Papers and conference proceedings by Michael Smith
Paperback Parade, 2021
Although ACE Books popularized the classic tête-bêche format of two stories packaged into one vol... more Although ACE Books popularized the classic tête-bêche format of two stories packaged into one volume in the popular genres of science fiction, mystery and the western, they also published in other genres so as to expand their customer base as well as increase their sales figures. A publication genre that they dabbled in from the mid-1950’s to the 1980’s was often placed under a number of labels. In general, these volumes covered the whole range of the “fringe science” genre, from the supernatural to the occult to the paranormal. Flying saucers, “Bigfoot,” demonology, ghosts and poltergeists, haunted houses and stone circles, Satanism and Fortean philosophy were all part of the mix.
Why ACE Books dabbled in the publication of this genre is not surprising. Tales of the supernatural and the unusual or odd has enlivened many a dark and stormy night and enthralled or scared millions of readers. By the 1960’s television had opened the door on speculative fiction or ”the unknown” (i.e., Alcoa Presents: One Step Beyond, The Twilight Zone, and Star Trek) and suspense/horror (i.e., Behind the Green Door, Lights Out, and Alfred Hitchcock Presents). Thus, a taste for the odd and the weird had been found in the book buying public, and by damn, ACE Books was going to fill that niche.
Geol. Soc. America Abstr. with Programs, 2019
The metamorphosed Neoproterozoic-age Catoctin Fm. crops out in the Blue Ridge anticlinorium (BRa)... more The metamorphosed Neoproterozoic-age Catoctin Fm. crops out in the Blue Ridge anticlinorium (BRa), a macroscale, overturned, and shallowly NE-plunging fold, that extends from southern Pennsylvania to southern Virginia. Deformation of the Catoctin Fm., and construction of the BRa, is a consequence of the late Paleozoic Alleghanian orogeny.
Published petrographic and geochemical studies of the Catoctin Fm. have focused solely on the western limb of the BRa. These data have been used in previous interpretations of the Catoctin Fm. to describe the entire geographic extent, but no comparable results have been obtained from either the hinge or eastern regions of the BRa. This study provides new metamorphic mineral assemblage and whole-rock geochemical data from Catoctin Fm. samples collected from the western, eastern, and hinge regions for the BRa to compare with published western limb data. These data are used to evaluate whether the western limb geochemical signature is different from the hinge and eastern limb regions, and to evaluate if any discernable differences in metamorphic grade could be evaluated throughout the BRa.
Catoctin Fm. metabasaltic rocks mineral assemblage is: albite + chlorite + epidote + actinolite + opaque minerals ± calcite ± quartz. A majority of the metabasaltic rock samples contain relict porphyritic or amygdaloidal textures. Intercalated lavender phyllites are very fine grained and consist mainly of white mica + quartz + opaque minerals. Based upon mineral assemblage, these samples fall within the greenschist facies and, although actinolite size coarsens toward the hinge region, there is no evidence for amphibolite facies conditions.
Thirty-five (35) samples were analyzed for major, trace and rare-earth elements (REE). The metabasaltic rock data plot in the “MORB within-plate tholeiites” field on various discriminatory diagrams. LREE enrichment (20-100X), both positive and negative Eu-anomalies and flat HREE (10-40X) characterize the metabasaltic rocks, but the phyllites are more evolved (LREE ~200-400X). In general, trace and rare earth elements are enriched compared to chondrite, N-MORB, and primordial mantle, and depleted compared to upper continental crust. Overall, the western limb rocks are more enriched than the eastern limb and least enriched in the hinge region of the BRa.
Geological Society of America Abstracts with Program. 67th Annual Southeastern GSA Section Meeting - 2018, 2018, 2018
Within the Neoproterozoic Catoctin Formation metabasalts in the central Piedmont region, near Cha... more Within the Neoproterozoic Catoctin Formation metabasalts in the central Piedmont region, near Charlottesville, VA, are interbeds of clastic sedimentary rock. Although recognized by numerous investigators, few studies have investigated the petrography, textures, or provenance of these interbeds.
The interbed samples of this study are from the east side of the Rivanna River and are stratigraphically between the upper Lynchburg Formation to the west and the overlying Catoctin Formation metabasalts of the eastern limb of the Blue Ridge anticlinorium. Previous investigators have described these interbeds as sandstones (Bailey et al. 2017; Bloomer et al. 1947; Reed et al. 1955; Dilliard et al. 1999), but little detailed petrographic or textural investigation has been reported.
Preliminary examination of the seven samples reveals two major groups of clastic rocks. The stratigraphically lower group (4 samples) are mostly tan, beige and pink in color, clast or grain supported and finely bedded at the base but more massive toward the upper contact. The minerals (quartz, alkali and plagioclase feldspar, opaque minerals, tourmaline, zircon) are angular to subrounded and fine to medium grained. Quartz feldspar rock fragments (0.5 to .75 mm) are common. Based upon the mineral composition and grain size, these rocks are more an arkosic sandstone. Some of the feldspars exhibit exsolution, as well as argillite (clay mineral) alteration. Hematite staining is common and may be related to weathering of the opaque minerals.
The other group, which is stratigraphically above the arkosic sandstone, appears to be the contact zone with the overlying Catoctin Formation metabasalts. This rock ranges in color from dark green and maroon with angular to subangular grains that are largely matrix supported. The minerals (chlorite, tourmaline, opaque minerals, alkali and plagioclase feldspar, quartz, epidote) and metabasalt rock fragments (0.7 to 20 mm) are coarser grained. Most of these mineral grains are subangular and may be termed breccia, suggesting that these might be related to either fracturing or faulting. Much of the quartz is in the form of a fracture or vein fill. These samples have less quartz and more opaque minerals than the arkosic sandstone. Some feldspars show exsolution as well as sericite (white mica) alteration. Apart from this, there were no other micas observed in any of these seven thin sections.
Geological Society of America Abstracts with Program. 67th Annual Southeastern GSA Section Meeting - 2018, 2018
The application of portable X-Ray Fluorescence (pXRF) for in-field lithologic analysis has been e... more The application of portable X-Ray Fluorescence (pXRF) for in-field lithologic analysis has been expanding over the past decade. Using the pXRF, semi-quantitative whole rock geochemical data may be acquired for each sample in ~120 seconds. This rapid analytical method has some limitations, which are both instrument and element specific. The pXRF data for this project were collected using a Thermo Niton XL3t GOLDD+ for both powder and whole rock samples.
The first goal of this study was to determine which specific elements could be used with validity from collected whole rock pXRF data. This was accomplished by comparing collected pXRF data to XRF, ICP-MS, and INAA data for known United States Geological Survey (USGS) and National Bureau of Standards (NBS) standard reference materials. Specific elements with a ± 20% deviation from the USGS or NBS reported value were considered to be invalid for analytical interpretations. Based on this criterion, major element oxides Al2O3 and MgO and trace elements Ba, Sc, Y, and Zn were excluded from further geochemical applications.
The second goal of this study was to apply specific geochemical diagrams to additional whole rock geochemical data collected from hand samples taken within the Catoctin Formation in central Virginia. The Neoproterozoic Catoctin Formation extends at least 320 kilometers along strike from a location south of Carlisle, Pennsylvania, to several kilometers north of the James River in Virginia. Metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks comprise the Catoctin Formation and are within middle to upper greenschist facies. The metamorphic mineral assemblage for the metabasalt includes albite + chlorite + epidote + sphene + ilmenite ± actinolite ± quartz ± calcite. Whole rock geochemical data collected from metabasalt rocks compared to average N-MORB geochemical data were plotted using isocon and spider plot diagrams. Major element oxides CaO, SiO2, P2O5, and TiO2 and trace elements Rb and Sr are mobilized through hydration reaction equilibrium. Isocon and spider diagrams show the degree of metasomatism when an altered sample is compared to an unaltered sample, which in this study is average N-MORB geochemical data.
Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. Vol. 49, No. 6, 2017
The Neoproterozoic (ca. 570 Ma) Catoctin Fm. of central Virginia and Maryland provides an example... more The Neoproterozoic (ca. 570 Ma) Catoctin Fm. of central Virginia and Maryland provides an example of the preserved bimodal extrusive sequence (and subaerial to subaqueous clastic rocks) associated with late Proterozoic extension and rifting of the Rodinia supercontinent. This sequence consists of metamorphosed bimodal mafic volcanic rocks (metabasalt), phyllites and interbedded clastic metasedimentary rocks that support the eastern and western flanks of the Blue Ridge Anticlinorium, a breached Alleghanian-age structure exposing a Grenville basement core. Most of the previous study of the Catoctin Fm. has concentrated on the western flank of the Blue Ridge Anticlinorium. Thus, petrographic and geochemical techniques (e.g., pXRF, ICP-MS) were used to develop a greater understanding of the stratigraphic relationships of the Catoctin metavolcanic rocks and adjacent units within the current tectonic model, as well as analyze an east-to-west traverse across the anticlinorium. Additionally, this petrographic and geochemical characterization will be applied to a group of metabasalts and phyllites (Oronoco Greenstone) that lie within the anticlinorium. This study may allow the determination of whether these rocks correspond to the Catoctin Fm. or the older (ca. 750-738 Ma) upper Lynchburg Group. Preliminary petrographic analyses of Catoctin Fm. metabasalts indicate lower to upper greenschist metamorphism dominated by chlorite ± actinolite + epidote + plagioclase (sodic) + sphene + ilmenite ± quartz ± calcite. Plagioclase lathes (subophitic texture), with albite polysynthetic twinning, are surrounded by chlorite and epidote. Pyroxene is absent and chlorite ± actinolite is the major mafic phase. Sphene is commonly adjacent to ilmenite and appears to be secondary, possibly as a result of Ti-rich fluids. Veins (and possible amygdules) are filled with quartz, epidote or calcite, most likely a result of post-metamorphic fluids. Interbedded lavender phyllites appear to be of two varieties: a fine-grained clastic (quartz + oxides ± zircon) with a clay mineral matrix, while the other may represent metamorphosed tuffaceous material, some with Catoctin equivalent metabasalt fragments.
Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs., 2017
Early geological mapping in the United States was often on a small scale. Not until the early 180... more Early geological mapping in the United States was often on a small scale. Not until the early 1800’s was knowledge of the regional geology sufficient for the first geologic map by McClure (1808). His map was a broad-brush representation of geologic knowledge gleaned from his own travels and observations, as well as numerous other investigators. The description of the units was based upon Wernerian stratigraphy, modified by McClure (1808) to relate to the descriptions and outcrops found from the northeastern states to the Gulf of Mexico. McClure’s 1817 revision further modified the Wernerian stratigraphy, indicating influence by the work of early geological investigators such as Benjamin Silliman. In 1823, the North Carolina General Assembly authorized a geological survey, hiring UNC-Chapel Hill mineralogy professor Denison Olmsted. Olmsted was charged to “promote agriculture and family manufactures within this state” and to “direct his attention chiefly to such objects as were of practical utility.” With these demands in mind, the “Olmsted Survey” began the first geological survey of North Carolina, even though he was not designated as the official state geologist. The draft geological map produced by Olmsted in November 1825 was never published. Titled “Geological Map of North Carolina,” it is small (10 x 15.25”) and was created prior to Olmsted’s departure to his new position at Yale. Although the map was catalogued in Laney and Wood (1909) and mentioned in Merrill (1924), it was thought lost, until a chance rediscovery of it in a map drawer in the North Carolina Geological Survey map collection. Examination of the geologic map reveals that it was probably used in conjunction with Olmsted’s preparation of his 1825 reports. The units described by Olmsted were a modified form of the Wernerian stratigraphic column, similar to McClure’s (1817) map. In addition, the map reveals how Olmsted followed his interpretation of the legislature’s demand to provide a practical venue for agricultural and economic mineral resources rather than examining the geological structure and rock relationships of the region. This is especially apparent in the detailed depiction of the coastal inlets, as Olmsted was attempting to show that the geological survey was providing useful information for the improvement of “internal navigation”.
Geol. Soc. America Abstr. with Programs, 2011
In the 19th century, the southern United States had an economy dominated by agriculture, primari... more In the 19th century, the southern United States had an economy dominated by agriculture, primarily cotton, corn, peas, and tobacco. Limited crop rotation and the heavy demands these crops placed on the poor soils caused depletion of essential nutrients and harvests waned. Farmers recognized the need to enrich the soils, and marl was used as a cheap fertilizer. Geological studies by Benjamin Silliman in New York showed how this poorly-to-well-consolidated calcareous mudstone/limestone was readily available and easily obtained. In North Carolina, Denison Olmsted and Elisha Mitchell (students of Silliman) focused on minerals of practical utility. Large deposits of marl were found in the midland and eastern counties, and were immediately used in agriculture. The poor soils of the Coastal Plain benefited greatly from marl’s effects, neutralizing the acidity, increasing soil moisture, and providing replenishing nutrients. Paired with other fertilizers such as manure, marl allowed for the full potential of the soil to produce with great quantity and quality. Knowledge of marl spread to South Carolina and Virginia where Edmund Ruffin evaluated this natural resource for agricultural purposes, and conducted the first South Carolina agricultural survey (1842). Marl was mined in open pits, but could be difficult to process depending on the induration. Marl mining was expensive in terms of excavation and transportation, and produced some early environmental issues by the 1900’s. With large-scale, mechanized farming, the need for cheap fertilizer became important. By 1910, man-made nitrogen fertilizer and synthetically manufactured ammonium sulfate were readily available. By the 1970’s fertilizers were either synthetic or obtained from cheaper foreign sources and marl’s time had come and gone.
In the late 20th century, aquaculture became an important economic resource for North Carolina, specifically the Pamlico Sound area. However, overharvesting of oysters has resulted in research (2002) to improve their populations. In early 2010, marl has been placed into the sound to provide a solid substrate to allow growth and development of oysters in a reef-like habitat. Although the mundane use of marl in agriculture has waned, in this new age of aquaculture, marl can still be considered an important economic resource for the southeastern United States.
Paperback Parade, Mar 2016
ACE Books popularized the classic tête-bêche format of two stories packaged into one volume. But... more ACE Books popularized the classic tête-bêche format of two stories packaged into one volume. But they also tried other packaging styles to reach their market and potentially increase their sales figures. One of these was the ACE Triple, three stories packaged into one volume with one cover. Often these “triples” were based upon a theme or collected three novellas or short stories by a particular author.
The western genre “triple” format novels were published in the single volume ACE editions in M- and five-digit letter-number series. Western genre stories were very popular in the late 1940’s to early 1950’s, but by the end of the 1950’s western titles (not sales) were declining. In part, the declining trend was “probably due to the superabundance of western shows on TV” (Publishers Weekly, 1959; p. 53). Publishers started to look elsewhere for new material that they could sell on an even more regular and predictable basis (Radway, 1984).
For ACE Books this meant trying a new method of packaging. This had occurred before. The ACE Double (in science fiction, mystery, and western genres) had popularized the tête-bêche format of two stories packaged into one volume. This marketing ploy brought brand recognition and associated sales. So, if two stories in one volume were good, three would make it even better, or so ACE Books hoped.
Geological Society of America Southeastern Section Meeting (Baltimore: 01–04 November 2015)
Gold mining suffered a major decline in North Carolina after the discovery of the richer and more... more Gold mining suffered a major decline in North Carolina after the discovery of the richer and more extensive gold deposits in California in 1848. However, the renewed interest in the southern gold fields triggered by the spectacular production in California led investors from the northern states to shop for mining properties during the growing national prosperity of the early 1850’s. The North Carolina gold miners who did not join the western rush continued to work the shafts of the Piedmont using new and increasingly sophisticated innovations such as hydraulic mining techniques and mercury amalgamation from California, until the advent of the Civil War.
From the end of Reconstruction (1877) to 1930, gold mining in North Carolina was sporadic and often funded by outside investors, which led to some rampant speculation and get-rich-quick schemes. The work of the North Carolina Geological Survey under W. C. Kerr (1865-1882), and later publications by Nitze and Hanna (1896) and Nitze and Wilkins (1897), produced a flurry of complimentary scientific papers about various mining regions that were read by mining engineers as well as by potential investors. The glimmers of promise brought about by these reports, as well as the newspaper stories and articles, provided the speculators with a framework for their scams.
Probably the most flamboyant of these grifters was Walter George Newman (1860-1918), who epitomized the credo of this period - speculate, sell mining stocks, and run away with the profits. Although speculators like Newman reinvigorated the mining industry to line their own pockets, they generally produced little gold. This was because copper mining, with gold and silver as secondary products, drove most of the mining fervor during this period. It used increasing complex technology and had associated environmental issues. Even with the technology and the labor available, more money was made selling paper or speculating on metals futures than by actually extracting gold, silver, or copper from the earth.
Following the Great Depression of the 1930s, gold prices and production slowly increased until the Second World War, but never became a major industry in the South as they were out-competed by more profitable gold fields in the western United States, Alaska, Canada, Australia, and South Africa.
Paperback Parade, vol. 89, pp. 70-85., Jul 2015
By the late 1950s, ACE Books was publishing about one hundred titles a year in a variety of ... more By the late 1950s, ACE Books was publishing about one hundred titles a year in a variety of genres, besides the mainstays of Science Fiction, Mystery, and Western (and still does today). Some of these are a bit difficult to classify as well as read. However, one of the more prolific of these genres was the medical romance novel. Often termed "nurse romances," these stories ranged from the standard romance format to include suspense and mystery as well as a few with gothic overtones.
This is not surprising in many ways. Medical romances of one sort or another were popular in the 1930s, but it was only in the late 1950s that the nurse became integral to the formula (Hallam, 2000). In Britain, the publishing house Mills & Boon, who had a formalistic and successful history of romance publication since the 1930’s, have made the “nurse romance” (called “Doctor/Nurse” series) a lucrative genre, with a worldwide audience (Mangat, 1988; McAleer, 1990). So successful were Mills & Boon that in late 1950’s a small paperback publishing firm in Canada called Harlequin approached them for the North American rights to some of the “Doctor/Nurse” titles. The success of this venture then led Mills & Boon to start the release of their own paperback series of “nurse romances’ in 1960 and continuing to today (Hallam, 2000).
