Motor performance according to physical activity levels

MOTOR PERFORMANCE ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL ACTIVITY LEVELS Robert PODSTAWSKI1, Piotr ŻUREK2, Cain C.T. CLARK3, Dariusz CHOSZCZ4, Elżbieta KUSIŃSKA5, Aneta OMELAN6 1 Department of Tourism, Recreation and Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland 2 Department of Physical Education, Poznań University of Physical Education, Poznań, Poland 3 School of Health and Life Sciences, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom 4Department of Heavy Duty Machines and Research Methodology, Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland 5Department of Engineering and Food Machinery, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland 6Department of Tourism, Recreation and Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland ABSTRACT This study evaluated the influence of extreme effort on physiological parameters of males and females with low or moderate levels of physical activity (PA) and different body composition parameters. Ninety-six participants (45 females, aged 20.05±1.81 years; 51 males, aged 20.20±2.71 years) took part in this study. PA levels were evaluated with the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) and they performed the 3-Minute Burpee Test (3-MBT). The Mann-Whitney U test and correlation analysis were applied. Participants with low levels of PA had significantly higher (p<0.05) body mass and body composition parameters (total body water, protein, minerals, body fat mass, fat-free mass, skeletal muscle mass, body mass index, percent body fat and waist-hip ratio (WHR). Participants with moderate levels of PA completed significantly more training cycles during the 3- MBT than their sedentary peers. Physiological parameters and exercise intensity were higher, albeit non-significantly, in more physically active participants. Extreme effort duration was significantly (p=0.0445) longer in males with low levels of PA (00:29 min) than moderate levels of PA (00:15 min). Females and males with moderate levels of PA have significantly higher endurance-strength abilities and are characterised by non-significantly higher values of physiological parameters during extreme effort than their sedentary peers. Keywords: University students; Physical activity levels; Body composition; Physiological parameters; 3-MBT. INTRODUCTION The importance of life-long physical activity (PA) and its positive impact on health have been well documented by scientific research (Epstein & Roemmich, 2001; Haase et al., 2004; Podstawski et al., 2017b). Professional organisations and government agencies publish numerous recommendations for exercise and physical activity to improve the health and well-being of individuals in various age groups (Pate et al., 1995; Bennet et al., 2009; Garber et al., 2011). Empirical evidence suggests that regular PA is required to improve the relative-risk profile of individuals with health risk factors (Mayer et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2011). According to global recommendations, adults and children older than 2 years should perform at least 30 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise, preferably on all days of the week (Pate et al., 1995). A sound knowledge of the terms and concepts associated with PA is required to understand how PA and exercise fit into the model of modern health. Physical activity is defined as any bodily movement that involves skeletal muscles and leads to energy expenditure (Casperson et al., 1985). Exercise is a subset of PA, and it is defined as planned, structured, repetitive and purposeful activity, which is performed to improve or maintain physical fitness (Pate et al., 1995). Physical fitness (PF) involves several attributes and parameters related to PA, including cardiorespiratory fitness, muscle strength, body composition and flexibility (Shephard & Balady, 1999). Exercise intensity is an important parameter in exercise training workouts, and it denotes the physiological load during exercise (ACSM, 2013; Garber et al., 