IP 1101-09-11241ARTICULO(S) EN REVISTA: Taxonomi and phylogeny of the genus agelas (porifera, dem... more IP 1101-09-11241ARTICULO(S) EN REVISTA: Taxonomi and phylogeny of the genus agelas (porifera, demospongiae, agelaside) in;the southern caribbean sea / Parra Velandia, E. J, Zea, S. --En: bollettino dei musei. -- Vol. 66-67 (2002);p. 150. -- Taxonomi of Caibbean excavating spone species complexcliona caribbaea - C. aprica - C. langae;(porifera, hadromerida, clionaidae) / Zea, Sven, Weil, Ernesto.'-- en: Caribbean Journal of science. -- Vol.;39 N? 3 (2003); p. 348 -370. -- ITS-2 and 18S rRNA gene phylogeny of Aplysinidae (Verongida, Demospongiae) /;Zea, Sven... [et al]. -- En: Journal of molecular evolution. --Vol 60 N?3 (Mar 2005); p. 327-336. --;PONENCIA(S) EN CONGRESO: Taxonomia y filogenia preliminarde lasespeciesdel genero agelas (porifera,;demospongiae, agelasidae) presentes en el sur del mar Caribe /Parra Velandia, E. J, Zea, Sven, Soets Van. --;En: Seminario nacional del mar investigacion y desarrollode territorios promisorios (Santa Marta, Colombia).; Santa Marta. -- p. 147 -- 28 cm. -- Ecologia quimica de las esponja excavadoras cliona delitix C. aprica y;C. caribbaea - cliona sp. nov competencia, antiepibiosis yantidepredacion / Chaves Fonnegra, A...[et al]. --;En: Seminario nacional del mar investigacion y desarrollode territorios promisorios (Santa Marta, Colombia).; Santa Marta. -- p. 27 -- 28 cm
In the 1980s, certain areas in the Caribbean experienced mass mortalities of sea fans (Gorgonia f... more In the 1980s, certain areas in the Caribbean experienced mass mortalities of sea fans (Gorgonia flabellum). These areas included the coasts of Costa Rica (Guzman and Cortez 1984), Panama (Garzon-Ferreira and Zea 1992; Diaz et al. 1995), and Trinidad (Laydoo 1983). Laydoo (1983) suggested that the cause may be due to a species-specific pathogen, but microbiological studies were not performed. Although limited mortalities of gorgonian colonies were previously observed due to fish grazing (Kinzie 1973), Cyphoma sp. grazing (Harvell and Suchanek 1987), fouling and overgrowth (Wahle 1985) and tumors (Morse et al. 1977, 1981), the 1980’s outbreak showed signs of an epizootic which had spread from the southwestern to the southeastern Caribbean.
Acropora palmata is a foundational yet endangered Caribbean reef-building coral species. The lack... more Acropora palmata is a foundational yet endangered Caribbean reef-building coral species. The lack of recovery after a disease outbreak and low recruitment has led to widespread use of fragmentation to restore populations. Another option is the production of sexual recruits (settlers) via assisted reproduction to improve the genetic diversity of depleted populations, however the viability of this approach has not been tested over the long term. In 2011 and 2012, A. palmata larvae were cultured, settled, and the sexual recruits raised in an ex-situ nursery. Survival and growth were monitored over time. In 2014, these two F1 cohorts were moved to an in-situ nursery and after one year, a subset (29 colonies) was outplanted onto Cuevones Reef in the Mexican Caribbean. Growth and survival of these colonies were monitored periodically and compared to colonies that remained in the in-situ nursery. In 2019, samples were collected and analyzed for fertility and fecundity. 53% of the colonies were gravid and fecundity was 5.61 ± 1.91 oocytes and 3.04 ± 0.26 spermaries per polyp. A further 14 colonies from these two cohorts were outplanted in 2020 onto Picudas Reef and monitored during the subsequent spawning seasons. Two years after outplanting onto Picudas Reef, all colonies were alive and spawning of three of these colonies was recorded in 2022 in synchrony with the wild population. Gametes were collected from two colonies and crossed, with 15% fertilization success. Spermatozoa from wild colonies were then added and fertilization success increased to 95%. The resultant larvae followed normal development and symbiont uptake was visible within two weeks. The F2 generation was settled, maintained in an ex-situ nursery, and monitored for survival and growth. Both F1 and F2 generations followed a Type III survival curve with high initial mortality while in the ex-situ nursery and low later-stage mortality. The growth rates of these colonies increased threefold after outplanting when compared to their
Lack of base-line information on the epizootiology and the spatial and temporal variability of mo... more Lack of base-line information on the epizootiology and the spatial and temporal variability of most coral diseases/syndromes prevents accurate interpretations of their potential effects on coral reefs. Here, we present quantitative results on the incidence of all diseases/syndromes found in 19 reef sites from six geographic areas across the wider Caribbean. We compare the pathogenesis of the common diseases/syndromes and their variability at geographic scales. Data were collected between August and December of 1999 to avoid seasonal variability. The CARICOMP coral disease protocol was used. All coral and octocoral colonies were counted and checked for diseases/syndromes in up to twelve, 40 m² (20 x 2) band-transects laid over the bottom of at least two reef sites in each geographic locality. Overall, the average incidence of diseases was low at the coral community level (3.02%) and varied significantly (0.40-0.78%) across sites. White Plague-II (WP-II), Yellow Blotch Disease (YBD), Black Band Disease (BBD), and Aspergillosis (ASP) were present in all geographic areas