu ŵakwambilira ŵakasangika na HIV mu Somalia) ŵanthu ŵakukwana 1% pa ŵanthu wose ŵakukhwima, kweni lipoti la UNAIDS la mu 2012 likuti kwamba mu 2004, ŵanthu ŵakughanaghana kuti ŵanthu ŵakukwana 0.7% m'paka 1%.
Nangauli sono wovwiri wa vyaumoyo wa ŵanthu wose uli ku chigaŵa cha ŵanthu ŵekha, kweni boma likuwoneseska kuti wovwiri wa vyaumoyo wa ŵanthu wose uweleremo. Nduna ya vyaumoyo ni Qamar Adan Ali. Chigaŵa cha Puntland chili na Unduna wa vya Umoyo, ndipo chigaŵa cha Somaliland chili na Unduna wa vya Umoyo.[110]
Vinyake mwa vyaru ivi ni East Bardera Mothers and Children's Hospital, Abudwak Maternity and Children's Hospital, Edna Adan Maternity Hospital na West Bardera Maternity Unit.
Education
Pamanyuma pa nkhondo ya pawenenawene iyo yikacitika mu 1991, makomiti ghakusambizga ŵanthu agho ghakaŵako mu masukulu 94 pa 100 mu Somalia, ndigho ghakamba kwendeska masukulu. Pakaŵa masuzgo ghanandi pa nkhani ya masambiro mu vigaŵa vya ku mizi na ku ŵanalume na ŵanakazi wuwo, masambiro ghawemi, masambiro gha ku masukulu ghakovwira, masambiro gha pa sukulu, ndondomeko na ndondomeko za masambiro, mauteŵeti, na ndalama. Kuti ŵamazge suzgo ili, ŵakucita ndondomeko za masambiro izo zikovwira kuti masambiro ghamare makora. Mu chigaŵa cha Puntland, dango ili likusazgapo ndondomeko ya masambiro iyo yikukolerana na fundo za pa caru cose, nga umo viliri mu Covenant on the Rights of the Child (CRC) na Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). Viyelezgero vinyake ivyo vikulongora umo boma la chigaŵa ili likuchitira pa nkhani ya masambiro ni malango agho ghakovwira ŵana ŵasungwana kuti ŵasambire makora, kovwirapo pa ntchito ya kusambizga ŵana kuti ŵambe kusambira makora, kweniso kuti ŵapapi na awo ŵakuŵapwelelera ŵafike ku nyumba zawo kweniso ku malo ghakusambizgirako ŵana ŵa vyaka 0 m'paka 5, kweniso kukhozga ŵasambizgi kuti ŵagwirenge ntchito ku mizi yakutali.
Unduna wa vya masambiro ndiwo uli na udindo wa masambiro mu Somalia, ndipo ukuwona vya masukulu gha ku pulayimale, sekondare, ma technical na ma vocational, kweniso masukulu gha masukulu gha ku pulayimale na ma technical na masukulu gha ku sukulu. Pafupifupi 15 peresenti ya ndalama izo boma likupeleka ku sukulu. Vigaŵa vya Puntland na Somaliland vili na maofesi ghawo gha vya masambiro.
Mu 2006, Puntland yikaŵa chigaŵa chachiŵiri mu Somalia pamanyuma pa Somaliland kukhazikiska masukulu ghapachanya ghaulere, ndipo ŵasambizgi sono ŵakupokera malipiro ghawo ku boma la Puntland. Kufuma mu 2005/2006 m'paka mu 2006/2007, mu Puntland mukaŵa masukulu ghanandi, ndipo ghakaŵapo 137. Mu nyengo yeneyiyo pera, mu chigaŵa ichi mukaŵa masukulu 504 ndipo ŵasambizgi ŵanyake 762 ŵakasazgikira. Ŵana ŵasungwana ndiwo ŵakaluta panthazi chomene pa ŵana ŵanalume mu vigaŵa vinandi. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakalembeskanga mu sukulu izi mu chigaŵa cha Bari, icho chili kumpoto chomene kwa charu ichi. Ŵasambiri ŵanandi ŵakasambiranga mu matawuni ndipo ŵasambizgi ŵanandi ŵakasambizganga mu matawuni.[111]
Pasono masambiro ghapacanya mu Somalia ni gha ŵanthu ŵekha. Masukulu ghakupambanapambana mu chalo ichi, kusazgapo Yunivesite ya Mogadishu, ghalembeka pakati pa masukulu ghapachanya gha 100 mu Africa nangauli vinthu vili makora yayi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakuwona kuti ni viwemi chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵalutilire kusambira.[112] Maunivesite ghanyake agho ghakusambizga masambiro ghapachanya kumwera ni Benadir University, Somalia National University, Kismaayo University na University of Gedo. Ku Puntland, masambiro ghapachanya ghakupika na Yunivesite ya Puntland State na East Africa University. Ku Somaliland, sukulu iyi yikupelekeka na Yunivesite ya Amoud, Yunivesite ya Hargeisa, Yunivesite ya Technology ya Somaliland na Yunivesite ya Burao.
