MEDICINAL
CHEMISTRY
RESEARCH
Medicinal Chemistry Research
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00044-024-03296-y
REVIEW ARTICLE
Anticancer potential of delphinidin and its derivatives: therapeutic
and mechanistic insights
Shabnoor Iqbal
1
●
Timothy Omara
2
●
Ivan Kahwa
3
●
Usman Mir Khan4
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1234567890();,:
Received: 27 April 2024 / Accepted: 30 July 2024
© The Author(s) 2024
Abstract
Anthocyanins are water-soluble naturally occurring flavonoids present in fruits, flowers, leaves, and roots of fruit
plants and vegetables. One of the important anthocyanidin components of red wine and berries is delphinidin (DP).
This review provides an update on the potential of DP in cancer therapy, with a further understanding of the
mechanisms involved. Delphinidin has been shown to elicit inhibitory effects on catabolizing enzymes of human
granulocytes and parasites, TNF-induced COX-2 expression in mouse epidermal cells, and reduce oxidative stress. It
also inhibited anchorage-independent growth and caused cell death in breast cancer cell lines. Delphinidin increased
Nrf2 expression, increased HO-1 production, and promoted mRNA expression of mitochondrial biogenesis-related
factors. Further, DP has anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effects in various cancer cell lines such as lung, breast, and
ovarian cancer cells. The mTOR-related pathway is the most important signaling pathway in the activation of
autophagy, and DP has been shown to exert its cytotoxic effects on cancer cell lines via activating protein kinases.
Among DP derivatives, delphinidin-3-O-glucoside has the best anticancer activity because it is easily absorbed.
However, the metabolism of DP and its bioavailability in biological systems need to be explored to fully understand its
benefits.
Keywords Pro-inflammatory genes Target sites Antiproliferative effect Anthocyanins
●
●
Introduction
In ancient times, medicines were primarily derived from
natural sources due to their perceived safety, availability
and affordability. Today, most drugs are synthetic, and are
derived from scaffolds or plant-based molecules with
known health benefits such as sterols, carotenoids, polyphenols, and anthocyanins [1]. The pharmacological
* Shabnoor Iqbal
iqbal.s@ufs.ac.za
1
AMITD Department of Pharmacology, School of Clinical
Medicine, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South
Africa
2
Department of Chemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere
University, Kampala, Uganda
3
Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, Mbarara
University of Science and Technology, Mbarara, Uganda
4
National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
●
activities of phytoconstituents have been extensively studied. In this context, flavonoids (flavones, flavanones,
isoflavonoids, flavonols, flavans, and anthocyanins) feature as one of the well-known phytochemical groups
which differs structurally at the heterocyclic oxygen ring.
One of the most important flavonoids is the anthocyanin,
delphinidin (Fig. 1).
Delphinidin (3,3,4,5,5,5,7-hexahydroxyflavylium) is
abundant in colored fruits and vegetables, especially blueberries, pomegranates, grapes, beets and eggplants [2, 3].
Several derivatives of delphinidin (DP) have been reported
in plants (Table 1; Fig. 2), and some have displayed interesting anti-mutagenic, anti-angiogenic, anti-oxidant, and
anti-inflammatory activities [4]. Delphinidin is lightsensitive and remains stable only at pH 3. It is quickly
degraded in physiological settings, poorly absorbed and
thus its bioavailability is low [5]. Although DP and its
derivatives have a vast array of therapeutic effects, the
underlying molecular mechanisms are not yet clearly
understood [6]. In this review, we delve into the anticancer
potential of DP and its derivatives, giving the mechanistic
insights into its mode of action.
Fig. 1 Chemical structure of delphinidin
Structural characteristics of delphinidin and
its derivatives, and their relationships with
anticancer activities
Delphinidin is a polyphenolic compound with its basic
structure based on the flavylium cation, which consists of
a three-ring system (C6-C3-C6), otherwise called the
anthocyanidin skeleton. This structure has two aromatic
rings: A (resorcinol) and B (catechol), and C (3-O-subsituted-pyrylium), a heterocyclic ring [4] Delphinidin has
hydroxyl groups (-OH) at the 3, 5, 7, 3′, 4′, and 5′ positions of the anthocyanidin skeleton. Oxygen in the first
position is linked to the sugar moiety at the 3-O-β- position of the C ring. In the three rings, DP has 6 hydrogen
bond donor and 6 hydrogen bond acceptor atoms. Because
of the presence of numerous electron donor atoms, DP
acts as a potent antioxidant by scavenging reactive oxygen
species (ROS). The presence of a 3-hydroxyl group in ring
B of DP distinguishes it from other anthocyanins. It also
possesses two hydroxy groups in ring A. Because these
-OH groups interact potently with a wide range of proteins, they are accountable for several important biological processes [7].