sampled. Aspergillosis showed the highest incidence at both the community (0.60-5.94%) and population (Gorgonia ventalina) level (5.56-30.56%). Thirty eight reef-building coral species were susceptible to at least one disease/syndrome. WP-II affected the highest number of species (32), followed by BBD (16), Dark Spots Disease (DSD) (12), YBD (6) and White Band Disease (WBD) (3). All four Montastraea spp and Colpophyllia natans were each affected by five syndromes. Aspergillosis infected ten species from six genera of octocorals, a significant increase from the 2 susceptible sea fan species reported until now. These results show that even though the incidence rates were low at the community level, the high number of important reef-building species affected, the widespread distribution of most diseases/syndromes, and their wide host breadth present a potential problem for coral reef communities throughout the Caribbean. More frequent epizootic events coupled with current trends in reef degradation might be a lethal combination for the future of these communities. However, before we speculate what the outcome of the current events might be, we need more information and epidemiological models developed with sound quantitative data.
The sexual pattern, reproductive mode, and timing of reproduction of Isophyllia sinuosa and Isoph... more The sexual pattern, reproductive mode, and timing of reproduction of Isophyllia sinuosa and Isophyllia rigida, two Caribbean Mussids, were assessed by histological analysis of specimens collected monthly during 2000-2001. Results indicate that both species are simultaneous hermaphroditic brooders, with a single annual gametogenetic cycle. Spermatocytes and oocytes of different stages were found within the same mesentery indicating sequential maturation for extended planulation. Oocytes begin development 7-8 months prior to spermaries; beginning in May in I. sinuosa and August in I. rigida. Gametes of both sexes matured simultaneously; May-June in I. rigida and March-April in I. sinuosa. Planulae were observed in I. sinuosa during April and in I. rigida from June through September. Significantly higher polyp and mesenterial fecundity were found in I. rigida compared to I. sinuosa. Significantly larger oocyte sizes were found in I. sinuosa than in I. rigida, however significantly larger planula sizes were I. rigida compared to I. sinuosa. Hermaphroditism is the exclusive sexual pattern within the Mussidae; brooding has also been documented within the related Mussid genera Mussa, Scolymia and Mycetophyllia. These results represent the first description of the sexual characteristics of I. rigida and refute the previous description for I. sinuosa.
As coral reefs face increasing threats from a variety of stressors, coral restoration has become ... more As coral reefs face increasing threats from a variety of stressors, coral restoration has become an important tool to aid coral populations. A novel strategy for restoring boulder corals is microfragmentation, which may enhance coral growth by at least five times, depending on species and conditions. However, mortality rates are still significant during the early weeks after transplanting microfragments to impacted areas. We examined the effects of predation after transplanting fragments by caging Orbicella faveolata microfragments and testing if field survival rates would increase after an acclimation period. We tracked the health and growth of ten genotypes across different acclimation periods from a control group of no acclimation (0 months) to full acclimation (4 months). After four months, we presented a mix of acclimated and unacclimated corals to reef predators. Coral survivorship was highest in acclimation cages (near 100%) compared to the field (p < 0.001), with signific...
Sponges are fundamental components of coral reef communities and, unfortunately, like other major... more Sponges are fundamental components of coral reef communities and, unfortunately, like other major benthic members, they too have been impacted by epizootic and panzootic events. We report on the prevalence of disease-like conditions affecting populations of the giant barrel sponge Xestospongia muta across shallow and mesophotic coral reefs off La Parguera Natural Reserve (LPNR) and Mona Island Marine Reserve (MIMR) in Puerto Rico. Four different conditions affecting X. muta were observed during our surveys, of which 3 have been previously reported: cyclic spotted bleaching (CSB; apparently non-lethal), Xestospongia-tissue wasting disease (X-TWD; apparently lethal), and sponge orange band disease (SOB; sparsely associated with X-TWD infected individuals). Additionally, we describe a fourth condition, Xestospongia-tissue hardening condition (X-THC), a previously unreported disease recently observed along the insular shelf margin off LPNR and MIMR. Within LPNR, a total of 764 specimens of X. muta were inspected and measured. Of these, 590 sponges (72.2%) had CSB, 25 (3.27%) had signs of X-TWD, 7 (0.92%) had SOB, and the remaining 142 (18.6%) were apparently healthy. Three colonies inhabiting upper mesophotic depths on the LPNR insular shelf showed signs of CSB and X-TWD. At MIMR, video-transect surveys revealed a total of 514 colonies, of which 40 (7.78%) had signs of CSB and/or XTWD, 14 (2.72%) were affected by X-THC, while the remaining 460 (89.5%) showed no external signs of disease and appeared healthy. The presence of 4 concomitant disease-like conditions in barrel sponges of Puerto Rico is alarming, and indicative of the deteriorating status of Caribbean coral reefs.