2011; Roy, 2015). Bodily responses to physical effort are determined, in part, by the size of the involved muscle groups and energy expenditure, which induces changes in systemic mechanisms of oxygen supply. Exercise intensity can be measured in various units (energy expenditure in kcal, kJ, MET, 1 kcal = 4.18 kJ, 1 MET = 3.5 ml of oxygen/kg/min; load in Watts (W), kg·m/min, 1 W = 6.12 kg·m/min). The maximum rate of oxygen consumption (VO2max) is asserted to be the most accurate parameter for evaluating physical exertion, and it denotes the maximum heart rate (HR) at which oxygen can be taken up and consumed by the body during intense exercise (Dalleck & Dalleck, 2008). Other indicators are also used to monitor exercise intensity, including target HR, rate of perceived exertion (RPE) and the Talk Test (Roy, 2015). In most PA guidelines, exercise intensity is measured by the percentage of age-related maximum HR, and it is classified into the following HR zones: very light, light, moderate, vigorous and near-maximal to maximal exercise (Garber et al., 2011). Exercise intensity in each HR zone is described by the following parameters: very light – <57% of HRmax or <37% of VO2max; light – 57-63% of HRmax or 37-45% of VO2max; moderate – 64%-76% of HRmax or 46-63% of VO2max; vigorous – 77-95% of HRmax or 64-90% of VO2max; near-maximal to maximal – ≥96% of HRmax or ≥91% of VO2max (Swain & Franklin, 2006; ACSM, 2013;). It should be noted, however, that exercise test protocols, exercise mode, exercise intensity, resting HR, physical fitness (PF) level, age, body composition as well as other factors can considerably influence the relationships between actual energy expenditure, HRR, VO2, %HRmax and %VO2max (Rotstein & Meckel, 2000; Byrne & Hills, 2002; Pinet et al., 2008; Cunha et al., 2010). According to researchers, exercise intensity should be classified based on the absolute energy demand of PA (Shephard, 2001). Interval training is an example of high-intensity exercise performed during brief bouts. The intensity of exercise during interval training varies at fixed intervals during a single bout of exercise, and it can increase the total volume and/or average exercise intensity during the session. In healthy adults, short-term (≤ 3 months) interval training induces similar or greater improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness and cardiometabolic markers, including blood lipoproteins, glucose, interleukin-6, tumour necrosis factor α and muscle fatty acid transport, in comparison with adults performing fixed-intensity training (Clarkson, 2007; Croft et al., 2009; Talanian et al., 2010) and persons with metabolic, cardiac and pulmonary disorders (Beauchamp et al., 2010; Guimaraes et al., 2010). Maximal HR is determined during a maximal exercise test or with the use of the following formula: 220 minus the individual's age (Marti & Howald, 1990; Mesquita et al., 1996; Tanaka et al., 2004). The reliability of the aforementioned formula, however, has been questioned by several authors (Whaley et al., 1992; Klusiewicz & Faff, 2003; Pimentel et al., 2003; Tanaka et al., 2004). Heart rate and oxygen uptake should be measured directly to formulate personalised recommendations for exercise. When such measurements, however, are not feasible, exercise intensity can be estimated sub-maximally (Garber et al., 2011). A sedentary lifestyle contravenes a physically active lifestyle, and is associated with a plethora of health risks. Low energy expenditure associated with television watching, computer use, driving or sitting at a desk are eponymous features of sedentary behaviour (Volaklis et al., 2007). Prolonged sedentary behavior is associated with a higher risk of coronary heart disease mortality (Warren et al., 2010), depression (Teychenne et al., 2010), high blood pressure, low lipoprotein lipase activity and impaired biomarkers of chronic disease, such as blood glucose, insulin and lipoprotein levels (Healy et al., 2008; Thorp et al., 2010). PURPOSE OF RESEARCH The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects exerted by extreme