Although DP is more active in its aglycone form, its
bioavailability depends on a sugar moiety being present
in the third position of the C ring [8]. Due to the presence
of several hydroxyl groups, DP is extremely polar in
comparison to other anthocyanins and is hence readily
soluble in methanol and water [9]. In the C-3 position, DP
is connected to a range of sugar moieties, including glucoside and arabinoside. These glycosides (DP derivatives;
Fig. 2) have improved solubility and stability compared to
the aglycone form. The type, quantity, and location of
sugars in the DP molecule, the degree of hydroxyl group
methylation, and the number of aliphatic or aromatic
acids attached to sugars in a DP derivative are the features
that distinguish DP derivatives from one another [10].
Acylation (addition of acyl groups, for example,
p-coumaric and caffeic acids) of the glycosyl moieties are
typical modifications that can enhance the stability and
bioavailability of DP derivatives. Such acylated DP
derivatives tend to elicit enhanced anticancer activities
owing to increased lipophilicity and improved interaction
with cellular membranes [11]. Another important
structural feature of DP derivatives is methylation at
hydroxyl positions, which can lead to increased stability
and altered bioactivity. For instance, the methylation of
hydroxyl groups can affect the antioxidant properties and
interaction with cellular targets as in malvidin, a DP
derivative [12].
Regarding the relationship of the structural features of
DP and its derivatives to their anticancer properties,
several aspects can be highlighted. Firstly, the hydroxyl
groups of DP and its derivatives are largely responsible
for their scavenging free radicals and ROS, which are
implicated in cancer development and progression. By
reducing oxidative stress, DP and its derivatives can
inhibit the initiation and promotion stages of carcinogenesis [13]. Secondly, pro-apoptotic effects (induction
of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest) of DP are mediated
through various pathways (discussed in later sections) in
cancer cells, including the mitochondrial pathway and the
activation of caspases. The presence of hydroxyl groups
enhances its ability to interact with and modulate apoptotic proteins. Specifically, DP can cause cell cycle arrest,
particularly in the G2/M phase, by modulating the
expression of cell cycle regulatory proteins such as
cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) [14].
Thirdly, the anti-inflammatory properties of DP is
achieved through inhibition of inflammatory pathways
(key inflammatory mediators such as NF-κB and COX-2)
which are often upregulated in cancer cells. This antiinflammatory action contributes to its anticancer effects.
Further, DP can exert an effect on signaling pathways,
and by modulating signaling pathways involved in
inflammation and cell proliferation, it can suppress tumor
growth and metastasis [14]. Fourthly, DP can inhibit
angiogenesis (the process of new blood vessel formation)
which is essential for tumor growth and metastasis. This
is partly achieved by downregulating pro-angiogenic
factors like VEGF. The antioxidant and antiinflammatory properties of DP contribute to its antiangiogenic effects, thereby reducing the nutrient and
oxygen supply to tumor cells [13] (Sharma et al. [13]).
Lastly, the epigenetic modulatory effect of DP and its
derivatives are reportedly crucial in inhibiting tumor
progression. The molecules modulate the expression of
genes involved in cancer progression through epigenetic
mechanisms, such as histone modification and
DNA methylation. Such epigenetic modulations can lead
to the reactivation of tumor suppressor genes and the
silencing of oncogenes, contributing to the anticancer
effects of DP [15].
Taken together, the structural characteristics of DP and
its derivatives, particularly the presence of hydroxyl
groups and potential modifications like glycosylation,
acylation, and methylation are crucial for their anticancer
Medicinal Chemistry Research
Table 1 Occurrence of delphinidin and its derivatives in plants based on published literature
Plant part/common name
Scientific name
Delphinidin and its derivatives
References
1. Fruits
Bilberry
Mulberry
Blueberry
Vaccinium myrtillus L.
Malus pumila L.
Vaccinium corymbosum L.