IP 1101-09-11241ARTICULO(S) EN REVISTA: Taxonomi and phylogeny of the genus agelas (porifera, dem... more IP 1101-09-11241ARTICULO(S) EN REVISTA: Taxonomi and phylogeny of the genus agelas (porifera, demospongiae, agelaside) in;the southern caribbean sea / Parra Velandia, E. J, Zea, S. --En: bollettino dei musei. -- Vol. 66-67 (2002);p. 150. -- Taxonomi of Caibbean excavating spone species complexcliona caribbaea - C. aprica - C. langae;(porifera, hadromerida, clionaidae) / Zea, Sven, Weil, Ernesto.'-- en: Caribbean Journal of science. -- Vol.;39 N? 3 (2003); p. 348 -370. -- ITS-2 and 18S rRNA gene phylogeny of Aplysinidae (Verongida, Demospongiae) /;Zea, Sven... [et al]. -- En: Journal of molecular evolution. --Vol 60 N?3 (Mar 2005); p. 327-336. --;PONENCIA(S) EN CONGRESO: Taxonomia y filogenia preliminarde lasespeciesdel genero agelas (porifera,;demospongiae, agelasidae) presentes en el sur del mar Caribe /Parra Velandia, E. J, Zea, Sven, Soets Van. --;En: Seminario nacional del mar investigacion y desarrollode territorios promisorios (Santa Marta, Colombia).; Santa Marta. -- p. 147 -- 28 cm. -- Ecologia quimica de las esponja excavadoras cliona delitix C. aprica y;C. caribbaea - cliona sp. nov competencia, antiepibiosis yantidepredacion / Chaves Fonnegra, A...[et al]. --;En: Seminario nacional del mar investigacion y desarrollode territorios promisorios (Santa Marta, Colombia).; Santa Marta. -- p. 27 -- 28 cm
In the 1980s, certain areas in the Caribbean experienced mass mortalities of sea fans (Gorgonia f... more In the 1980s, certain areas in the Caribbean experienced mass mortalities of sea fans (Gorgonia flabellum). These areas included the coasts of Costa Rica (Guzman and Cortez 1984), Panama (Garzon-Ferreira and Zea 1992; Diaz et al. 1995), and Trinidad (Laydoo 1983). Laydoo (1983) suggested that the cause may be due to a species-specific pathogen, but microbiological studies were not performed. Although limited mortalities of gorgonian colonies were previously observed due to fish grazing (Kinzie 1973), Cyphoma sp. grazing (Harvell and Suchanek 1987), fouling and overgrowth (Wahle 1985) and tumors (Morse et al. 1977, 1981), the 1980’s outbreak showed signs of an epizootic which had spread from the southwestern to the southeastern Caribbean.
Acropora palmata is a foundational yet endangered Caribbean reef-building coral species. The lack... more Acropora palmata is a foundational yet endangered Caribbean reef-building coral species. The lack of recovery after a disease outbreak and low recruitment has led to widespread use of fragmentation to restore populations. Another option is the production of sexual recruits (settlers) via assisted reproduction to improve the genetic diversity of depleted populations, however the viability of this approach has not been tested over the long term. In 2011 and 2012, A. palmata larvae were cultured, settled, and the sexual recruits raised in an ex-situ nursery. Survival and growth were monitored over time. In 2014, these two F1 cohorts were moved to an in-situ nursery and after one year, a subset (29 colonies) was outplanted onto Cuevones Reef in the Mexican Caribbean. Growth and survival of these colonies were monitored periodically and compared to colonies that remained in the in-situ nursery. In 2019, samples were collected and analyzed for fertility and fecundity. 53% of the colonies were gravid and fecundity was 5.61 ± 1.91 oocytes and 3.04 ± 0.26 spermaries per polyp. A further 14 colonies from these two cohorts were outplanted in 2020 onto Picudas Reef and monitored during the subsequent spawning seasons. Two years after outplanting onto Picudas Reef, all colonies were alive and spawning of three of these colonies was recorded in 2022 in synchrony with the wild population. Gametes were collected from two colonies and crossed, with 15% fertilization success. Spermatozoa from wild colonies were then added and fertilization success increased to 95%. The resultant larvae followed normal development and symbiont uptake was visible within two weeks. The F2 generation was settled, maintained in an ex-situ nursery, and monitored for survival and growth. Both F1 and F2 generations followed a Type III survival curve with high initial mortality while in the ex-situ nursery and low later-stage mortality. The growth rates of these colonies increased threefold after outplanting when compared to their