Sukulu za Qur'anic (izo zikumanyikwaso kuti dugsi quran panji mal'aamad quran) zikulutilira kuŵa nthowa yakusambizgira visopa mu Somalia. Ŵakusambizga ŵana visambizgo vya Cisilamu, ndipo ŵakuŵa na udindo wa cisopa na wa mtende mu caru ici. Ŵakumanyikwa kuti ni masukulu ghakusambizga vya cisopa na makhaliro ghawemi agho ghakukhazikika comene pa malo agha. Ndondomeko ya Qur'an, iyo yikusambizga ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵanandi chomene pakuyaniska na vigaŵa vinyake vya masambiro, kanandi ndiyo njekha yikovwira ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia awo ŵakukhala mu malo ghakusama. Kafukufuku munyake uyo wakacitika mu 1993, wakalongora kuti pa ŵana ŵa sukulu ŵa Koran, pafupifupi 40% ŵakaŵa ŵasungwana. Pakukhumba kumazga suzgo la visambizgo vya cisopa, boma la Somalia likambiska Unduna wa vya Chisopa na Nkhani za Cisilamu.[113]
Culture
Cuisine
Vyakurya vya ku Somalia vikupambana mu vigaŵa na vigaŵa. Ndico cifukwa cakuti mu Somalia muli malonda ghanandi. Nangauli vyakurya vyakupambanapambana, kweni pali cinthu cimoza ico cikukolerana na vyakurya vya mu vyaru ivi. Ntheura, palije vyakurya vya nyama ya nkhumba, palije moŵa, palije cakurya ico cikufwa yekha, ndipo palije ndopa izo zikuŵikika. Kanandi cakurya ca Qaddo panji ca mise cikuŵa cakunowa comene.
Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakutemwa kurya mpunga wakuchemeka 'bariis.' Vyakununkhira nga ni kumini, cardamom, cloves, sinamoni, na salvia, vikusazgirako vyakununkhira ku vyakurya ivi. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakurya cakurya ca mise para pajumpha maora 9. Mu nyengo ya Ramadan, chakurya cha mise kanandi chikupelekeka pamanyuma pa malurombo gha Tarawih; nyengo zinyake mpaka 11 koloko mise.
'Xalwo' (halva) ni cakumwa cakunowa ico ŵanthu ŵakutemwa kurya pa viphikiro vyapadera nga ni Eid panji ukwati. Yikuŵako kufuma ku chiŵiya cha chimanga, shuga, makhadamomu, nutmeg, na ghee. Nyengo zinyake ŵakusazgako phere kuti liŵe liwemi.[114] Para ŵanthu ŵarya, ŵakutemwa kununkhira na vyakununkhira vya lubani (lubaan) panji vyakununkhira (cuunsi).
Music
Charu cha Somalia chili na sumu zinandi izo zikufuma ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia. Sumu zinandi za ku Somalia zikuŵa na sumu za pentatonic. Fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti ŵakugwiliskira ntchito tuvizingo tuchoko waka pa octave, mwakupambana na tuvizingo tuchokotuchoko (tuŵiri) nga ni major scale. Pakudanga kupulika, sumu za ku Somalia zingawoneka nga ni za ku vigaŵa vyapafupi nga ni Ethiopia, Sudan panji Arabia, kweni paumaliro zikumanyikwa na sumu zake na masitayelo ghake. Sumu za ku Somalia kanandi zikulembeka na ŵanthu awo ŵakulemba mazgu (midho), awo ŵakulemba sumu (laxan) na ŵakwimba (codka panji "mazgu").[115]
Literature
Ŵasayansi ŵa ku Somalia ŵakasambira mabuku ghanandi gha Chisilamu kwa vyaka vinandi. Mu 1972, apo ŵanthu ŵakamba kulemba vilembo vya Chilatini, ŵalembi ŵanandi ŵa ku Somalia ŵakalemba mabuku ghanyake agho ghakumanyikwa pa charu chose. Pa ŵalembi aŵa, Nuruddin Farah ndiyo wakumanyikwa comene. Mabuku nga ni From a Crooked Rib na Links ghakuwoneka nga ni mabuku ghakuzirwa, ndipo ghakamovwira kuti wapokere chawanangwa cha 1998 Neustadt International Prize for Literature.[116] Faarax M.J. Munthu munyake wa ku Somalia uyo wakamanyikwa na buku ili wakati: "Kumanya yayi ni mulwani wa chitemwa".