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2)
Delphinidin-3-rutinoside (3)
Delphinidin-3-galactoside (4)
Delphinidin-3-arabinoside (5)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2), Delphinidin-3-rutinoside (3)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2), Delphinidin-3-rutinoside (3)
Mono-glucoside (6), Di-glucoside (7)
Delphinidin glycosides (8)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2), Delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside (9)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2)
[91]
[92, 93]
[91]
Delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside (9)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2), Delphinidin-3-rutinoside (3), Delphinidin-3-pcoumarylrutinoside-5-glucoside (10), Delphinidin-3-glucosylrhamnoside (11)
Delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside (9), Delphinidin-3-glucosylarabinoside (12)
Delphinidin-3-xylosylgalactoside-5-acetylglucoside (13), Delphinidin-3xylosylgalactoside-5-glucoside (14)
Delphinidin-3-trans-coumaroylrutinoside-5-glucoside (15)
Delphinidin-3-rutinoside (3)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2), Delphinidin-3-galactoside (4)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2), Delphinidin-3-rutinoside (3)
Delphinidin-3-galactoside (4), Delphinidin-3-arabinoside (5)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2), Delphinidin-3-rutinoside (3)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2), Delphinidin-3-rutinoside (3)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2), Delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside (9)
Delphinidin-3-malonylglucoside-5-glucoside (16)
[100, 101]
[102, 103]
Currant
Grape
Orange
Pomegranate
Saskatoon Berry
2. Leguminous plants
Beans
Eggplant
Ribes rubrum L.
Ribes nigrum L.
Vitis vinifera L.
Citrus sinensis L.
Punica granatum L.
Amelanchier alnifolia
Nutt.
Phaseolus species
Solanum melongena L
Lentil
Pea
Lens culinaris Medic
Pisum sativum L.
Pepper
Rhubarb
Soybean
Barley
Rice
Rye
Wheat
Da Zao
Juju (Chicory)
Sha Ji (Common Sea Buckthorn)
Zi Hua Di Ding
Capsicum annuum L.
Rheum species
Glycine max L.
Hordeum vulgare L.
Oryza sativa L
Secale cereale L.
Triticum species
Ziziphus jujube Mill.
Cichorium glandulosum
Bioss.
Hippophae rhamnoides L.
Viola yedoensis
Kamala
Ceylon Gooseberry
Nelumbo nucifera
Dovyalis hebecarpa
Jaboticaba (or Jabuticaba)
Jamelão
Maqui Berry (also known as Maqui or
Chilean Blackberry)
Roselle
Myrciaria cauliflora
Syzygium cumini
Aristotelia chilensis
Hibiscus sabdariffa L.
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2), Delphinidin-3-rutinoside (3)
Delphinidin-3-cis-p-coumaroylrutinoside-5-glucoside (17)
Delphinidin-3-acetlyrutinoside-5-glucoside (18)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2), Delphinidin-3-rutinoside (3), Delphinidin-3-(6″acetyl)-glucoside (19)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2)
Delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside (9)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2), Delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside (9), Delphinidin-3sambubioside (20), Delphinidin-3-sambubioside-5-glucoside (21)
Delphinidin-3-glucoside (2)
properties. These features enable DP to exert antioxidant,
pro-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic, and
epigenetic effects, making it a promising candidate for
cancer prevention and therapy. However, further research
is evidently required to fully understand and optimize
these properties for clinical applications.
Biosynthesis of delphinidin
Naturally, DP is biosynthesised from coumaroyl-CoA and
malonyl-CoA, with 3′,5′-hydroxylase serving as the primary enzyme (Fig. 3). The de novo assembly approach
for anthocyanin biosynthesis involves the use of unigenes, the genes for chalcone synthase (CHS) and
[91, 94]
[91, 94]
[91, 95]
[96]
[97, 98]
[99]
[104, 105]
[106]
[107]
[108]
[109, 110]
[111–113]
[114, 115]
[116]
[117, 118]
[119]
[120]
[99]
[121]
[122, 123]
[124]
[125]
[2]
[126–129]
[130]
cinnamonate-4-hydroxylase (C4H) [16, 17]. The enzymes
proanthocyanidins and flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase
(UFGT) compete to produce anthocyanins and reductase,
respectively. Enzymatic reduction of DP and leucodelphinidin results in the formation of gallocatechin and
epigallocatechin. Prodelphinidin is created by polymerization of both epigallocatechin and gallocatechin
(catechin) [18].