Lack of base-line information on the epizootiology and the spatial and temporal variability of mo... more Lack of base-line information on the epizootiology and the spatial and temporal variability of most coral diseases/syndromes prevents accurate interpretations of their potential effects on coral reefs. Here, we present quantitative results on the incidence of all diseases/syndromes found in 19 reef sites from six geographic areas across the wider Caribbean. We compare the pathogenesis of the common diseases/syndromes and their variability at geographic scales. Data were collected between August and December of 1999 to avoid seasonal variability. The CARICOMP coral disease protocol was used. All coral and octocoral colonies were counted and checked for diseases/syndromes in up to twelve, 40 m² (20 x 2) band-transects laid over the bottom of at least two reef sites in each geographic locality. Overall, the average incidence of diseases was low at the coral community level (3.02%) and varied significantly (0.40-0.78%) across sites. White Plague-II (WP-II), Yellow Blotch Disease (YBD), Black Band Disease (BBD), and Aspergillosis (ASP) were present in all geographic areas sampled. Aspergillosis showed the highest incidence at both the community (0.60-5.94%) and population (Gorgonia ventalina) level (5.56-30.56%). Thirty eight reef-building coral species were susceptible to at least one disease/syndrome. WP-II affected the highest number of species (32), followed by BBD (16), Dark Spots Disease (DSD) (12), YBD (6) and White Band Disease (WBD) (3). All four Montastraea spp and Colpophyllia natans were each affected by five syndromes. Aspergillosis infected ten species from six genera of octocorals, a significant increase from the 2 susceptible sea fan species reported until now. These results show that even though the incidence rates were low at the community level, the high number of important reef-building species affected, the widespread distribution of most diseases/syndromes, and their wide host breadth present a potential problem for coral reef communities throughout the Caribbean. More frequent epizootic events coupled with current trends in reef degradation might be a lethal combination for the future of these communities. However, before we speculate what the outcome of the current events might be, we need more information and epidemiological models developed with sound quantitative data.
The sexual pattern, reproductive mode, and timing of reproduction of Isophyllia sinuosa and Isoph... more The sexual pattern, reproductive mode, and timing of reproduction of Isophyllia sinuosa and Isophyllia rigida, two Caribbean Mussids, were assessed by histological analysis of specimens collected monthly during 2000-2001. Results indicate that both species are simultaneous hermaphroditic brooders, with a single annual gametogenetic cycle. Spermatocytes and oocytes of different stages were found within the same mesentery indicating sequential maturation for extended planulation. Oocytes begin development 7-8 months prior to spermaries; beginning in May in I. sinuosa and August in I. rigida. Gametes of both sexes matured simultaneously; May-June in I. rigida and March-April in I. sinuosa. Planulae were observed in I. sinuosa during April and in I. rigida from June through September. Significantly higher polyp and mesenterial fecundity were found in I. rigida compared to I. sinuosa. Significantly larger oocyte sizes were found in I. sinuosa than in I. rigida, however significantly larger planula sizes were I. rigida compared to I. sinuosa. Hermaphroditism is the exclusive sexual pattern within the Mussidae; brooding has also been documented within the related Mussid genera Mussa, Scolymia and Mycetophyllia. These results represent the first description of the sexual characteristics of I. rigida and refute the previous description for I. sinuosa.
As coral reefs face increasing threats from a variety of stressors, coral restoration has become ... more As coral reefs face increasing threats from a variety of stressors, coral restoration has become an important tool to aid coral populations. A novel strategy for restoring boulder corals is microfragmentation, which may enhance coral growth by at least five times, depending on species and conditions. However, mortality rates are still significant during the early weeks after transplanting microfragments to impacted areas. We examined the effects of predation after transplanting fragments by caging Orbicella faveolata microfragments and testing if field survival rates would increase after an acclimation period. We tracked the health and growth of ten genotypes across different acclimation periods from a control group of no acclimation (0 months) to full acclimation (4 months). After four months, we presented a mix of acclimated and unacclimated corals to reef predators. Coral survivorship was highest in acclimation cages (near 100%) compared to the field (p < 0.001), with signific...