effort on physiological parameters. Males and females with low or moderate levels of PA and different body composition parameters were analysed. METHODOLOGY Participants The study involved 45 female and 51 male full-time university students (mean age: 20.05±1.81 and 20.20±2.71, respectively). The participants attended only compulsory physical education classes (90 minutes per week) and performed one 3-MBT per week. To facilitate the reliability of measurements, every participant performed the 3-MBT five times during five weekly physical educational classes preceding the study (Podstawski et al., 2016b). Ethical procedures The study was performed in compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki and upon the prior consent of the Bioethical Committee and the authorities at the University. The participants gave their written consent to the study. Measurements Physical activity The PA levels were evaluated before the study with the use of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (Polish short version) (Biernat et al., 2007). In the questionnaire, the participants were asked to indicate the average weekly amount of exercise (minimum of 10 minutes) they had performed in the weeks preceding the study. The energy expenditure associated with the declared amount of weekly exercise was calculated and expressed in Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET) units. The MET is the ratio of the rate of energy consumed during exercise to the rate of energy consumed at rest. One MET unit represents the amount of oxygen which is consumed in one minute, which is approximately equal to 3.5 mL/kg/min. Based on the declared frequency, intensity and duration of exercise, the students were divided into groups with low (L<600 METs-min/week), moderate (M<1500 METs-min/week) and high (H≥1500 METs-min/week) PA levels. Ultimately, only the subjects with low and moderate PA levels were included in the study. The results of the IPAQ survey were analysed to reveal two relatively homogeneous groups of female and male students with low or moderate levels of PA. Physical parameters Body height was measured to the nearest 0.1mm with a calibrated WB-150 medical scale with a stadiometer (ZPU Tryb Wag, Poland) and the Martin anthropometer according to standardised guidelines. Body mass (measured to the nearest 0.1kg), BMI and body composition parameters (weight, total body water[TBW], protein, minerals, body fat mass [BFM], fat-free mass [FFM], skeletal muscle mass [SMM], body mass index [BMI], percent body fat {PBF}, InBody score, target weight, weight control, BFM control, FFM control, basal metabolic rate [BMR], waist-hip ratio [WHR], visceral fat level [VFL] and level of obesity) were determined by bioelectrical impedance (Gibson et al., 2008) with the InBody 720 body composition analyser. Physiological parameters Physiological parameters (heart rate [HR], calories burned, estimated average rate of oxygen consumption [VO2avg], maximum rate of oxygen consumption [VO2max], average excess post-exercise oxygen consumption [EPOCavg], maximum excess post-exercise oxygen consumption [EPOCmax], average respiratory rate [RRavg], maximum respiratory rate [RRmax]) and training parameters (recovery, peak training effect [PTE], exercise intensity: low (<107bpm), moderate (107-124bpm), high (125-141bpm), very high (142-159bpm), maximal (≥160bpm) were measured indirectly with the Suunto Ambit3 Peak GPS watch. The strength-endurance abilities of the participants were determined during the 3-MBT. Stages of the 3-MBT Stage 1 Begin in a standing position and move into a supported squat with both hands on the ground; Stage 2: From a supported squat, kick your feet back into a plank with arms extended; Stage 3: Return from the plank position to a supported squat; Stage 4: Return to a standing position, extend your arms over the head and clap your hands. The participants repeat the cycle as many times as possible in the given time limit (3 minutes). The exercise must be performed correctly, and the entire cycle must be completed in the specified order. The