The flavonoid route, which follows a similar upstream
pathway with pro-anthocyanidins until anthocyanins are
formed by the catalysis of anthocyanidin synthase (leucoanthocyanidin dioxygenase) is responsible for the
synthesis of free anthocyanins in grapes [19]. Examining
the pre- and post-harvest mechanisms, blueberry anthocyanin production was found to be significantly boosted
Medicinal Chemistry Research
Fig. 2 Structure of delphinidin derivatives identified in various plants and herbal products. The numbers (1 to 20) refer to the molecules mentioned
in Table 1
by pre-harvest UV-B, C, and post-harvest UV-A, B, and C
irradiation [20]. Anthocyanin production was enhanced in
purple-colored leaves, according to a variety of
metabolites detected by HPLC-MS, with the highest
concentrations of anthocyanidins, pro-anthocyanidins,
and kaempferol glycoside [21].
Medicinal Chemistry Research
Fig. 3 Delphinidin biosynthetic
pathway. F3′H flavonoid-3′5′hydroxylase, CHI chalcone
isomerase, CHS chalcone
synthase, F3H flavanone 3hydroxylase, UF3GT UDP-Glc
flavonoid 3-O-glucosyl
transferase, DFR
dihydroflavonol-4-reductase, F3′
5′H flavonoid-3′,5′-hydroxylase,
ANS anthocyanidin synthase.
Adapted from [4]
Anticancer potential of delphinidin
Anthocyanins are widely promoted due to the vast array of
their perceived health benefits. Both DP and its derivatives
has anticancer efficacy against various molecular subtypes
of well-established cancer cell lines (Table 2). DP inhibited
anchorage-independent growth and caused apoptosis in
HER2-overexpressing, ER-positive breast cancer cell lines.
The upregulation of mitogenic kinases in breast cancer cells
pretreated with DP was found to have been blocked [22].
DP was shown to reduce the risk of cancer by inducing
apoptosis in endothelial cells [23, 24]. The mechanism of
cytotoxicity involved DNA damage of the treated cells that
were unable to produce tyrosyl-DNA-phosphodiesterase 1,
suggesting that topoisomerase was not the primary cause of
DNA strand breakage. In another study, DP prevented
menadione-induced DNA damage in HT29 cells and exerted an antioxidative effect in the presence of catalase when
hydrogen peroxide formation was reduced in cells [25].
Similarly, DP inhibited COX-2 expression and tumor
progression in mouse skin epidermal cells by targeting
mitogen protein kinase [26]. In human colon cancer cells,
DP treatments upregulated caspases 3–8 and 9 while Bcl-2
protein decreased and the cellular division was arrested at
the G2/M phase [27]. A mechanistic study found that DP
exhibited anticancer effects in treating ovarian cancer with
poor prognosis and resistance to treatment via inhibition of
ERK1/2 MAPK and PI3K/AKT signal transduction cascades in ES2 cells from ovarian clear cell carcinoma [28].
This was in agreement with earlier studies which concluded
that DP downregulated ERK-MAPK and PI3K/AKT signaling cascades in SKOV3 cells and inhibited cancer cell
progression, suggesting that these signaling pathways are
the main targets of DP for the prevention of epithelial
ovarian cancer that is resistant to paclitaxel [29]. Brainderived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) induced increased cell