Sponges are fundamental components of coral reef communities and, unfortunately, like other major... more Sponges are fundamental components of coral reef communities and, unfortunately, like other major benthic members, they too have been impacted by epizootic and panzootic events. We report on the prevalence of disease-like conditions affecting populations of the giant barrel sponge Xestospongia muta across shallow and mesophotic coral reefs off La Parguera Natural Reserve (LPNR) and Mona Island Marine Reserve (MIMR) in Puerto Rico. Four different conditions affecting X. muta were observed during our surveys, of which 3 have been previously reported: cyclic spotted bleaching (CSB; apparently non-lethal), Xestospongia-tissue wasting disease (X-TWD; apparently lethal), and sponge orange band disease (SOB; sparsely associated with X-TWD infected individuals). Additionally, we describe a fourth condition, Xestospongia-tissue hardening condition (X-THC), a previously unreported disease recently observed along the insular shelf margin off LPNR and MIMR. Within LPNR, a total of 764 specimens of X. muta were inspected and measured. Of these, 590 sponges (72.2%) had CSB, 25 (3.27%) had signs of X-TWD, 7 (0.92%) had SOB, and the remaining 142 (18.6%) were apparently healthy. Three colonies inhabiting upper mesophotic depths on the LPNR insular shelf showed signs of CSB and X-TWD. At MIMR, video-transect surveys revealed a total of 514 colonies, of which 40 (7.78%) had signs of CSB and/or XTWD, 14 (2.72%) were affected by X-THC, while the remaining 460 (89.5%) showed no external signs of disease and appeared healthy. The presence of 4 concomitant disease-like conditions in barrel sponges of Puerto Rico is alarming, and indicative of the deteriorating status of Caribbean coral reefs.
The Flower Garden Banks are remotely located topographic features on the continental shelf in the... more The Flower Garden Banks are remotely located topographic features on the continental shelf in the Gulf of Mexico that are capped with a diverse assemblage of reef-building corals. These reefs are afforded a certain measure of natural protection due to their geographic distance from land. Problems that affect coral reefs throughout the region, including land-based sources of pollution, overfishing, and coral disease have, to date, not had a measurable effect at the Flower Garden Banks. In addition to their relative isolation, the depth of these reefs, 59-157 ft (18-48 m), has protected the corals from most of the severe bleaching events that have had devastating effects on most western Atlantic reefs over the past two decades. Although coral bleaching events and disease outbreaks have been identified at the Flower Garden Banks, the incidence and prevalence have been low compared to other sites within the western Atlantic reef-building province. The results of the 2004-2008 monitoring efforts, conducted in September and November 2004 (East Flower Garden Bank and West Flower Garden Bank, respectively), June 2005, June 2006, June 2007, August and September 2007 (East Flower Garden Bank and West Flower Garden Bank, respectively), and November 2008 demonstrated the continued stability of the coral reef community and its associated fish populations. Random transect results revealed high coral cover at both Banks from 2004-2008, with coral cover ranging from 49.55 ± 3.01% to 64.13 ± 2.70% at the East Flower Garden Bank and from 54.41 ± 3.13% to 60.41 ± 2.94% at the West Flower Garden Bank. These results are consistent with previous monitoring efforts (Dokken et al. 2001, Dokken et al. 1999, CSA 1996, Gittings et al. 1992; Aronson et al. 2005), highlighting the stability of the coral assemblage over time. The Montastraea annularis species complex was the predominant component of coral cover at both Banks from 2004-2008. Cover at the East Flower Garden Bank ranged from 26.80 ± 4.09% to 33.58 ± 4.52%. At the West Flower Garden Bank cover ranged from 31.70 ± 2.70% to 40.13 ± 3.29%. Diploria strigosa was the next most abundant species from 2004-2008, ranging at the East Flower Garden Bank from 5.82 ± 1.11% to 12.13 ± 2.82%. The West Flower Garden Bank estimates ranged from6.68 ± 1.29% to 13.41 ± 1.74%.
Coral reefs are the jewels of the tropical oceans. They boast
the highest diversity of all marine... more Coral reefs are the jewels of the tropical oceans. They boast the highest diversity of all marine ecosystems, aid in the development and protection of other important, productive coastal marine communities, and have provided millions of people with food, building materials, protection from storms, recreation and social stability over thousands of years, and more recently, income, active pharmacological compounds and other benefits. These communities have been deteriorating rapidly in recent times. The continuous emergence of coral reef diseases and increase in bleaching events caused in part by high water temperatures among other factors underscore the need for intensive assessments of their ecological status and causes and their impact on coral reefs.
Dark spots disease and yellow band disease are relatively new diseases affecting Caribbean corals... more Dark spots disease and yellow band disease are relatively new diseases affecting Caribbean corals. These diseases were first reported in the 1990s, although both of them may have been present for longer time periods in these reefs. In some regions, these diseases are distributed sparsely, but in other areas these diseases are distressing and killing coral populations to a significant degree, including key species in the region. These diseases are a challenge to study fromthe point of view of their pathology. In the case of yellow band, prior studies suggested that this syndrome might be the result of a zooxanthellae disease and not a coral disease (Cervino et al. 2001). In the case of dark spots disease,which affects numerous coral species, it is not clear if disease signs present in all species are the result of the same pathogen orwhether different diseases exhibit similar signs in different coral species.