Films and television, both in Britain and North America, portrayed these dedicated professionals in a positive light, not failing to include how romance was a major part of their nursing adventures. Women ‘s magazines ran countless stories reassuring young women that one of the greatest rewards of nursing was to find physician husbands. In these venues, nursing was clearly viewed as a stopgap to marriage (Hughes, 1988).
In the United States and Britain, the Sue Barton and Cherry Ames series of nursing career novels appealed to a large segment of the population, yearning not only for the fantasy of the romance between doctor and nurse, but also dreams of self determination or a more prestigious profession than what had been available to her mother or grandmother. This was especially true since between the close of the Second World War and into the early 1950s the only career options available for women with a modicum of education were secretarial work, banking, teaching, and nursing – a situation that continued nearly unchanged until the mid-1970s. In particular, nursing was considered a prestigious profession, requiring a capable and intelligent young woman who had the heart to dedicate her life to caretaking…unless, of course, she met a husband (Ryan, 2008).
Eventually the “nurse romance” fell out of favor by the mid- to late 1970s. Other genres, such as bodice-ripping historical romances with cover art depicting burly heroes and buxom heroines or gothic romance/suspense novels where a solitary young woman, either trapped or exploring a remote castle, tries to determine if the darkly handsome owner is hero, villain, or vampire, became popular. Leslie H. Whitten’s Moon of the Wolf (ACE 54000), whose original title was Death of a Nurse, is a curious mixture of “nurse romance,” “gothic” overtones, and mystery genres and may represent an attempt to follow this trend. However, a more likely reason for the decline in “nurse romance” popularity may have been that women stared to have much wider career choices and opportunities than was portrayed in the popular literature.
Nevertheless, what was once old is new again. Popular TV shows like "ER," "House," “Private Practice” and “Grey’s Anatomy” have once again whet the readers appetite for books featuring doctors and nurses, but with a more modern twist and much more sex! For example, since 1993 the UK publisher Mills & Boon have published four “Medical Romances” (formerly called “Doctor-Nurse Romances”) every month while in the United States the publisher Harlequin has recently established a new (or renewed) line called “Harlequin Medical Romances” (Atkinson, 2000).
Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs , Mar 20, 2015
St. Georges is located along the northwestern edge of the full graben that bisects the central po... more St. Georges is located along the northwestern edge of the full graben that bisects the central portion of the island of St. Croix, USVI. The soils are the Hogensborg Clay Loam (contain early to middle Miocene carbonate materials) and the Glynn gravelly loams. The drainages eroding into the graben are dissecting the upper Cretaceous (Judith Fancy Fm.) northwestern horst. These sediments contain volcaniclastic intermediate material rich in quartz, feldspar (plagioclase and k-feldspar), white mica, amphibole, biotite, epidote and opaque minerals (hematite and magnetite).
Ceramic sherd samples from the Anderson Collection, provided by the USVI National Park, were defined as Cedrosan Saladoid (500 BCE – 400 CE) by type and form. Petrographic investigation of 9 sherds found their aplastic composition was dominated by very coarse to medium mineral fragments (quartz, feldspar and amphibole), volcaniclastic and carbonate rock fragments and some contained fossil and shell fragments. In comparison, the soil sample from the region contained very coarse to medium carbonate (fossiliferous to micritic) and volcaniclastic material. Both the soil and sherd samples contained similar mineral fragments, volcaniclastic and crystalline carbonate rock fragments, as well as micritic mud. The micritic mud in the soil sample contained some mineral grains (hornblende and feldspar). The soil sample also contained white mica and volcaniclastic rock fragments (feldspar + biotite) while the sherd samples do not. The fossil fragments in the sherd and soil samples are elongate shell fragments and gastropods. The soil sample contained a coral fragment and lath-like opaque material (organic debris).
Based upon the petrography of the St. Georges sherds, their materials could have been derived from either the graben sediments or the eroded materials from the northwestern horst. 3 of the 9 sherds contain only volcaniclastic rock and mineral fragments that could be evidence for manufacture in another area and relocation to St. Georges. The remaining sherds all have crystalline and micritic mud carbonate rock fragments. These could have been formed due to erosion of the volcanic material into the graben and incorporation into the clay loams. Study of additional sherds from this region could help define the provenance question more precisely.
Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. , Apr 11, 2014
65 sherds were recovered from Woodland Period sites (44WR0232 and 44WR0446) in Front Royal (Warre... more 65 sherds were recovered from Woodland Period sites (44WR0232 and 44WR0446) in Front Royal (Warren County), Virginia for petrographic analysis to define the variability of aplastic component assemblage. An INAA study of similar sherds from these sites found that several of the sherds that were described as having steatite tempering did not exhibit a chemical compositional profile consistent with ultramafic rock lithologies. This study found that 17 sherds contained either steatite, soapstone or mafic schist rocks fragments as a primary (>25 modal%) aplastic component. The archaeological literature uses the term steatite to describe a talc-dominated rock fragment found in Early Woodland pottery (e.g., Marcey Creek, Selden Island, and Accokeek wares) that resembles the carved steatite pots in shape, but it is poorly defined. The distribution of steatite-tempered ceramics seems to be more closely related to the Piedmont sources of soapstone rather than the distribution of carved steatite vessels of the Late Archaic. A steatite vessel fragment (CXE4781-2470) from the site was used for comparison purposes for the aplastic inclusions found in proposed steatite-tempered ceramics. Cross-disciplinary investigations often hinge on the nuances of terminology and nomenclature. The terms steatite and soapstone are used interchangeably, but the term steatite is used when the mineral composition is dominated by talc and soapstone when the mineral composition is talc + chlorite + mica ± opaque minerals. These rock fragments often represent the metamorphism of an ultramafic igneous source rock (i.e., peridotite, etc.). The variability of the rock fragment temper, including pyroxene- or olivine-bearing rock fragments found in these ceramics, probably represents a range of ultramafic rock protoliths. This may either suggest different source locations or represent the continuum of mineral assemblages (and relict protolith assemblages) found in a zoned metamorphosed ultramafic rock. However it also indicates that determining the geographic constraints on these sherds may be difficult. Thus the only way to confidently identify the specific lithology of the aplastic components is by thin-section petrography.
Southeastern Geology , Feb 2014
This study examines 38 ballast stones collected from Campbell Island, the historic transshipping ... more This study examines 38 ballast stones collected from Campbell Island, the historic transshipping point on the Cape Fear River, southeastern North Carolina. The goal was to evaluate the geologic and geographic provenance of the ballast stones as well as to correlate these results to shipping trends and ports of origin for this area from 1726 to 1825. The ballast stones were separated into four groups: a mafic igneous rock suite (diabase), a chalk-flint-chert group, a suite of quartz-rich plutonic igneous rocks (granite to granodiorite) and a mixed group of sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks. The mineralogical and petrographic characteristics of the mafic and quartz-rich plutonic rocks allowed the determination of their provenance, which was further correlated with the few existing shipping records for this region. Thin-section examination of the chalk-flint-chert group revealed the presence of the Miocene to Eocene age microfossil Orbulina in some of the samples. This suggests a portion of the chert and flint ballast stones found along the southeastern region may have a Caribbean origin, in addition to English or French origins that have been previously reported. This observation could have implications for the importation, use, and later embargo of flint (or chert) by the British prior to the American Revolution of 1775.
Southeastern Geology 01/2013; 49(4):191-204., 2013
"The southeastern United States gold rush (1799-1849) is a period when gold mining progressed fro... more "The southeastern United States gold rush (1799-1849) is a period when gold mining progressed from primitive methods developed in the 15th to 16th century to more practical, rapid, and profitable technologies adapted to the geology of the American South. The rapid exploitation of the California gold fields (1849-1855) depended greatly upon the modified techniques and expertise developed in North Carolina and Georgia. But how did these farmers-turned-miners gain the necessary knowledge, skills, and equipment to produce these changes?
While Benjamin Silliman’s American Journal of Science and Arts, Robert Blakewell’s Introduction to Geology (1829) or William Maclure’s Observations on the Geology of the United States of America (1809) were important to academic geologic thought and practice at the time, the part-time miners and “boomers” more often read extracted articles from these and other American or European journals and books from a less lofty source - the newspaper. The Miners’ & Farmers’ Journal represents the first weekly North Carolina newspaper that specifically addressed mining and geology in addition to agricultural topics and techniques. The newspaper was available at public houses, reading rooms, and by subscription. In addition to reports on the mining practices and techniques found in Chile, Mexico, Russia and elsewhere, notices of new mines or the sale of potential gold deposits were advertised, as were proposals or investment opportunities for the development or group ownership of an established gold mine. As gold mining moved from placer to underground mining, paid advertisements of equipment and mining materials as well as patent notices for new and improved mining devices became prevalent. The Miners’ & Farmers’ Journal provided the farmers-turned-miners a valuable knowledge resource and allowed for the dissemination of the necessary knowledge and background to utilize these new techniques and equipment. Other newspapers followed their lead and the interchange of news articles and announcements of gold discoveries throughout the southeastern United States helped foment the gold fever that changed the South’s economic and social landscape."
Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs. Vol. 44, No. 7, p.132, Nov 4, 2012
The opening of the New Almaden quicksilver mine in southern California in 1846 was one of the rea... more The opening of the New Almaden quicksilver mine in southern California in 1846 was one of the reasons for the overwhelming success of the California Gold Rush (1849-1860). Mercury was an important component in the extraction of gold from those rich deposits and its usefulness had already been well established earlier in the gold fields of the American South.
One of the more puzzling issues in the gold mining in the American South was the source of the mercury used for the amalgamation and refining processes. The earliest mention of mercury and gold mining is from the Reed Gold (placer) Mine in Cabarrus County. Stephen Ayres (August 1805) described a miner who had a “machine which he had made in Baltimore, to clear the coarse sand from the fine and the gold, and prepare it to be mixed with the mercury.” A later report (1828) by Rothe, who surveyed the gold mines (placer) of the Piedmont, lamented on the loss of gold to the tailings and how the amalgamation with mercury would improve the production. This report would have had wide circulation among the mining interests and may have led to more mercury use in the southeastern gold fields in the 1830’s. Gold mining in the southeastern United States went underground sometime between 1828 and 1830. Processing the pyrite- and chalcopyrite-rich ore required more crushing and processing to extract the gold. Mercury amalgamation, as well as roasting and other techniques, was necessary to reduce the loss of gold to the tailing pile. Miners needed mercury in bulk: the Orange Grove Mine (Virginia) reportedly used 250 to 300 pounds of mercury annually.
The potential sources of mercury for the southern gold fields from 1800 to ~1850 were Spain (via London and the Rothschild family business), Mexico, Chile, and Hungary. Shipped in 76.5 lb cast iron flasks, the mercury would have arrived in Boston, New York City or Baltimore and the bulky flasks would have had to be transshipped by coastal packet, stagecoach, or cart to the mining regions. Records of quicksilver exports from Britain in the 1830s range from hundreds to thousands of quintals (1 quintal = 100 lbs), with the highest being 8572 quintals in 1835. Although some of this may have been used in the vermilion industry in New York, a portion of this may have found its way south into the gold fields as well as the newly established Federal mints who were coining the golden metal.
Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, Mar 24, 2011
In July 1916, two major weather systems passed over the Carolinas. The first storm brought widesp... more In July 1916, two major weather systems passed over the Carolinas. The first storm brought widespread flooding, but no report of major landslides. It’s most significant effect was to increase antecedent moisture conditions, setting the stage for an even larger disaster. A week later, rains from the second storm inundated much of western North Carolina. Rainfall totaled 4-16 inches from July 14-18; a record maximum of 22 inches in 24 hours was measured at Altapass in Mitchell County on July 15. This intense rainfall probably triggered hundreds, if not thousands, of landslides in western North Carolina.
The facts surrounding the flooding and landslides associated with this nearly century old storm have since become entangled in a mixture of oral and family history, legend, and outright myth. For this investigation, we collected information from historical documents, death certificates, scientific literature, field investigations, and first-hand accounts from newspapers, survivors and witnesses to synthesize a history of the landslides associated with the July 1916 storm.
What has emerged is a story of a storm that not only affected the western mountains, but also the Piedmont as far east as Alexander County. Landslides (primarily debris flows and rockslides) were reported in 7 counties and along hundreds of miles of railroad track and roads. Landslide impact alone killed at least 24 people. Flooding killed an additional 25 people. The July 1916 storm not only disrupted the flow of daily life but also caused a rethinking of major transportation arteries and the abandonment of traditional mountain homesteads and communities.
Recent mapping in Doughton Park in Wilkes County has identified likely deposits from some of the 1916 debris flows in the devastated Basin Creek Community. During completion of the landslide hazard mapping in Henderson County the site of a fatal debris flow was located in the Middle Fork drainage, as well as the general locations for five other 1916 landslide sites in the county. Although these landslides have proven difficult to locate in the field, the documentation of historical landslide locations and damage has furthered our understanding of landslide hazard areas in western North Carolina and where and when such events are likely to occur in the future.
Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, Vol. 43, No. 2, p. 18, Mar 24, 2011
Ebenezer Emmons was appointed the first State Geologist of the Second North Carolina Geological S... more Ebenezer Emmons was appointed the first State Geologist of the Second North Carolina Geological Survey in October 1851. In many ways this position was a haven from the legal and academic-political controversy his work in New York on the Taconic System had engendered. It allowed him opportunity to apply his expertise to detailed geological investigations and provide practical information on rocks and other materials essential to North Carolina’s economy and inhabitants. Within a year, Emmons had traversed the eastern Coastal Plain, investigating the potential of marl for agricultural purposes. The coal deposits of the Deep River Basin were also evaluated for their quality, quantity and cost to utilize, and to justify the improvement made to navigation along the Deep River.
By 1856, Emmons and his son, Ebenezer Emmons, Jr. (appointed Assistant Geologist in 1852) had examined the natural resources of the midland counties, commented on navigation and waterpower issues of the rivers, and placed them in “a full elucidation of its geology.” Emmons argued that information was “designed to advance not only economical or practical geology, but theoretical also.”
However, politics and the rumble of war greatly curtailed Emmons’ Survey and personal freedom. “The political conditions under which we are living in the south is quite oppressive. I cannot but look with great fear upon the results of agitation and it unfits me for work.” Although he had lodgings in Raleigh, he visited only to do his geological investigations, while maintaining his home in Albany, NY. After he left Albany on September 1860, he was unable to return and “… not to be corresponded with, and sealed up by the Rebellion.”
During the war years, Emmons made geological excursions to the western counties, prepared geologic maps of the State, the Deep River and Dan River coalfields, and identified material for “munitions of war.” Ill health confined Emmons to his plantation in Brunswick County where he died on October 1, 1863 surrounded by his wife and son. Emmons, Jr. continued the work on a geological map, but resigned from the Survey in April 1866. The majority of the reports and cabinets, as well as “sufficient manuscript to make 1200 octavo pages of published reports," were either lost or destroyed at the end of the war, leaving little of his important contributions to the geological story of North Carolina.
Geol. Soc. America Abstr. with Programs, Mar 24, 2011
Located in south-central North Carolina, the Uwharrie Formation (586 ± 20 Ma) was a region of gol... more Located in south-central North Carolina, the Uwharrie Formation (586 ± 20 Ma) was a region of gold exploration in the mid 1980’s by the Phelps Dodge Corporation. Primarily a felsic pyroclastic suite ranging from rhyolitic to dacitic in composition, these rocks experienced mild greenschist metamorphism and hydrothermal alteration circa 480 Ma. The Allred Mine, located in Grays Chapel Quadrangle, Randolph County, North Carolina was drilled with NX core to a depth of 523 feet. The predominantly crystal-lithic tuff contains quartz + calcite ± pyrite ± chalcopyrite ± arsenopyrite ± epidote and possibly gold. Carbonate abundance, distribution, and identity were determined using alizarin-red and potassium ferrocyanide blue staining techniques. Calcite was present only sporadically throughout the core and was mostly found as fracture/vein fill or as disseminated crystals. Calcite twin geometry, using the method of Ferrill et al. (1991), was evaluated to provide an estimate for deformation temperatures in this core. Type I twins form at temperatures under 150°C, while Type II form between 150°C and 200°C. Type III form at temperatures between 200°C and 250°C and Type IV form at temperatures over 250°C. At shallower depths, Type I, II, III, and IV twins were observed (between 204’ and 214’). However, at greater depths, only Type I and II twins were observed (389’). One explanation for the higher-grade deformation temperature higher in the core, as well as the distribution of vein-fill calcite, could be introduction of a hydrothermal fluid. These results, and further study, will help define the metamorphic alteration and deformation in these rocks.
01/2011; In proceeding of: 2nd Annual Reconstructive and Experimental Archaeology (RE-ARC) Conference, At Gastonia, NC, Volume: 2, 2011
Many regional taxonomic sequences for Woodland period pottery from the Southeastern U.S. include... more Many regional taxonomic sequences for Woodland period pottery from the Southeastern U.S. include grog-tempered ware. Often the detection of grog is sufficient grounds to classify pottery to a particular type. The methods used by archaeological ceramicists for identifying grog are typically assumed to be effective, although the methods and level of documentation vary among ceramicists. In consequence, there is growing interest in petrographic analysis as a more accurate method for identifying and quantifying ceramic inclusions such as grog. This paper describes the results of an experiment that compares archaeological grog-tempered pottery and grog-tempered ceramic briquettes made with measured proportions of grog and clay. Replica briquettes with known volume ratios of clay and grog are subjected to petrographic point-count analysis to ascertain the accuracy of the point-count method for quantifying and estimating grog inclusions in prehistoric pottery. Sampling bias, introduced when ceramics are thin sectioned and again when thin sections are point counted, tend to under represent actual amounts of inclusions. Results of this study suggest the magnitude of the difference between point-counted and measured values, and provide data necessary to bring the two into alignment.