migration and invasion of SKOV3 ovarian cancer cells but
DP treatments reinstated cell invasion and migration by
Medicinal Chemistry Research
Table 2 Protective effect of delphinidin against different cancer cell progressions
Cancer
Experimental model
IC50
Test concentrations
Results
References
Ovarian
ES2
ND
0.1, 1, 10, 50, and
100 µM
PI3K/Akt ↓ , ERK1/2/JNK↓
[28]
Ovarian
SKOV3
ND
50 and 75 µM
MMP-2, -9 ↓, p-Akt ↓, NF-kB ↓
[30]
Ovarian
SKOV3
ND
0.1, 1, 10 µM
pS6 ↓, p-Akt ↓, pP70S6K ↓, p-ERK1/2 ↓, [29]
p-P38 ↓ , MAPK ↓
Colorectal
HCT-116, CRC, HT29, D3G; 395.8 µg/mL
C3G; ND
PBMCs
100 to 600 µg/mL
PD-L1 ↓
[31]
Colorectal
SW620
DLD-1, SW480
ND
20, 40, 60, 80, 100 µM EMT ↓ , ẞ-catenin ↓, MMP-2 ↓ ,
E-cadherin ↓
[32]
Colorectal
Mice
ND
100 µM
FAK ↓, Src ↓
[32]
Colorectal
HT-29
ND
25 µg/mL
PGK1 ↓
[33]
Colorectal
HCT-116
DP; 106 μM
80, 100, 120 µM
BAX ↑ , caspase- 3, -8, -9 ↑, p-ERK1/2 ↓, [34]
p-STAT-3 ↓, Cytochrome C ↓, p-p38 ↓ ,
Colorectal
HCT-116
ND
30, 60, 120, 180,
240 µM
p53 ↑ , Bcl-2 ↓ , NF-kB↓
[27]
Lung
A549
ND
10, 20, 40 µM
HIF-1α ↓ , Angiogenesis ↓, PI3K/Akt/
mTOR ↓ , VEGF ↓
[35]
Lung
NSCLC
DP; 30.1 μM
1, 5, 10, 20 µM
ATG12 ↑ , JNK/MAPK ↑ , LC3-II ↑
[36]
Lung
Mice
ND
1, 2 mg
PCNA ↓ , CD31 ↓ , VEG ↓, Ki67 ↓
[37]
[37]
Lung
NSCLC
ND
5, 10, 20, 40, 60 µM
VEGFR2 ↑ , BAX ↑ , EGFR ↓
Prostate
PC-3
DP; 90 μmol/L
30, 60,90, 20,180
µmol/L
Caspase-3, -9 ↑, Cyclin D1 ↓ , Cyclin A ↓, [38]
cdk1 ↓, cdk2 ↓
Prostate
LNCaP
ND
30, 60, 90 µM
BAX ↓ , XIAP ↓ , caspase-7, -8, -9 ↑ , DR5 [39]
↑, Bcl-2 ↓
Prostate
Mice
ND
2 mg
Bcl-2 ↓ , BAX ↑ , NF-kB ↓ , cyclin D1↓
[38]
Prostate
LNCaP
ND
50, 100,150 µM
BAX ↑ , HDAC3 ↑ , PARP-1 ↓ , PUMA↑
[40]
Prostate
PC-3
ND
15, 30,60,120, 180,
240 µM
Catenin ↓, E-cadherin↑
[41]
Skin
HaCaT
ND
1,5, 10, 15,20 µM
Cleaved PARP ↓ , Lipid peroxidation↓
[42]
Skin cancer
JB6 P+
ND
5, 10, 20, 40 µM
PGE2 ↓ , NF-kB ↓ , COX-2 ↓, p-MSK ↓ ,
AP-1 ↓ , p-ERK↓ p-90RSK ↓
[26]
Skin
SKH-1
ND
1 mg
8-OHd ↓, CPDs ↓
[42]
Skin
JB6 P+
DP; <20 µM
10, 20, 40, 60, 80,
100 µM
DNMTs ↓ , Nrf2 ↑ , Hmox1 ↑ , Nqo1 ↑ ,
SOD1 ↓ , HDACs ↓
[15]
Skin
HaCaT
DP;20 μM
510 µM
Elastic modulus ↑
[43]
Liver
HepG2
DP; 10.8 µM
Cynidin; 18.4 µM
Malvidin; 50.4 µM
50, 100, 150, 200 µM
Bcl-2 ↑ , c-Jun ↑ , p-JNK↑
[44]
Liver
SMMC7721
ND
100, 150 µM
EGFR ↓ , EMT ↓ , MMP2 ↓ , ERK ↓ ,
AKT↓
[45]
Leukemia
HL-60
ND
100 µM
Caspase-3 ↑, p-JNK ↑, c-Jun ↑
[46]
Leukemia
HL-60
Hibiscus extracts;
3 mg/mL
0, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5,
0.7 mg/mL
Cell arrest at phase G2/M
[47]
Leukemia
HL-60
Hibiscus extracts;
2.49 mg/ml
3 mg/mL
p-p38 ↑ , p-c-jun ↑ , caspase-3, -8 ↑,
Cytochrome C ↑
[48]
Leukemia
HL-60
DP;1.9 μM
10, 30, 100 µM
Cyanidin; 11.7 μM
Pelargonid; 16.4 μM
Apoptosis ↑
[49]
Leukemia
HL-60
Dp3-Sam;75 μM
25, 50, 75, 100,
125 µM
Caspase-9, -8, -3 ↑, Cytochrome C ↓
[50]
Leukemia
Jurkat
ND
100 µM
ROS ↓, p-Bad ↓, p-Akt, ↓, UHRF↓
[51]
Medicinal Chemistry Research
Table 2 (continued)
Cancer
Experimental model
IC50
Test concentrations
Results
References
Bladder
T24
DP; 34 µg/Ml
10, 20, 30, 40, 50,
60 µg/mL
ROS ↓
[52]
Cell viability ↑, ROS ↓ , LC3-II ↓, p62 ↓
Osteosarcoma U2OS
ND