Over the past few decades, coral reef communities around the world have been experiencing increas... more Over the past few decades, coral reef communities around the world have been experiencing increasingly stressful conditions due to a combination of natural and detrimental anthropogenic factors. In the Caribbean, coral reefs have experienced significant losses in hard coral cover due in part to local habitat degradation, over-fishing, pollutant input, bleaching, hurricanes and more recently, diseases. These factors,acting alone or in synergy,can be highly variable on spatial and temporal scales,making it difficult to identify and characterize a single or combined cause(s) of reef deterioration. Bleaching events, for example, have increased in frequency and intensity in the last two decades and their impact has been highly variable both spatially and temporarily. In the Caribbean,bleaching has caused variable, but generally low, coral mortality, unlike the mass mortalities of the scale observed in the Indo-Pacific. In contrast, few coral diseases, with low prevalence and restricted geographic distributions, have been reported for the Indo-Pacific as compared to the Caribbean.
In the 1980s, certain areas in the Caribbean experienced mass mortalities of sea fans (Gorgonia f... more In the 1980s, certain areas in the Caribbean experienced mass mortalities of sea fans (Gorgonia flabellum). These areas included the coasts of Costa Rica (Guzman and Cortez 1984),Panama (Garzon-Ferreira and Zea 1992;Diaz et al. 1995), and Trinidad (Laydoo 1983). Laydoo (1983) suggested that the cause may be due to a species-specific pathogen, but microbiological studies were not performed.Although limitedmortalities of gorgonian colonies were previously observed due to fish grazing (Kinzie 1973),Cyphoma sp.grazing (Harvell and Suchanek 1987), fouling and overgrowth (Wahle 1985) and tumors (Morse et al. 1977, 1981), the 1980’s outbreak showed signs of an epizootic which had spread from the southwestern to the southeastern Caribbean. In 1995, sea fans showing disease signs similar to those reported in the 1980s were observed near the island of Saba and at several other Caribbean locations (Nagelkerken et al. 1997a). Participating member institutions (24 locations throughout the Caribbean) of the Caribbean CoastalMarine Productivity Network (CARICOMP) made qualitative observations on sea fan tissue mortality, and collected samples of healthy and affected colonies for microbiological analysis in the same year.With the exception of Bermuda andMexico, affected sea fans were found at all Caribbean locations. Later, diseased sea fans were also found in Bermuda and Mexico, extending the geographical range to include all of the Caribbean.
Bermuda’s coral reefs and associated inshore and lagoonal
habitats have endured 400 years of dele... more Bermuda’s coral reefs and associated inshore and lagoonal habitats have endured 400 years of deleterious human interference. Although early conservation laws were passed to protect speci fi c species (sea turtles and fry), it is important to recognize the extent of human impacts at both system-wide and habitat scales. In this chapter we will review some of the historic impacts on Bermuda’s reef and indicate the level of success in reducing or mitigating the effects of these problems and the extent to which they remain as current or future threats to the health of Bermuda’s reefs. We divide the threats into three categories: (1) direct or indirect anthropogenic impacts; (2) effects of invasive species and chronic biological problems (such as diseases); and (3) global climate related problems. Recent analyses have characterized Bermuda’s challenges as “very signi fi cant” at a coarse level (Pandol fi et al. 2003 ; Burke et al. 2011 ) primarily because of the high reef to island ratio and not because of direct threats that have caused measureable declines in reef health. Assessments of the health and character of Bermuda’s reefs and associated habitats began in the 1970s (Garrett et al. 1971 ; Dodge and Vaisnys 1977; Dryer and Logan 1978 ; Dodge et al. 1982 ; Flood et al. 2005 ; MEP 2007 ) , and some inferences of change can be discerned from accounts of early naturalists (Verrill 1907 ; Agassiz 1894 ) , but we lack knowledge on how signi fi cantly the baseline has shifted since human occupation of Bermuda in the early 1600s. Recent studies indicate stability in coral cover since the 1990s in some reef zones (CARICOMP 2000 ; Linton and Fisher 2004 ; MEP 2007 ) . Bermuda’s reefs have certainly experienced the spectrum of contemporary challenges to the health of the reefs (e.g. sedimentation, diseases, bleaching, over- fi shing; Cook et al. 1994 ) . They appear to have persisted with relatively limited change, over the past three decades, and have bene fi ted from pro-active management to reduce deleterious anthropogenic impacts, especially fi shing pressure. The near-shore and lagoonal reefs appear to be affected by maritime activities and chemical contaminants and remain vulnerable to future threats. Here we outline brie fl y the scope of the challenges that remain.