Sports
Mpira wa pasi ni maseŵero ghakumanyikwa comene mu Somalia. Mpikisano waku Somalia ndi League ndi Somalia Cup, pomwe timu ya mpira waku Somalia imasewera padziko lonse lapansi.
Mu caru ici mukucitikaso maseŵero gha basketball. FIFA Africa Championship 1981 yikachitikira ku Mogadishu kwambira pa 15 mpaka 23 December 1981. Gulu ili likuchitaso maseŵera gha basketball pa Pan Arab Games.
Mu 2013, timu ya chalo cha Somalia ya bandy yikapangika ku Borlänge.
Mu vyaru vya martial arts, Faisal Jeylani Aweys na Mohamed Deq Abdulle ŵa timu ya taekwondo ya chalo cha Indonesia ŵakatora mendulo ya siliva na malo ghachinayi, pa 2013 Open World Taekwondo Challenge Cup ku Tongeren. Komiti ya Olimpiki ya ku Somalia yili kunozga pulogiramu yapadera kuti yikovwire kuti maseŵero gha munthazi ghamare makora. Kweniso, Mohamed Jama wali kuwina maudindo gha pa charu chose na Europe mu K-1 na Thai Boxing.[117]
Architecture
Nyumba zakuzenga za ku Somalia ni nyumba zakuzenga izo zili na vinthu vyakupambanapambana, nga ni misumba yakuzengeka na malibwe, nyumba zachifumu, vigongwe, vigongwe, masisiteri, mausoleya, tempile, vigongwe, vikhuni, malibwe ghakunyang'amira, malibwe ghakurughakuru, ma menhirs, dolmens, ma malaro, ma tumulus, ma stele, ma cistern, ma aqueducts, na majini. Mu nyumba iyi muli vinthu vya mu nyengo yakale, vyaka vyapakati, na vyaka vyakwambilira.
Kale ku Somalia, ŵanthu ŵakasunganga vinthu vyakupambanapambana nga ni mapiramidi. Nyumba zikazengekanga na malibwe ghakuyana na agho ŵakazenganga ku Eguputo. Paliso viyelezgero vya maluŵaza na viliŵa vikuruvikuru vya malibwe ivyo vikazingilizga malo ghakukhalamo ŵanthu.
Ŵanthu ŵa ku Somalia ŵakati ŵamba kugomezga chisopa cha Chiisilamu, ŵakakhwaskika na vinthu vya ku Arabia na Peresiya. Ivi vikapangiska kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kuzenga nyumba mu malibwe ghakukhoma na vinthu vinyake vyakukhwaskana na malibwe agha. Nyumba zinandi izo ŵakazenganga, nga ni masisiteri, ŵakazenganga pa malo agho pakaŵa nyumba zakale.[118]
Wonaniso
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Vyakulemba
- ↑ The UN does not calculate the HDI of Somalia. Data taken from Radboud University's Global Data Lab.[7]
- ↑ /səˈmɑːliə, soʊ-/ sə-MAH-lee-ə, soh-;[8][9][10] Somali: Soomaaliya Template:IPA-so, Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; Arabic: الصومال, romanized: aṣ-Ṣūmāl
Ukaboni
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 "Somalia". The World Factbook (in English). Central Intelligence Agency. 10 Novembala 2021.
- ↑ "Somalia". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 22 Juni 2023.
- ↑ "United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2022). World Population Prospects 2022, Online Edition". population.un.org. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 16 Julayi 2022.
- ↑ "GDP per capita, PPP (current international $) – Somalia | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 26 Epulelo 2022.