plank position should be maintained on extended arms without arching the back, but an exception can be made for individuals without adequate upper body strength. The legs should be fully extended in the plank position. A cycle is not counted when individual stages are not correctly performed. Statistical analysis The measured data were processed in view of the participants' gender and PA levels with the use of descriptive statistics (arithmetic mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values). The data were not normally distributed, and non-parametric procedures were applied. The results were compared using the Mann-Whitney U test at a significance level of p<0.05 (values in bold). RESULTS The PA levels of the evaluated females and males are presented in Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET) units in Table 1. The results of the body composition analysis of female and male students with low and moderate levels of PA are presented in Table 2 and Table 3. The tested PF levels, physiological parameters during the 3-MBT and recovery parameters measured within six minutes directly after exercise are presented in Tables 4 to 7. In the group of 45 evaluated female students, 34 were characterised by low PA levels, and 11 subjects by moderate PA levels. In the group of 51 males, 21 were characterised by low PA levels and 30 had moderate PA levels. In the group of females, the mean PA levels expressed in MET units differed significantly (p=0.0000) between Group I (low PA levels) with 537.84 METs and Group II (moderate PA levels) with 864.54 METs. Males were characterised by higher PA levels than females. Significant (p=0.0000) differences in this parameter were also noted between men with low PA levels (Group I= 565.57 METs) and males with moderate PA levels (Group II= 1076.00 METs) (Table 1). An analysis of basic anthropometric parameters did not reveal significant differences in the age and height of females with different PA levels. Sedentary females had significantly higher (p<0.05) body mass and BMI than females with moderate PA levels. The body composition analysis revealed that females with low PA levels were characterised by significantly higher (p<0.05) values of the following parameters: TBW, protein, minerals, BFM, FFM, SMM, BMI, PBF andWHR. The weight control parameter indicates that sedentary females should reduce their body mass by 6.11kg and that the more physically active females should increase their body mass by 5.66kg (p=0.0001). Based on the values of BFM control, sedentary females should decrease their BFM by 7.27 kg, whereas physically active females should increase their BFM by 1.58kg. The FFM control parameter suggests that sedentary females should increase their FFM by 1.16kg, and physically active females should increase their FFM by 4.08kg. Females with low PA levels were typified by a significantly higher (p=0.0168) basal metabolic rate (1372.56kcal) than females with moderate PA levels (1261.53kcal). The level of obesity was significantly higher in sedentary females (113.5) than in females with moderate PA levels (90.45) (Table 2). Concomitant to the results noted in the female group, significant differences in age and body height were not noted in males with different levels of PA. Sedentary males were had significantly higher (p<0.05) body mass, BMI, TBW, protein, minerals, BFM, FFM, SMM, PBF, BMR and WHR. The average BMI values were indicative of overweight in Group I males (25.51kg/m2) and normal body weight in Group II males (22.17kg/m2). Sedentary males were characterised by significantly lower (p<0.05) values of body control parameters: weight control (body mass: -4.16 kg) and BFM control (adipose tissue:-4.93 kg). The BMR was significantly (p=0.0195) higher in males with low PA levels (1803.48kcal) than in males with moderate PA levels (1697.67kcal), and a similar trend was noted in the level of obesity (116.14 and 101.17, respectively) (Table 3). The females with moderate PA levels completed significantly more (p=0.0000) cycles in the 3-MBT (53.09 cycles/3 min) than their sedentary