01/2010; In proceeding of: First Annual Reconstructive/Experimental Archaeology Conference (RE-ARC), At Gastonia, NC, Volume: 1, 2010
Constructing ceramic sequences by assigning pottery samples to types that relate to specific geog... more Constructing ceramic sequences by assigning pottery samples to types that relate to specific geographic regions and time periods is an important archaeological tool for understanding prehistoric culture. Many regional sequences of Woodland period pottery in the Southeastern U.S. include grog-tempered types, and often the identification of grog is a sufficient condition for classifying a potsherd to a particular type. Regrettably, the identification of grog in archaeological pottery is currently not a straightforward process. To the archaeologist, grog is pulverized or crushed ceramic material that is added to clay by the potter to change the clay’s workability or firing properties; however, natural clay often includes lumps, such as clay clasts, argillaceous fragments, or hematitic clots that can closely resemble grog. Distinguishing among naturally occurring clay lumps and grog can be difficult even microscopically in thin section. This paper describes the petrographic analysis of grog-tempered pottery replicated under anthropologically appropriate experimental conditions.
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Papers and conference proceedings by Michael Smith
Why ACE Books dabbled in the publication of this genre is not surprising. Tales of the supernatural and the unusual or odd has enlivened many a dark and stormy night and enthralled or scared millions of readers. By the 1960’s television had opened the door on speculative fiction or ”the unknown” (i.e., Alcoa Presents: One Step Beyond, The Twilight Zone, and Star Trek) and suspense/horror (i.e., Behind the Green Door, Lights Out, and Alfred Hitchcock Presents). Thus, a taste for the odd and the weird had been found in the book buying public, and by damn, ACE Books was going to fill that niche.
Published petrographic and geochemical studies of the Catoctin Fm. have focused solely on the western limb of the BRa. These data have been used in previous interpretations of the Catoctin Fm. to describe the entire geographic extent, but no comparable results have been obtained from either the hinge or eastern regions of the BRa. This study provides new metamorphic mineral assemblage and whole-rock geochemical data from Catoctin Fm. samples collected from the western, eastern, and hinge regions for the BRa to compare with published western limb data. These data are used to evaluate whether the western limb geochemical signature is different from the hinge and eastern limb regions, and to evaluate if any discernable differences in metamorphic grade could be evaluated throughout the BRa.
Catoctin Fm. metabasaltic rocks mineral assemblage is: albite + chlorite + epidote + actinolite + opaque minerals ± calcite ± quartz. A majority of the metabasaltic rock samples contain relict porphyritic or amygdaloidal textures. Intercalated lavender phyllites are very fine grained and consist mainly of white mica + quartz + opaque minerals. Based upon mineral assemblage, these samples fall within the greenschist facies and, although actinolite size coarsens toward the hinge region, there is no evidence for amphibolite facies conditions.
Thirty-five (35) samples were analyzed for major, trace and rare-earth elements (REE). The metabasaltic rock data plot in the “MORB within-plate tholeiites” field on various discriminatory diagrams. LREE enrichment (20-100X), both positive and negative Eu-anomalies and flat HREE (10-40X) characterize the metabasaltic rocks, but the phyllites are more evolved (LREE ~200-400X). In general, trace and rare earth elements are enriched compared to chondrite, N-MORB, and primordial mantle, and depleted compared to upper continental crust. Overall, the western limb rocks are more enriched than the eastern limb and least enriched in the hinge region of the BRa.
The interbed samples of this study are from the east side of the Rivanna River and are stratigraphically between the upper Lynchburg Formation to the west and the overlying Catoctin Formation metabasalts of the eastern limb of the Blue Ridge anticlinorium. Previous investigators have described these interbeds as sandstones (Bailey et al. 2017; Bloomer et al. 1947; Reed et al. 1955; Dilliard et al. 1999), but little detailed petrographic or textural investigation has been reported.
Preliminary examination of the seven samples reveals two major groups of clastic rocks. The stratigraphically lower group (4 samples) are mostly tan, beige and pink in color, clast or grain supported and finely bedded at the base but more massive toward the upper contact. The minerals (quartz, alkali and plagioclase feldspar, opaque minerals, tourmaline, zircon) are angular to subrounded and fine to medium grained. Quartz feldspar rock fragments (0.5 to .75 mm) are common. Based upon the mineral composition and grain size, these rocks are more an arkosic sandstone. Some of the feldspars exhibit exsolution, as well as argillite (clay mineral) alteration. Hematite staining is common and may be related to weathering of the opaque minerals.
The other group, which is stratigraphically above the arkosic sandstone, appears to be the contact zone with the overlying Catoctin Formation metabasalts. This rock ranges in color from dark green and maroon with angular to subangular grains that are largely matrix supported. The minerals (chlorite, tourmaline, opaque minerals, alkali and plagioclase feldspar, quartz, epidote) and metabasalt rock fragments (0.7 to 20 mm) are coarser grained. Most of these mineral grains are subangular and may be termed breccia, suggesting that these might be related to either fracturing or faulting. Much of the quartz is in the form of a fracture or vein fill. These samples have less quartz and more opaque minerals than the arkosic sandstone. Some feldspars show exsolution as well as sericite (white mica) alteration. Apart from this, there were no other micas observed in any of these seven thin sections.
The first goal of this study was to determine which specific elements could be used with validity from collected whole rock pXRF data. This was accomplished by comparing collected pXRF data to XRF, ICP-MS, and INAA data for known United States Geological Survey (USGS) and National Bureau of Standards (NBS) standard reference materials. Specific elements with a ± 20% deviation from the USGS or NBS reported value were considered to be invalid for analytical interpretations. Based on this criterion, major element oxides Al2O3 and MgO and trace elements Ba, Sc, Y, and Zn were excluded from further geochemical applications.
The second goal of this study was to apply specific geochemical diagrams to additional whole rock geochemical data collected from hand samples taken within the Catoctin Formation in central Virginia. The Neoproterozoic Catoctin Formation extends at least 320 kilometers along strike from a location south of Carlisle, Pennsylvania, to several kilometers north of the James River in Virginia. Metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks comprise the Catoctin Formation and are within middle to upper greenschist facies. The metamorphic mineral assemblage for the metabasalt includes albite + chlorite + epidote + sphene + ilmenite ± actinolite ± quartz ± calcite. Whole rock geochemical data collected from metabasalt rocks compared to average N-MORB geochemical data were plotted using isocon and spider plot diagrams. Major element oxides CaO, SiO2, P2O5, and TiO2 and trace elements Rb and Sr are mobilized through hydration reaction equilibrium. Isocon and spider diagrams show the degree of metasomatism when an altered sample is compared to an unaltered sample, which in this study is average N-MORB geochemical data.
In the late 20th century, aquaculture became an important economic resource for North Carolina, specifically the Pamlico Sound area. However, overharvesting of oysters has resulted in research (2002) to improve their populations. In early 2010, marl has been placed into the sound to provide a solid substrate to allow growth and development of oysters in a reef-like habitat. Although the mundane use of marl in agriculture has waned, in this new age of aquaculture, marl can still be considered an important economic resource for the southeastern United States.
The western genre “triple” format novels were published in the single volume ACE editions in M- and five-digit letter-number series. Western genre stories were very popular in the late 1940’s to early 1950’s, but by the end of the 1950’s western titles (not sales) were declining. In part, the declining trend was “probably due to the superabundance of western shows on TV” (Publishers Weekly, 1959; p. 53). Publishers started to look elsewhere for new material that they could sell on an even more regular and predictable basis (Radway, 1984).
For ACE Books this meant trying a new method of packaging. This had occurred before. The ACE Double (in science fiction, mystery, and western genres) had popularized the tête-bêche format of two stories packaged into one volume. This marketing ploy brought brand recognition and associated sales. So, if two stories in one volume were good, three would make it even better, or so ACE Books hoped.
From the end of Reconstruction (1877) to 1930, gold mining in North Carolina was sporadic and often funded by outside investors, which led to some rampant speculation and get-rich-quick schemes. The work of the North Carolina Geological Survey under W. C. Kerr (1865-1882), and later publications by Nitze and Hanna (1896) and Nitze and Wilkins (1897), produced a flurry of complimentary scientific papers about various mining regions that were read by mining engineers as well as by potential investors. The glimmers of promise brought about by these reports, as well as the newspaper stories and articles, provided the speculators with a framework for their scams.
Probably the most flamboyant of these grifters was Walter George Newman (1860-1918), who epitomized the credo of this period - speculate, sell mining stocks, and run away with the profits. Although speculators like Newman reinvigorated the mining industry to line their own pockets, they generally produced little gold. This was because copper mining, with gold and silver as secondary products, drove most of the mining fervor during this period. It used increasing complex technology and had associated environmental issues. Even with the technology and the labor available, more money was made selling paper or speculating on metals futures than by actually extracting gold, silver, or copper from the earth.
Following the Great Depression of the 1930s, gold prices and production slowly increased until the Second World War, but never became a major industry in the South as they were out-competed by more profitable gold fields in the western United States, Alaska, Canada, Australia, and South Africa.