- ↑ "Somalia , 2021". worldbank.org. The World Bank. Retrieved 17 Epulelo 2023.
- ↑ "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2019". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 16 Novembala 2019.
- ↑ "Subnational HDI – Somalia". Global Data Lab. Retrieved 11 Meyi 2023.
- ↑ Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.), English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 3-12-539683-2
- ↑ "Somalia". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
- ↑ Template:Dictionary.com
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- ↑ Charnan Simon (1990). Explorers of the Ancient World. Childrens Press. p. 26. ISBN 0-516-03053-1.
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- ↑ "Kenyan troops seize al-Shabaab base in Somalia". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 13 Febuluwale 2022.
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- ↑ Peter Robertshaw (1990). A History of African Archaeology. J. Currey. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-435-08041-9.
- ↑ Gutherz, Xavier; Diaz, Amélie; Ménard, Clément; Bon, François; Douze, Katja; Léa, Vanessa; Lesur, Joséphine; Sordoillet, Dominique (Sekutembala 2014). "The Hargeisan revisited: Lithic industries from shelter 7 of Laas Geel, Somaliland and the transition between the Middle and Late Stone Age in the Horn of Africa". Quaternary International (in English). 343: 69–84. Bibcode:2014QuInt.343...69G. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2014.04.038.
- ↑ Clark, J. D. (21 Malichi 2013). The Prehistoric Cultures of the Horn of Africa: An Analysis of the Stone Age Cultural and Climatic Succession in the Somalilands and Eastern Parts of Abyssinia (in English). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-63536-4.
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- ↑ Petraglia, Michael D.; Rose, Jeffrey I. (27 Novembala 2009). The Evolution of Human Populations in Arabia: Paleoenvironments, Prehistory and Genetics (in English). Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-90-481-2719-1.
- ↑ Diamond, J; Bellwood, P (2003). "Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions". Science. 300 (5619): 597–603. Bibcode:2003Sci...300..597D. doi:10.1126/science.1078208. PMID 12714734. S2CID 13350469.
- ↑ Hodd, Michael (1994). East African Handbook. Trade & Travel Publications. p. 640. ISBN 0-8442-8983-3.
- ↑ Ali, Ismail Mohamed (1970). Somalia Today: General Information. Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somali Democratic Republic. p. 295.
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- ↑ Abdel Monem A. H. Sayed (2003). Zahi A. Hawass (ed.). Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century: Archaeology. American Univ in Cairo Press. pp. 432–433. ISBN 977-424-674-8.
- ↑ Warmington 1995, p. 229.
- ↑ Briggs, Philip (2012). Bradt Somaliland: With Addis Ababa & Eastern Ethiopia. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-84162-371-9.
- ↑ Lewis, I. M. (1999). A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. James Currey Publishers. p. 17. ISBN 0-85255-280-7.
- ↑ Edward A. Alpers (2009). East Africa and the Indian Ocean. Markus Wiener Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-55876-453-8.
- ↑ "Taariikhda Toljecle". www.tashiwanaag.com. Retrieved 9 Ogasiti 2021.
- ↑ Taariikhda Boqortooyadii Axmed Sheikh Isaxaaq ee Toljecle 1787 (in English), archived from the original on 11 Disembala 2021, retrieved 15 Ogasiti 2021
- ↑ NEW ISSUES IN REFUGEE RESEARCH Working Paper No. 65 Pastoral society and transnational refugees: population movements in Somaliland and eastern Ethiopia 1988 – 2000 Guido Ambroso, Table 1, pg.5
- ↑ "Degmada Cusub Ee Dacarta Oo Loogu Wanqalay Munaasibad Kulmisay Madaxda Iyo Haldoorka Somaliland". Hubaal Media. 7 Okutobala 2017. Archived from the original on 11 Ogasiti 2021. Retrieved 11 Ogasiti 2021.
- ↑ I. M. Lewis, A pastoral democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa, (LIT Verlag Münster: 1999), p. 157.
- ↑ "Taariikhda Beerta Suldaan Cabdilaahi ee Hargeysa | Somalidiasporanews.com" (in American English). Retrieved 9 Janyuwale 2021.
- ↑ Genealogies of the Somal (in English). Eyre and Spottiswoode (London). 1896.
- ↑ "Taariikhda Saldanada Reer Guuleed Ee Somaliland.Abwaan:Ibraahim-rashiid Cismaan Guure (aboor). | Togdheer News Network" (in American English). Retrieved 9 Ogasiti 2021.