peers (33.32 cycles/3min). Physiological parameters and exercise intensity were higher in the more physically active females, yet no significant differences (p>0.05) were found between the two groups (Table 4). The males with moderate PA levels completed significantly more (p=0.0000) cycles (53.67 cycles/3 min) in the 3-MBT than male students with low PA levels (38.00 cycles/3min). Physiological and training parameters were higher (p>0.05) in the more physically active males, but no significant differences (p>0.05) were observed between the two groups (Table 5). No significant differences (p>0.05) in physiological and training parameters during recovery were noted between Group I and Group II females, but the analysed values were higher during post-exercise recovery in females with moderate PA levels (Table 6). The physiological parameters evaluated during recovery did not differ significantly between Group I and Group II males. The duration of maximal exertion was significantly longer (p=0.0445) in sedentary males (00:29min) than in males with moderate PA levels (00:15min), and the duration of moderate exertion was significantly shorter (p=0.0414) in male students with low PA levels (01:27 min) than in the more physically active males (02:19min). No significant differences (p>0.05) in physical exertion levels were observed between Group I and Group II males (Table 7). DISCUSSION In the literature, physiological responses to extreme physical effort have been analysed during various types of short and long workouts (Bąk & Kalina, 2008; Prusik et al., 2013; Sousa et al. 2013). Siska and Brodani (2017) relied on the Burpee test to evaluate the decrease in performance (fatigue index) during combat sports conditioning. This study involved female and male participants with various PA levels to obtain information about anthropometric parameters and physiological responses to extreme effort during the 3-MBT. An analysis of the anthropometric parameters and body composition revealed significantly higher body mass and BMI in sedentary females than in females with moderate PA levels. These results could be attributed to the fact that Group II females (moderate PA) had participated in more sports activities and recreational events involving physical activity. Body composition analysis revealed that both female and male students with low PA levels were characterised by significantly higher values of TBW, protein, minerals, BFM, FFM, SMM, BMI, PBF, WHR and level of obesity. The average BMI values in Group I (low PA) males were indicative of overweight. This study confirmed the generally acknowledged observation that overweight and obesity are more prevalent among sedentary individuals (Podstawski et al., 2017a; Podstawski et al., 2017b). Concordant with previous literature (Van Deventer et al., 2016), females and males with higher (moderate) PA levels were typified by higher endurance-strength abilities. These participants completed more cycles during extreme exercise (3-MBT) than their sedentary peers. Siska and Brodani (2017) relied on the 3-MBT to evaluate the performance of individuals with high PA levels during combat sports conditioning training and reported significantly higher results than those noted in our study. Physiological and training parameters did not differ significantly in the evaluated groups of female and male university students, but the analysed parameters and indicators were generally higher in individuals with moderate PA levels. These findings could be attributed to minor differences in the types of PA undertaken by the studied subjects. It should be noted that despite significant differences in the participants' PA levels, the number of MET units per min/week scored by both females and males with low PA levels (537.84 and 565.57 METs, respectively) was very close to the upper threshold in the low PA level category. In females with moderate PA levels, the average number of MET units was close to the lower threshold (565.57 METs) of the moderate PA level category (601-1500 METs-min/week). The difference in the average number