This is not surprising in many ways. Medical romances of one sort or another were popular in the 1930s, but it was only in the late 1950s that the nurse became integral to the formula (Hallam, 2000). In Britain, the publishing house Mills & Boon, who had a formalistic and successful history of romance publication since the 1930’s, have made the “nurse romance” (called “Doctor/Nurse” series) a lucrative genre, with a worldwide audience (Mangat, 1988; McAleer, 1990). So successful were Mills & Boon that in late 1950’s a small paperback publishing firm in Canada called Harlequin approached them for the North American rights to some of the “Doctor/Nurse” titles. The success of this venture then led Mills & Boon to start the release of their own paperback series of “nurse romances’ in 1960 and continuing to today (Hallam, 2000).
Films and television, both in Britain and North America, portrayed these dedicated professionals in a positive light, not failing to include how romance was a major part of their nursing adventures. Women ‘s magazines ran countless stories reassuring young women that one of the greatest rewards of nursing was to find physician husbands. In these venues, nursing was clearly viewed as a stopgap to marriage (Hughes, 1988).
In the United States and Britain, the Sue Barton and Cherry Ames series of nursing career novels appealed to a large segment of the population, yearning not only for the fantasy of the romance between doctor and nurse, but also dreams of self determination or a more prestigious profession than what had been available to her mother or grandmother. This was especially true since between the close of the Second World War and into the early 1950s the only career options available for women with a modicum of education were secretarial work, banking, teaching, and nursing – a situation that continued nearly unchanged until the mid-1970s. In particular, nursing was considered a prestigious profession, requiring a capable and intelligent young woman who had the heart to dedicate her life to caretaking…unless, of course, she met a husband (Ryan, 2008).
Eventually the “nurse romance” fell out of favor by the mid- to late 1970s. Other genres, such as bodice-ripping historical romances with cover art depicting burly heroes and buxom heroines or gothic romance/suspense novels where a solitary young woman, either trapped or exploring a remote castle, tries to determine if the darkly handsome owner is hero, villain, or vampire, became popular. Leslie H. Whitten’s Moon of the Wolf (ACE 54000), whose original title was Death of a Nurse, is a curious mixture of “nurse romance,” “gothic” overtones, and mystery genres and may represent an attempt to follow this trend. However, a more likely reason for the decline in “nurse romance” popularity may have been that women stared to have much wider career choices and opportunities than was portrayed in the popular literature.
Nevertheless, what was once old is new again. Popular TV shows like "ER," "House," “Private Practice” and “Grey’s Anatomy” have once again whet the readers appetite for books featuring doctors and nurses, but with a more modern twist and much more sex! For example, since 1993 the UK publisher Mills & Boon have published four “Medical Romances” (formerly called “Doctor-Nurse Romances”) every month while in the United States the publisher Harlequin has recently established a new (or renewed) line called “Harlequin Medical Romances” (Atkinson, 2000).
Ceramic sherd samples from the Anderson Collection, provided by the USVI National Park, were defined as Cedrosan Saladoid (500 BCE – 400 CE) by type and form. Petrographic investigation of 9 sherds found their aplastic composition was dominated by very coarse to medium mineral fragments (quartz, feldspar and amphibole), volcaniclastic and carbonate rock fragments and some contained fossil and shell fragments. In comparison, the soil sample from the region contained very coarse to medium carbonate (fossiliferous to micritic) and volcaniclastic material. Both the soil and sherd samples contained similar mineral fragments, volcaniclastic and crystalline carbonate rock fragments, as well as micritic mud. The micritic mud in the soil sample contained some mineral grains (hornblende and feldspar). The soil sample also contained white mica and volcaniclastic rock fragments (feldspar + biotite) while the sherd samples do not. The fossil fragments in the sherd and soil samples are elongate shell fragments and gastropods. The soil sample contained a coral fragment and lath-like opaque material (organic debris).
Based upon the petrography of the St. Georges sherds, their materials could have been derived from either the graben sediments or the eroded materials from the northwestern horst. 3 of the 9 sherds contain only volcaniclastic rock and mineral fragments that could be evidence for manufacture in another area and relocation to St. Georges. The remaining sherds all have crystalline and micritic mud carbonate rock fragments. These could have been formed due to erosion of the volcanic material into the graben and incorporation into the clay loams. Study of additional sherds from this region could help define the provenance question more precisely.
While Benjamin Silliman’s American Journal of Science and Arts, Robert Blakewell’s Introduction to Geology (1829) or William Maclure’s Observations on the Geology of the United States of America (1809) were important to academic geologic thought and practice at the time, the part-time miners and “boomers” more often read extracted articles from these and other American or European journals and books from a less lofty source - the newspaper. The Miners’ & Farmers’ Journal represents the first weekly North Carolina newspaper that specifically addressed mining and geology in addition to agricultural topics and techniques. The newspaper was available at public houses, reading rooms, and by subscription. In addition to reports on the mining practices and techniques found in Chile, Mexico, Russia and elsewhere, notices of new mines or the sale of potential gold deposits were advertised, as were proposals or investment opportunities for the development or group ownership of an established gold mine. As gold mining moved from placer to underground mining, paid advertisements of equipment and mining materials as well as patent notices for new and improved mining devices became prevalent. The Miners’ & Farmers’ Journal provided the farmers-turned-miners a valuable knowledge resource and allowed for the dissemination of the necessary knowledge and background to utilize these new techniques and equipment. Other newspapers followed their lead and the interchange of news articles and announcements of gold discoveries throughout the southeastern United States helped foment the gold fever that changed the South’s economic and social landscape."
One of the more puzzling issues in the gold mining in the American South was the source of the mercury used for the amalgamation and refining processes. The earliest mention of mercury and gold mining is from the Reed Gold (placer) Mine in Cabarrus County. Stephen Ayres (August 1805) described a miner who had a “machine which he had made in Baltimore, to clear the coarse sand from the fine and the gold, and prepare it to be mixed with the mercury.” A later report (1828) by Rothe, who surveyed the gold mines (placer) of the Piedmont, lamented on the loss of gold to the tailings and how the amalgamation with mercury would improve the production. This report would have had wide circulation among the mining interests and may have led to more mercury use in the southeastern gold fields in the 1830’s. Gold mining in the southeastern United States went underground sometime between 1828 and 1830. Processing the pyrite- and chalcopyrite-rich ore required more crushing and processing to extract the gold. Mercury amalgamation, as well as roasting and other techniques, was necessary to reduce the loss of gold to the tailing pile. Miners needed mercury in bulk: the Orange Grove Mine (Virginia) reportedly used 250 to 300 pounds of mercury annually.
The potential sources of mercury for the southern gold fields from 1800 to ~1850 were Spain (via London and the Rothschild family business), Mexico, Chile, and Hungary. Shipped in 76.5 lb cast iron flasks, the mercury would have arrived in Boston, New York City or Baltimore and the bulky flasks would have had to be transshipped by coastal packet, stagecoach, or cart to the mining regions. Records of quicksilver exports from Britain in the 1830s range from hundreds to thousands of quintals (1 quintal = 100 lbs), with the highest being 8572 quintals in 1835. Although some of this may have been used in the vermilion industry in New York, a portion of this may have found its way south into the gold fields as well as the newly established Federal mints who were coining the golden metal.
The facts surrounding the flooding and landslides associated with this nearly century old storm have since become entangled in a mixture of oral and family history, legend, and outright myth. For this investigation, we collected information from historical documents, death certificates, scientific literature, field investigations, and first-hand accounts from newspapers, survivors and witnesses to synthesize a history of the landslides associated with the July 1916 storm.
What has emerged is a story of a storm that not only affected the western mountains, but also the Piedmont as far east as Alexander County. Landslides (primarily debris flows and rockslides) were reported in 7 counties and along hundreds of miles of railroad track and roads. Landslide impact alone killed at least 24 people. Flooding killed an additional 25 people. The July 1916 storm not only disrupted the flow of daily life but also caused a rethinking of major transportation arteries and the abandonment of traditional mountain homesteads and communities.
Recent mapping in Doughton Park in Wilkes County has identified likely deposits from some of the 1916 debris flows in the devastated Basin Creek Community. During completion of the landslide hazard mapping in Henderson County the site of a fatal debris flow was located in the Middle Fork drainage, as well as the general locations for five other 1916 landslide sites in the county. Although these landslides have proven difficult to locate in the field, the documentation of historical landslide locations and damage has furthered our understanding of landslide hazard areas in western North Carolina and where and when such events are likely to occur in the future.
By 1856, Emmons and his son, Ebenezer Emmons, Jr. (appointed Assistant Geologist in 1852) had examined the natural resources of the midland counties, commented on navigation and waterpower issues of the rivers, and placed them in “a full elucidation of its geology.” Emmons argued that information was “designed to advance not only economical or practical geology, but theoretical also.”
However, politics and the rumble of war greatly curtailed Emmons’ Survey and personal freedom. “The political conditions under which we are living in the south is quite oppressive. I cannot but look with great fear upon the results of agitation and it unfits me for work.” Although he had lodgings in Raleigh, he visited only to do his geological investigations, while maintaining his home in Albany, NY. After he left Albany on September 1860, he was unable to return and “… not to be corresponded with, and sealed up by the Rebellion.”