Dark‐spots disease (DSD) was first documented in the early
1990s in the Islas del Rosario archipe... more Dark‐spots disease (DSD) was first documented in the early 1990s in the Islas del Rosario archipelago, Colombia, as a type of bleaching disease that affected ca. 16% of Montastraea annularis colonies; it was called “Medallones Mostaza” (“mustard rings”) (Solano et al. 1993). In 1994, similar signs were observed at San Andrés and Providencia archipelago (Colombian Caribbean) mainly affecting M. annularis, Siderastrea siderea and Stephanocoenia intersepta, and it was called “enfermedad de los lunares oscuros” (Diaz et al. 1995) or dark‐spots disease (DSD). Other names characterizing different manifestations of the disease include “dark spots type I and type II” and “dark bands” (Weil 2004; Weil et al. 2006). Since the original discoveries in Colombia, DSD has been found throughout the Caribbean basin (Cervino et al. 2001; Weil et al. 2002). More recently, a disease with lesions resembling DSD has been documented in Brazil affecting Siderastrea (Francini‐Filho et al. 2008) and in the Indo‐Pacific (Tutuila, America Samoa and Kahoolawe, Hawaii), where Montipora and Pavona are the main coral genera affected (Work et al. 2008). The first detailed study of DSD in the Caribbean was carried out in the Parque Nacional Natural Tayrona in Colombia. Results showed that Montastraea annularis and Siderastrea spp. had the highest prevalence of DSD (10 and 5%, respectively) whereas the disease was much less common in M. faveolata, M. franksi, S. intersepta and M. cavernosa (Gil‐ Agudelo 1998). Original descriptions of the dark‐spot lesions were characterized as “small, round, dark spots that apparently grow in size over time, some of which can be associated with a depression of the coral surface and others expand into a dark ring surrounding dead coral” (Garzon‐Ferreira and Gil 1998).
Uploads
Papers by Ernesto Weil
land. Problems that affect coral reefs throughout the region, including land-based sources of pollution, overfishing, and coral disease have, to date, not had a measurable effect at the Flower Garden Banks. In addition to their relative isolation, the depth of these reefs, 59-157 ft (18-48 m), has protected the corals from most of the severe bleaching events that have had devastating effects on most western Atlantic reefs over the past two decades. Although coral bleaching
events and disease outbreaks have been identified at the Flower Garden Banks, the incidence and prevalence have been low compared to other sites within the western Atlantic reef-building province. The results of the 2004-2008 monitoring efforts, conducted in September and November 2004 (East Flower Garden Bank and West Flower Garden Bank, respectively), June 2005, June 2006, June 2007, August and September 2007 (East Flower Garden Bank and West Flower Garden Bank, respectively), and November 2008 demonstrated the continued stability of the coral reef community and its associated fish populations. Random transect results revealed high coral cover at both Banks from 2004-2008, with coral cover ranging from 49.55 ± 3.01% to 64.13 ± 2.70% at the East Flower Garden Bank and from 54.41 ± 3.13% to 60.41 ± 2.94% at the West Flower Garden
Bank. These results are consistent with previous monitoring efforts (Dokken et al. 2001, Dokken et al. 1999, CSA 1996, Gittings et al. 1992; Aronson et al. 2005), highlighting the stability of the coral assemblage over time. The Montastraea annularis species complex was the predominant
component of coral cover at both Banks from 2004-2008. Cover at the East Flower Garden Bank ranged from 26.80 ± 4.09% to 33.58 ± 4.52%. At the West Flower Garden Bank cover
ranged from 31.70 ± 2.70% to 40.13 ± 3.29%. Diploria strigosa was the next most abundant species from 2004-2008, ranging at the East Flower Garden Bank from 5.82 ± 1.11% to 12.13 ±
2.82%. The West Flower Garden Bank estimates ranged from6.68 ± 1.29% to 13.41 ± 1.74%.
the highest diversity of all marine ecosystems, aid in the
development and protection of other important, productive
coastal marine communities, and have provided millions of
people with food, building materials, protection from storms,
recreation and social stability over thousands of years, and
more recently, income, active pharmacological compounds
and other benefits. These communities have been deteriorating rapidly in recent times. The continuous emergence of coral reef diseases and increase in bleaching events caused in part by high water temperatures among other factors underscore the need for intensive assessments of their ecological status and causes and their impact on coral reefs.
orwhether different diseases exhibit similar signs in different coral species.
factors,acting alone or in synergy,can be highly variable on spatial and temporal scales,making it difficult to identify and characterize a single or combined cause(s) of reef deterioration. Bleaching events, for example, have increased in frequency and intensity in the last two decades and their impact has been highly variable both spatially and temporarily. In the Caribbean,bleaching has caused variable, but generally low, coral mortality, unlike the mass mortalities
of the scale observed in the Indo-Pacific. In contrast, few coral diseases, with low prevalence and restricted geographic distributions, have been reported for the Indo-Pacific as compared to the Caribbean.