of MET units scored by Group I and Group II males was greater than that noted in females (510.43 and 326.7 METs-min/week, respectively). For this reason, post-exercise recovery was shorter for individuals with moderate PA levels than their sedentary peers. An analysis of physiological responses to extreme effort (3-MBT) revealed very high HR values which were similar to those noted in our previous study (Podstawski et al., 2016a) and other authors' findings (Arseneau et al., 2011; Ouergui et al., 2015; Siska & Brodani, 2017), which confirms that the 3-MBT is a highly intensive exercise. The physical activities undertaken by the participants, particularly high-intensity exercise, had a positive influence on the analysed parameters. Endurance-strength abilities are largely conditioned by cardiovascular efficiency (Ramsbottom et al., 2010). According to Wenger and Bell (1986), individuals who want to maintain their physical fitness should perform high-intensity exercise twice a week, whereas individuals who want to improve their aerobic fitness should perform high-intensity exercise at least three times a week (VO2max>50 ml·kg-1·min-1). In the current study, the duration of maximal exertion was significantly longer in sedentary males than in males with moderate PA levels, whereas the duration of moderate exertion was significantly shorter in male students with low PA levels than in the more physically active males. Females with low and moderate PA levels did not differ significantly in physical exertion levels. The 3-MBT supported an evaluation of endurance-strength abilities, indicating that physical activities performed during physical educational classes at university have a positive impact on the participants' performance and adaptation to high-intensity exercise. The findings of this study have practical implications for physical training. Extreme exercise, such as the 3-MBT, is not always recommended for individuals with low PA levels. In such persons, physiological recovery after extreme effort would be a long process, which could disrupt the training program. In extreme cases, individuals could be unable to proceed with training. The 3-MBT is highly recommended for individuals with high PA levels who perform high intensity interval training, as well as athletes, particularly martial arts performers, who have to endure 3-minute-long rounds. In these cases, the 3-MBT prepares individuals for intensive effort during the fight. LIMITATIONS The low number of female participants with moderate PA levels was a limitation of this study. Hence, future corroboration of these findings with a larger female population is warranted. CONCLUSION Female and male university students with moderate PA levels were characterised by significantly higher endurance-strength abilities and relatively higher values of physiological parameters during extreme exercise in comparison with their sedentary peers. However, the observed differences were not statistically significant. 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Physical activity levels of women and men in MET units per min/week Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET) units Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max p-value Women (n=34) with low PA Women (n=11) with moderate PA 0.0000 537.84 51.45 420 600 864.54 198.83 650 1210 Men (n=21) with low PA Men (n=30) with moderate PA 0.0000 565.57 31.09 496 600 1076.00 254.42 612 1350 Table 2. A comparison of the results scored by female participants with different PA levels in view of their somatic parameters and body composition Parameter Women (n=34) with low PA Women (n=11) with moderate PA P Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max Age [years] 20.06 1.66 18 23 20.01 2.29 18.2 24 0.9305 Body height [cm] 166.41 6.17 156 183 165.18 5.69 158 174 0.5619 Body mass [kg] 67.51 12.34 52.3 104.9 52.93 6.57 43.4 63.3 0.0006 BMI [kg/m2] 24.29 3.65 19.3 33.4 19.38 2.07 16.6 23.4 0.0001 TBW (Total Body Water) [L] 33.91 4.38 24.7 47.3 30.25 3.76 24.9 37.8 0.0174 Protein[kg] 9.11 1.17 6.7 12.6 8.10 1.02 6.7 10.2 