During the war years, Emmons made geological excursions to the western counties, prepared geologic maps of the State, the Deep River and Dan River coalfields, and identified material for “munitions of war.” Ill health confined Emmons to his plantation in Brunswick County where he died on October 1, 1863 surrounded by his wife and son. Emmons, Jr. continued the work on a geological map, but resigned from the Survey in April 1866. The majority of the reports and cabinets, as well as “sufficient manuscript to make 1200 octavo pages of published reports," were either lost or destroyed at the end of the war, leaving little of his important contributions to the geological story of North Carolina.
Why ACE Books dabbled in the publication of this genre is not surprising. Tales of the supernatural and the unusual or odd has enlivened many a dark and stormy night and enthralled or scared millions of readers. By the 1960’s television had opened the door on speculative fiction or ”the unknown” (i.e., Alcoa Presents: One Step Beyond, The Twilight Zone, and Star Trek) and suspense/horror (i.e., Behind the Green Door, Lights Out, and Alfred Hitchcock Presents). Thus, a taste for the odd and the weird had been found in the book buying public, and by damn, ACE Books was going to fill that niche.
Published petrographic and geochemical studies of the Catoctin Fm. have focused solely on the western limb of the BRa. These data have been used in previous interpretations of the Catoctin Fm. to describe the entire geographic extent, but no comparable results have been obtained from either the hinge or eastern regions of the BRa. This study provides new metamorphic mineral assemblage and whole-rock geochemical data from Catoctin Fm. samples collected from the western, eastern, and hinge regions for the BRa to compare with published western limb data. These data are used to evaluate whether the western limb geochemical signature is different from the hinge and eastern limb regions, and to evaluate if any discernable differences in metamorphic grade could be evaluated throughout the BRa.
Catoctin Fm. metabasaltic rocks mineral assemblage is: albite + chlorite + epidote + actinolite + opaque minerals ± calcite ± quartz. A majority of the metabasaltic rock samples contain relict porphyritic or amygdaloidal textures. Intercalated lavender phyllites are very fine grained and consist mainly of white mica + quartz + opaque minerals. Based upon mineral assemblage, these samples fall within the greenschist facies and, although actinolite size coarsens toward the hinge region, there is no evidence for amphibolite facies conditions.
Thirty-five (35) samples were analyzed for major, trace and rare-earth elements (REE). The metabasaltic rock data plot in the “MORB within-plate tholeiites” field on various discriminatory diagrams. LREE enrichment (20-100X), both positive and negative Eu-anomalies and flat HREE (10-40X) characterize the metabasaltic rocks, but the phyllites are more evolved (LREE ~200-400X). In general, trace and rare earth elements are enriched compared to chondrite, N-MORB, and primordial mantle, and depleted compared to upper continental crust. Overall, the western limb rocks are more enriched than the eastern limb and least enriched in the hinge region of the BRa.
The interbed samples of this study are from the east side of the Rivanna River and are stratigraphically between the upper Lynchburg Formation to the west and the overlying Catoctin Formation metabasalts of the eastern limb of the Blue Ridge anticlinorium. Previous investigators have described these interbeds as sandstones (Bailey et al. 2017; Bloomer et al. 1947; Reed et al. 1955; Dilliard et al. 1999), but little detailed petrographic or textural investigation has been reported.
Preliminary examination of the seven samples reveals two major groups of clastic rocks. The stratigraphically lower group (4 samples) are mostly tan, beige and pink in color, clast or grain supported and finely bedded at the base but more massive toward the upper contact. The minerals (quartz, alkali and plagioclase feldspar, opaque minerals, tourmaline, zircon) are angular to subrounded and fine to medium grained. Quartz feldspar rock fragments (0.5 to .75 mm) are common. Based upon the mineral composition and grain size, these rocks are more an arkosic sandstone. Some of the feldspars exhibit exsolution, as well as argillite (clay mineral) alteration. Hematite staining is common and may be related to weathering of the opaque minerals.
The other group, which is stratigraphically above the arkosic sandstone, appears to be the contact zone with the overlying Catoctin Formation metabasalts. This rock ranges in color from dark green and maroon with angular to subangular grains that are largely matrix supported. The minerals (chlorite, tourmaline, opaque minerals, alkali and plagioclase feldspar, quartz, epidote) and metabasalt rock fragments (0.7 to 20 mm) are coarser grained. Most of these mineral grains are subangular and may be termed breccia, suggesting that these might be related to either fracturing or faulting. Much of the quartz is in the form of a fracture or vein fill. These samples have less quartz and more opaque minerals than the arkosic sandstone. Some feldspars show exsolution as well as sericite (white mica) alteration. Apart from this, there were no other micas observed in any of these seven thin sections.
The first goal of this study was to determine which specific elements could be used with validity from collected whole rock pXRF data. This was accomplished by comparing collected pXRF data to XRF, ICP-MS, and INAA data for known United States Geological Survey (USGS) and National Bureau of Standards (NBS) standard reference materials. Specific elements with a ± 20% deviation from the USGS or NBS reported value were considered to be invalid for analytical interpretations. Based on this criterion, major element oxides Al2O3 and MgO and trace elements Ba, Sc, Y, and Zn were excluded from further geochemical applications.
The second goal of this study was to apply specific geochemical diagrams to additional whole rock geochemical data collected from hand samples taken within the Catoctin Formation in central Virginia. The Neoproterozoic Catoctin Formation extends at least 320 kilometers along strike from a location south of Carlisle, Pennsylvania, to several kilometers north of the James River in Virginia. Metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks comprise the Catoctin Formation and are within middle to upper greenschist facies. The metamorphic mineral assemblage for the metabasalt includes albite + chlorite + epidote + sphene + ilmenite ± actinolite ± quartz ± calcite. Whole rock geochemical data collected from metabasalt rocks compared to average N-MORB geochemical data were plotted using isocon and spider plot diagrams. Major element oxides CaO, SiO2, P2O5, and TiO2 and trace elements Rb and Sr are mobilized through hydration reaction equilibrium. Isocon and spider diagrams show the degree of metasomatism when an altered sample is compared to an unaltered sample, which in this study is average N-MORB geochemical data.
In the late 20th century, aquaculture became an important economic resource for North Carolina, specifically the Pamlico Sound area. However, overharvesting of oysters has resulted in research (2002) to improve their populations. In early 2010, marl has been placed into the sound to provide a solid substrate to allow growth and development of oysters in a reef-like habitat. Although the mundane use of marl in agriculture has waned, in this new age of aquaculture, marl can still be considered an important economic resource for the southeastern United States.
The western genre “triple” format novels were published in the single volume ACE editions in M- and five-digit letter-number series. Western genre stories were very popular in the late 1940’s to early 1950’s, but by the end of the 1950’s western titles (not sales) were declining. In part, the declining trend was “probably due to the superabundance of western shows on TV” (Publishers Weekly, 1959; p. 53). Publishers started to look elsewhere for new material that they could sell on an even more regular and predictable basis (Radway, 1984).
For ACE Books this meant trying a new method of packaging. This had occurred before. The ACE Double (in science fiction, mystery, and western genres) had popularized the tête-bêche format of two stories packaged into one volume. This marketing ploy brought brand recognition and associated sales. So, if two stories in one volume were good, three would make it even better, or so ACE Books hoped.
From the end of Reconstruction (1877) to 1930, gold mining in North Carolina was sporadic and often funded by outside investors, which led to some rampant speculation and get-rich-quick schemes. The work of the North Carolina Geological Survey under W. C. Kerr (1865-1882), and later publications by Nitze and Hanna (1896) and Nitze and Wilkins (1897), produced a flurry of complimentary scientific papers about various mining regions that were read by mining engineers as well as by potential investors. The glimmers of promise brought about by these reports, as well as the newspaper stories and articles, provided the speculators with a framework for their scams.
Probably the most flamboyant of these grifters was Walter George Newman (1860-1918), who epitomized the credo of this period - speculate, sell mining stocks, and run away with the profits. Although speculators like Newman reinvigorated the mining industry to line their own pockets, they generally produced little gold. This was because copper mining, with gold and silver as secondary products, drove most of the mining fervor during this period. It used increasing complex technology and had associated environmental issues. Even with the technology and the labor available, more money was made selling paper or speculating on metals futures than by actually extracting gold, silver, or copper from the earth.
Following the Great Depression of the 1930s, gold prices and production slowly increased until the Second World War, but never became a major industry in the South as they were out-competed by more profitable gold fields in the western United States, Alaska, Canada, Australia, and South Africa.
This is not surprising in many ways. Medical romances of one sort or another were popular in the 1930s, but it was only in the late 1950s that the nurse became integral to the formula (Hallam, 2000). In Britain, the publishing house Mills & Boon, who had a formalistic and successful history of romance publication since the 1930’s, have made the “nurse romance” (called “Doctor/Nurse” series) a lucrative genre, with a worldwide audience (Mangat, 1988; McAleer, 1990). So successful were Mills & Boon that in late 1950’s a small paperback publishing firm in Canada called Harlequin approached them for the North American rights to some of the “Doctor/Nurse” titles. The success of this venture then led Mills & Boon to start the release of their own paperback series of “nurse romances’ in 1960 and continuing to today (Hallam, 2000).