10, 50, 100, 200 µM
Osteosarcoma U2OS, HOS
ND
10, 25, 50, 75, 100 µM E-cadherin ↓ , Slug ↓ , Snail ↓ , EMT ↓ ,
ERK↓
[132]
[131]
[53]
Glioma
U-87 MG
ND
35, 50 µM
TGF/Smad2 ↓ , TGF/ERK ↓ , Snail↓
Glioma
LN18, U87MG
ND
10, 25, 50 µM
p-Akt ↓, NF-kB ↓ , VEGF ↓ , MMP-2, -9↓ [54]
Breast
MCF-10A
ND
5, 10, 20, 40 µM
p-JNK ↓, p-Crk ↓, p-FAK ↓, p-src ↓
[133]
Breast
Mice
ND
Del 10 mg/kg
Apoptosis ↑
[134]
Breast
MCF-7
ND
12.5, 25, 50, 100 µM
Antiproliferative effect
[55]
Breast
MDA468, MDA453,
MCF7
HCC1806, MDA231
DP; 50 μg/mL
12.5, 50, 25, 100 µg/
mL
p-HER2 ↓ , p-ERK1/2 ↓ , p-Akt ↓
[22]
Breast
MDA-MB-231
ND
50, 25, 12.5 µM
p-GSK3 ↓ , Bcl-2 ↓ , p53↓
[134]
Breast
MCF-7
ND
15, 30, 60, 90 µM
p-JNK ↓ , MMP-9 ↓ , p-p38↓
[56]
↓ means Downregulated, ↑ means Upregulated, ND means Not determined
downregulating the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9, Akt
and NF-κB [30]. In another investigation where HCT-116
and HT-29 human colorectal cancer cells were treated with
pure phenolics such as delphinidin-3-O-glucoside (D3G),
and cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) either alone or in combination (100–600 µg/mL), programmed death ligand 1
(PD-L1) fluorescence intensity was found to be 39%
reduced by C3G. In peripheral blood mononuclear cells,
anthocyanins reduced programmed death protein-1 (PD-1)
expression by 41 and 55% in monoculture, 39 and 26% (for
C3G), 50 and 51% (D3G) in co-culture with HCT-116 and
HT-29 cells, respectively [31]. Huang et al. also inferred
that DP (<100 μM) encumbered the progression of colorectal cell lines (DLD-1, SW480 and SW620) via inhibition
of focal adhesion kinase (FAK)/Src/paxillin, integrin αV/
β3, and interfered with cytoskeletal assembly as well as
lowered the migratory capacity and invasiveness in the
treated CRC cell lines [32].
Jang et al. performed proteomic analysis and western
blotting and demonstrated that phosphoglycerate kinase 1
(PGK1) was increased by hydrogen peroxide in a dosedependent manner and that its expression was inhibited by
co-treatment with the recognized antioxidant DP [33].
According to Zhang et al. [34], DP treatments induced
changes in mitochondrial membrane potential which triggered Bax, Caspase-3, 8, and 9, cytochrome C, and suppressed anti-apoptotic protein expression, phosphorylation
of the activities of STAT-3 and MAPKinase signaling in
colon cancer cells (HCT116). Yu and colleagues examined
the antiproliferative and proapoptotic characteristics of DP
in human colon cancer (HCT116) cells and unraveled that
subjecting the cells to DP (30-240 µM; 48 h) led to: (i) a
reduction in cell viability; (ii) apoptosis; (iii) PARP
cleavage; (iv) upregulation of caspases-3, -8, and -9; (v)
upregulation of Bax and downregulation of Bcl-2 protein;
(vi) G2/M phase cell cycle arrest [27]. In A549 cells, DP
decreased the activity of hypoxia response element (HRE)
promoter triggered by cobalt chloride and epidermal
growth factor (EGF) by inhibiting VEGF, ERK, PI3K/Akt/
mTOR/p70S6K signaling pathways, reduced HIF-1 binding to the HRE promoter, and greatly prevented the
development of new blood vessels caused by EGF in
animal models [35].