- ↑ Paolo Tripodi (1999). The Colonial Legacy in Somalia: Rome and Mogadishu: From Colonial Administration to Operation Restore Hope. Macmillan Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-312-22393-9.
- ↑ Helen Chapin Metz, ed. (1992) Somalia: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress.
- ↑ Moshe Y. Sachs (1988) Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations, Vol. 2, Worldmark Press, p. 290, ISBN 0-471-62406-3.
- ↑ de la Fosse Wiles, Peter John (1982) The New Communist Third World: an essay in political economy, Taylor & Francis, p. 279 ISBN 0-7099-2709-6.
- ↑ "Somaliland citizens ask to be recognized as a state". BBC News. 4 Juni 2001. Retrieved 25 Febuluwale 2009.
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- ↑ Al J. Venter (1975) Africa Today, p. 152, ISBN 0-86954-023-8
- ↑ Hagmann, Tobias; Hoehne, Markus V. (2009). "Failures of the state failure debate: Evidence from the Somali territories". Journal of International Development. 21 (1): 42–57. doi:10.1002/jid.1482.;Gruffydd Jones, Branwen (2008). "The global political economy of social crisis: Towards a critique of the 'failed state' ideology". Review of International Political Economy. 15 (2): 180–205. doi:10.1080/09692290701869688. S2CID 154286071.; Verhoeven, Harry (2009). "The self-fulfilling prophecy of failed states: Somalia, state collapse and the Global War on Terror". Journal of Eastern African Studies. 3 (2): 405–425. doi:10.1080/17531050903273719. S2CID 154281885.
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- ↑ "Somalia Mourns a 'Golden Era' as Crisis Worsens | Africa Faith and Justice Network". afjn.org. 11 Disembala 2007. Retrieved 4 Sekutembala 2021.
- ↑ Gettleman, Jeffrey (20 Novembala 2007). "As Somali Crisis Swells, Experts See a Void in Aid". The New York Times (in American English). ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 4 Sekutembala 2021.
- ↑ "Somalia President, Parliament Speaker dispute over TFG term". Garoweonline.com. 12 Janyuwale 2011. Archived from the original on 14 Meyi 2011. Retrieved 12 Juni 2011.
- ↑ "Somali President Yusuf resigns", Reuters (FT.com), 29 December 2008.
- ↑ "Analysis of EUCAP Nestor by the Global Governance Institute". Global Governance Institute. 26 Julayi 2012. Archived from the original on 2 Epulelo 2013.
- ↑ "SOMALIA: President says Godane is dead, now is the chance for the members of al-Shabaab to embrace peace". Raxanreeb. 5 Sekutembala 2014. Archived from the original on 6 Sekutembala 2014. Retrieved 6 Sekutembala 2014.
- ↑ "Somalia – Climate". countrystudies.us. 14 Meyi 2009.
- ↑ "The Federal Republic of Somalia – Harmonized Draft Constitution" (PDF). Federal Government of Somalia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 Janyuwale 2013. Retrieved 2 Ogasiti 2012.
- ↑ "Guidebook to the Somali Draft Provisional Constitution". Archived from the original on 20 Janyuwale 2013. Retrieved 2 Ogasiti 2012.
- ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 64.3 Hadden, Robert Lee. 2007. "The Geology of Somalia: A Selected Bibliography of Somalian Geology, Geography and Earth Science". Engineer Research and Development Laboratories, Topographic Engineering Center
- ↑ Geoffrey Gilbert (2004) World poverty, ABC-CLIO, p. 111, ISBN 1-85109-552-7.
- ↑ "Goldman Prize". Horn Relief. 22 Epulelo 2002. Archived from the original on 12 Julayi 2010. Retrieved 27 Juni 2010.
- ↑ "International Women's Day – 8 March 2006 – Fatima Jibrell". Unep.org. 8 Malichi 2006. Archived from the original on 14 Febuluwale 2007. Retrieved 27 Juni 2010.
- ↑ Jonathan Clayton (4 Malichi 2005). "Somalia's secret dumps of toxic waste washed ashore by tsunami". The Times. London. Retrieved 25 Febuluwale 2009.