Films and television, both in Britain and North America, portrayed these dedicated professionals in a positive light, not failing to include how romance was a major part of their nursing adventures. Women ‘s magazines ran countless stories reassuring young women that one of the greatest rewards of nursing was to find physician husbands. In these venues, nursing was clearly viewed as a stopgap to marriage (Hughes, 1988).
In the United States and Britain, the Sue Barton and Cherry Ames series of nursing career novels appealed to a large segment of the population, yearning not only for the fantasy of the romance between doctor and nurse, but also dreams of self determination or a more prestigious profession than what had been available to her mother or grandmother. This was especially true since between the close of the Second World War and into the early 1950s the only career options available for women with a modicum of education were secretarial work, banking, teaching, and nursing – a situation that continued nearly unchanged until the mid-1970s. In particular, nursing was considered a prestigious profession, requiring a capable and intelligent young woman who had the heart to dedicate her life to caretaking…unless, of course, she met a husband (Ryan, 2008).
Eventually the “nurse romance” fell out of favor by the mid- to late 1970s. Other genres, such as bodice-ripping historical romances with cover art depicting burly heroes and buxom heroines or gothic romance/suspense novels where a solitary young woman, either trapped or exploring a remote castle, tries to determine if the darkly handsome owner is hero, villain, or vampire, became popular. Leslie H. Whitten’s Moon of the Wolf (ACE 54000), whose original title was Death of a Nurse, is a curious mixture of “nurse romance,” “gothic” overtones, and mystery genres and may represent an attempt to follow this trend. However, a more likely reason for the decline in “nurse romance” popularity may have been that women stared to have much wider career choices and opportunities than was portrayed in the popular literature.
Nevertheless, what was once old is new again. Popular TV shows like "ER," "House," “Private Practice” and “Grey’s Anatomy” have once again whet the readers appetite for books featuring doctors and nurses, but with a more modern twist and much more sex! For example, since 1993 the UK publisher Mills & Boon have published four “Medical Romances” (formerly called “Doctor-Nurse Romances”) every month while in the United States the publisher Harlequin has recently established a new (or renewed) line called “Harlequin Medical Romances” (Atkinson, 2000).
Ceramic sherd samples from the Anderson Collection, provided by the USVI National Park, were defined as Cedrosan Saladoid (500 BCE – 400 CE) by type and form. Petrographic investigation of 9 sherds found their aplastic composition was dominated by very coarse to medium mineral fragments (quartz, feldspar and amphibole), volcaniclastic and carbonate rock fragments and some contained fossil and shell fragments. In comparison, the soil sample from the region contained very coarse to medium carbonate (fossiliferous to micritic) and volcaniclastic material. Both the soil and sherd samples contained similar mineral fragments, volcaniclastic and crystalline carbonate rock fragments, as well as micritic mud. The micritic mud in the soil sample contained some mineral grains (hornblende and feldspar). The soil sample also contained white mica and volcaniclastic rock fragments (feldspar + biotite) while the sherd samples do not. The fossil fragments in the sherd and soil samples are elongate shell fragments and gastropods. The soil sample contained a coral fragment and lath-like opaque material (organic debris).
Based upon the petrography of the St. Georges sherds, their materials could have been derived from either the graben sediments or the eroded materials from the northwestern horst. 3 of the 9 sherds contain only volcaniclastic rock and mineral fragments that could be evidence for manufacture in another area and relocation to St. Georges. The remaining sherds all have crystalline and micritic mud carbonate rock fragments. These could have been formed due to erosion of the volcanic material into the graben and incorporation into the clay loams. Study of additional sherds from this region could help define the provenance question more precisely.
While Benjamin Silliman’s American Journal of Science and Arts, Robert Blakewell’s Introduction to Geology (1829) or William Maclure’s Observations on the Geology of the United States of America (1809) were important to academic geologic thought and practice at the time, the part-time miners and “boomers” more often read extracted articles from these and other American or European journals and books from a less lofty source - the newspaper. The Miners’ & Farmers’ Journal represents the first weekly North Carolina newspaper that specifically addressed mining and geology in addition to agricultural topics and techniques. The newspaper was available at public houses, reading rooms, and by subscription. In addition to reports on the mining practices and techniques found in Chile, Mexico, Russia and elsewhere, notices of new mines or the sale of potential gold deposits were advertised, as were proposals or investment opportunities for the development or group ownership of an established gold mine. As gold mining moved from placer to underground mining, paid advertisements of equipment and mining materials as well as patent notices for new and improved mining devices became prevalent. The Miners’ & Farmers’ Journal provided the farmers-turned-miners a valuable knowledge resource and allowed for the dissemination of the necessary knowledge and background to utilize these new techniques and equipment. Other newspapers followed their lead and the interchange of news articles and announcements of gold discoveries throughout the southeastern United States helped foment the gold fever that changed the South’s economic and social landscape."
One of the more puzzling issues in the gold mining in the American South was the source of the mercury used for the amalgamation and refining processes. The earliest mention of mercury and gold mining is from the Reed Gold (placer) Mine in Cabarrus County. Stephen Ayres (August 1805) described a miner who had a “machine which he had made in Baltimore, to clear the coarse sand from the fine and the gold, and prepare it to be mixed with the mercury.” A later report (1828) by Rothe, who surveyed the gold mines (placer) of the Piedmont, lamented on the loss of gold to the tailings and how the amalgamation with mercury would improve the production. This report would have had wide circulation among the mining interests and may have led to more mercury use in the southeastern gold fields in the 1830’s. Gold mining in the southeastern United States went underground sometime between 1828 and 1830. Processing the pyrite- and chalcopyrite-rich ore required more crushing and processing to extract the gold. Mercury amalgamation, as well as roasting and other techniques, was necessary to reduce the loss of gold to the tailing pile. Miners needed mercury in bulk: the Orange Grove Mine (Virginia) reportedly used 250 to 300 pounds of mercury annually.
The potential sources of mercury for the southern gold fields from 1800 to ~1850 were Spain (via London and the Rothschild family business), Mexico, Chile, and Hungary. Shipped in 76.5 lb cast iron flasks, the mercury would have arrived in Boston, New York City or Baltimore and the bulky flasks would have had to be transshipped by coastal packet, stagecoach, or cart to the mining regions. Records of quicksilver exports from Britain in the 1830s range from hundreds to thousands of quintals (1 quintal = 100 lbs), with the highest being 8572 quintals in 1835. Although some of this may have been used in the vermilion industry in New York, a portion of this may have found its way south into the gold fields as well as the newly established Federal mints who were coining the golden metal.
The facts surrounding the flooding and landslides associated with this nearly century old storm have since become entangled in a mixture of oral and family history, legend, and outright myth. For this investigation, we collected information from historical documents, death certificates, scientific literature, field investigations, and first-hand accounts from newspapers, survivors and witnesses to synthesize a history of the landslides associated with the July 1916 storm.
What has emerged is a story of a storm that not only affected the western mountains, but also the Piedmont as far east as Alexander County. Landslides (primarily debris flows and rockslides) were reported in 7 counties and along hundreds of miles of railroad track and roads. Landslide impact alone killed at least 24 people. Flooding killed an additional 25 people. The July 1916 storm not only disrupted the flow of daily life but also caused a rethinking of major transportation arteries and the abandonment of traditional mountain homesteads and communities.
Recent mapping in Doughton Park in Wilkes County has identified likely deposits from some of the 1916 debris flows in the devastated Basin Creek Community. During completion of the landslide hazard mapping in Henderson County the site of a fatal debris flow was located in the Middle Fork drainage, as well as the general locations for five other 1916 landslide sites in the county. Although these landslides have proven difficult to locate in the field, the documentation of historical landslide locations and damage has furthered our understanding of landslide hazard areas in western North Carolina and where and when such events are likely to occur in the future.
By 1856, Emmons and his son, Ebenezer Emmons, Jr. (appointed Assistant Geologist in 1852) had examined the natural resources of the midland counties, commented on navigation and waterpower issues of the rivers, and placed them in “a full elucidation of its geology.” Emmons argued that information was “designed to advance not only economical or practical geology, but theoretical also.”
However, politics and the rumble of war greatly curtailed Emmons’ Survey and personal freedom. “The political conditions under which we are living in the south is quite oppressive. I cannot but look with great fear upon the results of agitation and it unfits me for work.” Although he had lodgings in Raleigh, he visited only to do his geological investigations, while maintaining his home in Albany, NY. After he left Albany on September 1860, he was unable to return and “… not to be corresponded with, and sealed up by the Rebellion.”
During the war years, Emmons made geological excursions to the western counties, prepared geologic maps of the State, the Deep River and Dan River coalfields, and identified material for “munitions of war.” Ill health confined Emmons to his plantation in Brunswick County where he died on October 1, 1863 surrounded by his wife and son. Emmons, Jr. continued the work on a geological map, but resigned from the Survey in April 1866. The majority of the reports and cabinets, as well as “sufficient manuscript to make 1200 octavo pages of published reports," were either lost or destroyed at the end of the war, leaving little of his important contributions to the geological story of North Carolina.