0.0111 Minerals [kg] 3.37 0.49 2.41 4.88 2.93 0.40 2.41 3.62 0.0134 BFM (Body Fat Mass) [kg] 21.11 8.66 5.3 41.2 11.65 3.52 6.2 19.1 0.0001 FFM (Fat-Free Mass) [kg] 46.40 6.04 33.8 64.8 41.28 5.16 34 51.6 0.0168 SMM (Skeletal Muscle Mass) [kg] 25.51 3.56 18.1 36.2 22.47 3.04 18.1 28.6 0.0135 PBF (Percent Body Fat) [%] 30.35 7.85 9.7 48.1 21.82 5.48 13.2 31.2 0.0013 InBody Score 73.15 6.69 54 85 73.18 4.87 66 82 0.7406 Target Weight [kg] 61.40 6.47 52.3 84.2 58.59 4.27 53.6 65.1 0.2095 Weight Control [kg] -6.11 8.17 -27.9 6.1 5.66 5.75 -4.9 14 0.0001 BFM Control [kg] -7.27 7.64 -27.9 3.8 1.58 3.85 -6.2 7.9 0.0002 FFM Control [kg] 1.16 1.81 0 6.7 4.08 3.02 0 8.6 0.0046 BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate)[kcal] 1372.56 130.56 1099 1771 1261.73 111.53 1104 1484 0.0168 WHR (Waist-Hip Ratio) 0.87 0.05 0.75 0.96 0.81 0.03 0.78 0.86 0.0029 Level of obesity 113.50 17.07 90 156 90.45 9.89 77 109 0.0001 Table 3. A comparison of the results scored by male participants with low and moderate PA levels in view of their somatic parameters and body composition Parameter Men (n=21) with low PA Men (n=30) with moderate PA P Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max Age [years] 20.91 3.07 18.1 29 19.70 2.36 16.3 29 0.1169 Body height [cm] 179.43 5.37 170 190 180.67 5.97 170 191 0.4517 Body mass [kg] 82.13 9.64 55.9 98.6 72.41 7.04 58.9 87.3 0.0001 BMI [kg/m2] 25.51 2.92 18.8 30.4 22.17 1.59 19.2 25.3 0.0000 TBW (Total Body Water) [L] 48.56 6.12 32.9 57.4 45.04 4.94 35.5 56.1 0.0216 Protein[kg] 13.20 1.68 8.9 15.6 12.18 1.32 9.6 15 0.0176 Minerals [kg] 4.61 0.62 3.24 5.64 4.22 0.56 3.28 5.31 0.0181 BFM (Body Fat Mass) [kg] 15.77 6.00 5 24.3 10.97 3.55 4 18.8 0.0042 FFM (Fat Free Mass) [kg] 66.37 8.40 45 78.6 61.44 6.79 48.4 76.4 0.0201 SMM (Skeletal Muscle Mass) [kg] 37.83 5.12 24.7 45.1 34.75 3.98 27.1 43 0.0191 PBF (Percent Body Fat) [%] 19.03 6.58 7.3 30.6 15.13 4.64 6 23.8 0.0211 InBody Score 80.57 9.20 64 94 78.10 5.09 69 89 0.3434 Target Weight [kg] 77.98 7.60 63.6 89.7 73.00 6.02 63.6 87.3 0.0172 Weight Control [kg] -4.16 6.20 -12.3 11.7 0.58 4.04 -8.1 8.3 0.0022 BFM Control [kg] -4.93 5.18 -14.1 6.9 -0.76 3.14 -8.1 5 0.0025 FFM Control [kg] 0.77 2.22 0 9.1 1.35 2.10 0 7.3 0.1188 BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate)[kcal] 1803.48 181.07 1342 2068 1697.30 146.67 1415 2020 0.0195 WHR (Waist-Hip Ratio) 0.86 0.07 0.77 0.99 0.82 0.05 0.72 0.91 0.0103 Level of obesity 116.14 13.57 85 138 101.17 7.32 89 115 0.0000 Table 4. Training parameters during the 3-MBT in women with low and moderate PA levels Parameter Women (n=34) with low PA Women (n=11) with moderate PA p Mean SD Min. Max. Mean SD Min. Max. Number of cycles [cycl./3 min.] 33.32 9.09 15 46 53.09 7.38 44 66 0.0000 HRavg [bpm] 155.44 19.43 127 187 159.91 17.20 138 191 0.4596 HRmax [bpm] 170.88 16.55 143 196 180.82 12.02 165 201 0.1577 HRmin [bpm] 103.53 19.76 77 144 108.45 20.50 76 142 0.3835 HRR (max-min) [bpm] 67.35 16.37 34 109 72.36 23.71 40 125 0.4758 Recovery time [h] 1.44 0.61 1 3 1.64 0.81 1 3 0.5792 PTE [Peak Training Effect] 2.02 0.28 1.5 2.3 2.17 0.16 1.8 2.3 0.1956 Energy expenditure [kcal] 52.18 11.25 36 69 59.36 6.73 50 70 0.0790 VO2avg [mL/kg/min] 35.06 8.79 18 47 39.73 5.59 32 50 0.1956 VO2 max [mL/kg/min] 42.88 8.21 30 57 48.73 4.45 44 57 0.0790 EPOCavg [mL/kg] 8.38 3.57 3 19 10.64 5.16 6 24 0.1616 EPOCmax[mL/kg] 18.47 10.21 9 48 25.09 15.00 13 61 0.0590 RRavg [br/min] 28.03 9.68 9 45 32.82 8.69 17 47 0.1823 RRmax [br/min] 40.65 11.84 18 61 43.55 10.17 25 63 0.4205 Exercise intensity Low<107 [bpm] 00:00 00:02 00:00 00:11 00:01 00:03 00:00 00:11 0.4677 Moderate - 107-124 [bpm] 00:08 00:13 00:00 00:41 00:04 00:07 00:00 00:21 0.6066 High- 125-141 [bpm] 00:28 00:35 00:00 01:54 00:11 00:12 00:00 00:31 0.3030 Very high- 142-159 [bpm] 00:48 00:49 00:00 02:30 00:35 00:46 00:00 02:43 0.5524 Maximal ≥ 160 [bpm] 01:36 01:18 00:00 03:00 02:09 00:55 00:00 03:00 0.3622 Table 5. Physiological and training parameters during the 3-MBT in men with low and moderate PA levels Parameter Men (n=21) with low PA Men (n=30) with moderate PA p Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max Number of cycles [cycl./3 min.] 38.00 4.59 24 45 53.67 6.08 41 66 0.0000 HRavg [bpm] 168.00 21.18 115 191 173.43 10.36 156 193 0.9238 HRmax [bpm] 183.05 18.75 136 201 186.60 9.56 169 200 0.7961 HRmin [bpm] 112.71 22.17 71 142 111.40 14.92 74 130 0.6529 HRR (max-min) [bpm] 70.33 15.36 51 99 75.20 15.57 54 117 0.3196 Recovery time [h] 1.76 0.83 0 3 1.90 0.71 1 3 0.6120 PTE [Peak Training Effect] 2.10 0.34 1.3 2.3 2.25 0.06 2.1 2.3 0.7019 Energy expenditure [kcal] 56.71 13.89 29 69 61.43 6.60 49 71 0.8184 VO2avg [mL/kg/min] 40.29 8.85 21 50 42.47 5.10 31 50 0.8482 VO2 max [mL/kg/min] 48.67 8.73 27 57 50.37 5.04 41 58 0.9771 EPOCavg [mL/kg] 10.90 5.26 1 24 11.10 5.03 7 25 0.6053 EPOCmax[mL/kg] 28.48 15.27 4 61 27.40 14.57 15 61 0.5920 RRavg [br/min] 35.62 10.28 18 48 36.77 6.28 28 48 0.9924 RRmax [br/min] 50.33 14.34 26 70 52.37 7.87 37 64 0.8859 Exercise intensity Low<107 [bpm] 00:01 00:03 00:00 00:10 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 0.5723 Moderate - 107-124 [bpm] 00:04 00:11 00:00 00:38 00:01 00:02 00:00 00:08 0.8708 High- 125-141 [bpm] 00:15 00:33 00:00 02:01 00:05 00:06 00:00 00:18 0.9390 Very high- 142-159 [bpm] 00:18 00:24 00:00 01:22 00:12 00:12 00:00 00:43 0.8482 Maximal ≥ 160 [bpm] 02:14 01:09 00:00 03:00 02:41 00:16 02:08 03:02 0.9695 Table 6. Recovery parameters measured within 6 minutes after exercise in women with low and moderate PA levels Parameter Women (n=34) with low PA Women (n=11) with moderate PA P Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max HRavg [bpm] 118.15 14.40 94 150 124.64 11.07 107 143 0.1823 HRmax [bpm] 170.88 16.55 143 196 180.82 12.02 165 201 0.1577 HRmin [bpm] 102.71 13.14 80 132 109.45 12.72 91 128 0.1738 HRR (max-min) [bpm] 68.18 11.43 42 87 71.36 11.37 44 85 0.4054 Recovery time [h] 0.65 0.54 0 2 0.73 0.65 0 2 0.7917 PTE [Peak Training Effect] 1.52 0.33 1.1 2.3 1.57 0.33 1.2 2.1 0.5612 Energy expenditure [kcal] 59.50 12.70 36 94 62.00 12.92 47 83 0.5792 VO2avg [mL/kg/min] 19.03 5.70 9 32 21.64 4.59 16 29 0.1616 VO2max [mL/kg/min] 31.53 6.24 23 45 33.73 5.20 29 44 0.1956 EPOCavg [mL/kg] 6.09 3.62 1 16 6.55 3.33 3 13 0.6066 EPOCmax [mL/kg] 9.65 6.67 2 27 8.91 5.38 4 19 0.9789 RRavg [br/min] 28.03 9.68 9 45 32.82 8.69 17 47 0.1823 RRmax [br/min] 40.65 11.84 18 61 43.55 10.17 25 63 0.4205 Exercise intensity Low<107 [bpm] 01:51 01:59 00:00 04:53 01:32 01:33 00:00 04:03 0.6440 Moderate - 107-124 [bpm] 02:00 01:30 00:00 05:24 01:57 01:15 00:00 03:39 0.8949 High- 125-141 [bpm] 01:24 01:15 00:12 04:52 01:36 01:23 00:18 03:55 0.8019 Very high- 142-159 [bpm] 00:32 00:35 00:00 02:29 00:37 00:18 00:20 01:13 0.2002 Maximal ≥ 160 [bpm] 00:13 00:22 00:00 01:26 00:18 00:25 00:00 01:08 0.4282 Table 7. Recovery parameters measured within 6 minutes after exercise in men with low and moderate PA levels Parameter Men (n=21)with low PA Men (n=30) with moderate PA p Mean SD Min Max Mean SD Min Max HRavg [bpm] 128.67 16.01 95 153 123.33 10.85 102 143 0.1406 HRmax [bpm] 183.05 18.75 136 201 186.60 9.56 169 200 0.7961 HRmin [bpm] 111.05 16.08 81 136 107.43 10.70 86 128 0.3583 HRR (max-min) [bpm] 72.00 14.81 47 98 79.17 10.96 60 100 0.0940 Recovery time [h] 1.00 0.63 0 2 1.00 0.37 0 2 0.9924 PTE [Peak Training Effect] 1.78 0.41 1.1 2.4 1.61 0.29 1.2 2.1 0.1380 Energy expenditure [kcal] 68.76 16.08 38 93 63.60 11.60 40 83 0.2100 VO2avg [mL/kg/min] 23.90 5.52 13 33 22.53 3.88 13 29 0.2670 VO2 max [mL/kg/min] 35.62 7.06 23 46 33.53 4.64 26 44 0.2242 EPOCavg [mL/kg] 8.67 4.96 1 18 6.57 2.82 2 13 0.1305 EPOCmax [mL/kg] 12.86 7.62 2 28 9.43 4.53 3 19 0.1355 RRavg [br/min] 35.62 10.28 18 48 36.77 6.28 28 48 0.9924 RRmax [br/min] 50.33 14.34 26 70 52.37 7.87 37 64 0.8859 Exercise intensity Low<107 [bpm] 00:59 01:39 00:00 05:19 01:04 01:23 00:00 04:28 0.4448 Moderate - 107-124 [bpm] 01:27 01:28 00:00 03:45 02:19 01:27 00:00 04:32 0.0414 High- 125-141 [bpm] 02:08 01:27 00:16 04:24 01:47 01:23 00:14 04:25 0.4495 Very high- 142-159 [bpm] 00:57 00:47 00:00 02:34 00:36 00:20 00:00 01:33 0.1119 Maximal ≥ 160 [bpm] 00:29 00:26 00:00 01:24 00:15 00:18 00:00 01:01 0.0445