- ↑ Uetz, P. & Jirí Hošek (eds.), The Reptile Database, htUetz, P. & Jirí Hošek (e Uetz, P. & Jirí Hošek (eds.), The Reptile Database, http://www.reptile-database.org, accessed 8 December 2013
- ↑ "Somalia-Somaliland: A Halting Embrace of Dialogue". Crisis Group (in English). 6 Ogasiti 2020. Retrieved 2 Juni 2021.
- ↑ "Russia Digs into Somaliland-Somalia Feud as Envoy Calls for Resumption of Talks – East African Business Week". East African Business Week (in British English). 4 Disembala 2020. Archived from the original on 31 Meyi 2022. Retrieved 2 Juni 2021.
- ↑ 72.0 72.1 "The Federal Republic of Somalia – Provisional Constitution" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 Okutobala 2012. Retrieved 13 Malichi 2013.
- ↑ "Member states". Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Archived from the original on 9 Disembala 2013. Retrieved 6 Janyuwale 2014.
- ↑ "Somalia Re-Opens its National Intelligence & Security Agency". Walta Info. 10 Janyuwale 2013. Retrieved 1 Sekutembala 2013.
- ↑ "UN Expert: Somalia Backtracking on Human Rights Commitments". Voice of America – English. Retrieved 3 Okutobala 2020.
- ↑ "Better Off Stateless: Somalia Before and After Government Collapse" (PDF). Retrieved 27 Juni 2010.
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- ↑ Little, Peter D. (2003) Somalia: Economy without State. Indiana University Press, p. 4, ISBN 0-85255-865-1.
- ↑ "Decades of community service recognised with award". Tower Hamlets Recorder. 13 Epulelo 2007. Archived from the original on 11 Meyi 2011. Retrieved 3 Juni 2010.
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- ↑ "Diplomat to start Somalia's first stock market". Reuters. 8 Ogasiti 2012. Archived from the original on 30 Sekutembala 2015. Retrieved 5 Disembala 2013.
- ↑ Abdinasir Mohamed; Sarah Childress (11 Meyi 2010). "Telecom Firms Thrive in Somalia Despite War, Shattered Economy". The Wall Street Journal.
- ↑ "Weekly Statement: Progress of the Somali Government". Diplomat News Network. 11 Okutobala 2014. Archived from the original on 14 Okutobala 2014. Retrieved 12 Okutobala 2014.
- ↑ "Somali Tourism Association (SOMTA)". Somali Tourism Association. Retrieved 14 Juni 2013.
- ↑ "World Population Prospects 2022". population.un.org. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 Julayi 2022.
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- ↑ Lecarme & Maury 1987, p. 22.
- ↑ I. M. Lewis (1998) Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho, Red Sea Press, p. 11, ISBN 1-56902-104-X.
- ↑ 90.0 90.1 Helena Dubnov (2003) A grammatical sketch of Somali, Kِppe, pp. 70–71.
- ↑ Diana Briton Putman, Mohamood Cabdi Noor (1993) The Somalis: their history and culture, Center for Applied Linguistics, p. 15.: "Somalis speak Somali. Many people also speak Arabic, and educated Somalis usually speak either English or Italian as well. Swahili may also be spoken in coastal areas near Kenya."
- ↑ Fiona MacDonald et al. (2000) Peoples of Africa, Vol. 10, Marshall Cavendish, p. 178.
- ↑ "Somalia | Save the Children". somalia.savethechildren.net. Retrieved 2 Ogasiti 2019.
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- ↑ "Where We Work | Care International". www.care-international.org. Retrieved 2 Ogasiti 2019.
- ↑ "Somalia | DRC". drc.ngo (in Danish). Archived from the original on 2 Ogasiti 2019. Retrieved 2 Ogasiti 2019.
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- ↑ "Male Circumcision and AIDS: The Macroeconomic Impact of a Health Crisis by Eric Werker, Amrita Ahuja, and Brian Wendell :: NEUDC 2007 Papers :: Northeast Universities Development Consortium Conference" (PDF). Center for International Development at Harvard University. Retrieved 30 Disembala 2010.
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- ↑ Barlin Ali (2007) Somali Cuisine, AuthorHouse, p. 79, ISBN 1-4259-7706-5.
- ↑ Abdullahi 2001, pp. 170–1.
- ↑ "Lettre Ulysses Award for the Art of Reportage – Nuruddin Farah". Lettre-ulysses-award.org. Retrieved 30 Disembala 2010.
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Mabuku
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