1995), and Trinidad (Laydoo 1983). Laydoo (1983) suggested that the cause may be due to a species-specific pathogen, but microbiological studies were not performed.Although limitedmortalities of gorgonian colonies were previously
observed due to fish grazing (Kinzie 1973),Cyphoma sp.grazing (Harvell and Suchanek 1987), fouling and overgrowth (Wahle 1985) and tumors (Morse
et al. 1977, 1981), the 1980’s outbreak showed signs of an epizootic which had spread from the southwestern to the southeastern Caribbean. In 1995, sea fans showing disease signs similar to those reported in the 1980s were observed near the island of Saba and at several other Caribbean locations (Nagelkerken et al. 1997a). Participating member institutions (24 locations throughout the Caribbean) of the Caribbean CoastalMarine Productivity Network (CARICOMP) made qualitative observations on sea fan tissue mortality,
and collected samples of healthy and affected colonies for microbiological analysis in the same year.With the exception of Bermuda andMexico, affected sea fans were found at all Caribbean locations. Later, diseased sea fans were also found in Bermuda and Mexico, extending the geographical range to include all of the Caribbean.
habitats have endured 400 years of deleterious human interference. Although early conservation laws were passed to
protect speci fi c species (sea turtles and fry), it is important to
recognize the extent of human impacts at both system-wide
and habitat scales. In this chapter we will review some of the
historic impacts on Bermuda’s reef and indicate the level of
success in reducing or mitigating the effects of these problems and the extent to which they remain as current or future threats to the health of Bermuda’s reefs. We divide the threats into three categories: (1) direct or indirect anthropogenic impacts; (2) effects of invasive species and chronic biological problems (such as diseases); and (3) global climate related problems.
Recent analyses have characterized Bermuda’s challenges
as “very signi fi cant” at a coarse level (Pandol fi et al. 2003 ;
Burke et al. 2011 ) primarily because of the high reef to island
ratio and not because of direct threats that have caused measureable declines in reef health. Assessments of the health and character of Bermuda’s reefs and associated habitats began in the 1970s (Garrett et al. 1971 ; Dodge and Vaisnys 1977; Dryer and Logan 1978 ; Dodge et al. 1982 ; Flood et al. 2005 ; MEP 2007 ) , and some inferences of change can be discerned from accounts of early naturalists (Verrill 1907 ;
Agassiz 1894 ) , but we lack knowledge on how signi fi cantly
the baseline has shifted since human occupation of Bermuda
in the early 1600s. Recent studies indicate stability in coral
cover since the 1990s in some reef zones (CARICOMP 2000 ;
Linton and Fisher 2004 ; MEP 2007 ) . Bermuda’s reefs have certainly experienced the spectrum of contemporary challenges to the health of the reefs (e.g. sedimentation, diseases, bleaching, over- fi shing; Cook et al. 1994 ) . They appear to have persisted with relatively limited
change, over the past three decades, and have bene fi ted from pro-active management to reduce deleterious anthropogenic impacts, especially fi shing pressure. The near-shore and lagoonal reefs appear to be affected by maritime activities and chemical contaminants and remain vulnerable to future threats. Here we outline brie fl y the scope of the challenges that remain.
1990s in the Islas del Rosario archipelago, Colombia, as a type of bleaching disease that affected ca. 16% of Montastraea annularis colonies; it was called “Medallones Mostaza” (“mustard rings”) (Solano et al. 1993). In 1994, similar signs were observed at San Andrés and Providencia archipelago (Colombian Caribbean) mainly affecting M. annularis, Siderastrea siderea and Stephanocoenia intersepta, and it was called “enfermedad de los lunares oscuros” (Diaz et al. 1995) or dark‐spots disease (DSD). Other names characterizing different manifestations of the disease
include “dark spots type I and type II” and “dark bands”
(Weil 2004; Weil et al. 2006). Since the original discoveries in
Colombia, DSD has been found throughout the Caribbean
basin (Cervino et al. 2001; Weil et al. 2002). More recently, a
disease with lesions resembling DSD has been documented in
Brazil affecting Siderastrea (Francini‐Filho et al. 2008) and in
the Indo‐Pacific (Tutuila, America Samoa and Kahoolawe,
Hawaii), where Montipora and Pavona are the main coral genera affected (Work et al. 2008). The first detailed study of DSD in the Caribbean was carried out in the Parque Nacional Natural Tayrona in Colombia. Results showed that Montastraea annularis and Siderastrea spp. had the highest prevalence of DSD (10 and 5%, respectively) whereas the disease was much less common in M. faveolata, M. franksi, S. intersepta and M. cavernosa (Gil‐ Agudelo 1998). Original descriptions of the dark‐spot lesions were characterized as “small, round, dark spots that apparently grow in size over time, some of which can be associated with a depression of the coral surface and others expand into a dark ring surrounding dead coral” (Garzon‐Ferreira and Gil 1998).