According to another research group, DP upregulated the
expression of autophagy-induced cell death-related protein
and downregulated the phosphorylation of PI3K, AKT, and
mTOR in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells
exposed to radiations [36]. Athymic nude mice treatment
with DP caused (i) tumor growth inhibition, (ii) reduced
proliferation of PCNA and Ki67 and (iii) increased programmed cell death [37]. Similarly, PC3 cells treated with
DP elicited a dose-dependent reduction of (a) phosphorylation of IκB kinase γ (NEMO), (b) phosphorylation of the
inhibitory protein IκBα of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), (c)
phosphorylation of NF-κB/p65 at Ser536 and NF-κB/p50 at
Ser529, (d) nuclear translocation of NF-κB/p65, and (e) NFκB DNA binding activity [38]. PC3 cells were treated with
DP and outcomes showed inhibition of the cell progression
by intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways via death
receptor 5 and cleavage of histone deacetylase 3 [39]. Jeong
[40] also found that DP treatments of LNCaP cells—a
human prostate cancer cell line with p53 wild-type—
increased the activity of caspase-3, -7, and -8 and decreased
histone deacetylase and HDAC3, one of the class I HDACs
activities. In addition, DP (15–180 μM, 72 h) triggered the
formation of Axin and glycogen synthase kinase 3β
Medicinal Chemistry Research
phosphorylation, blocked translocation of β-catenin and
downregulated target β-catenin [41].
Based on the work of Afqaq and others, pretreating
keratinocyte HaCaT cells with DP (1–20 µM for 24 h)
shielded cells from UVB (15–30 mJ/cm2)-mediated (i)
apoptosis induction; (ii) reduction in cell viability; (iii) lipid
peroxidation, (iv) reduced 8-hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine
(8-OHdG), (v) expression of the nuclear antigen; (vi)lowered poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage; (vii) caspase
activation; (viii) downregulation of Bcl-2; (ix) upregulation
of Bax; (x) increase in the expressions of Bid and Bak [42].
Actually, DP was found to directly target and inhibit Raf
and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MEK), and COX2 to
repress
12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate
(TPA)induced transformation production in JB6 promotionsensitive mouse skin epidermal (JB6 P + ) cells [26].
Other findings indicate that DP triggered Nrf2 promoter to
modulate Nrf2-ARE pathway in JB6 P+ cells (skin cancer
cells) and thereby could be a potent chemopreventive agent
to treat skin cancer [15]. Evidently, UVB-exposed human
keratinocyte cells (HaCaT) characterized by diminished
metabolic activity, actin cytoskeleton rearrangement and
elimination of 53BP1 cell repair marker had their normal
activity restored by treatment with DP at 5 or (10 μM) [43].
Along with cyanidin and malvidin, DP exerted growth
inhibitory effects against human hepatoma (HepG2) cells
via activation of caspase-3 in a time-dependent manner and
activated poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage.
In addition, DP upregulated the expression of JNK and
c-Jun according to RT-PCR and Western blot studies [44].
Another study indicated that DP triggered LC3 lipidation, a hallmark of macroautophagy in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells as inhibited with 3-methyladenine
treatments, and resulted in extensive necrosis. Consequently, anthocyanins may cause distinct forms of cell death
in various malignancies. Moreover, a combination of
anthocyanins and a macroautophagy inhibitor may be utilized to treat malignancies like HCC [45]. In human promyelocytic leukemia cells (HL-60), the effective induction
of apoptosis by DP was recorded at a concentration of
100 µM in 6 h. In the study, DP promoted the activation of
the JNK pathway, which included JNK phosphorylation,
c-jun gene expression, and caspase-3 activation, concurrently with apoptosis in the HL-60 cells [46]. Tsai et al.
was examined the impact of Hibiscus anthocyanins (HAs)
that contain DP, in the human leukemia cell line HL-60 and
the results of flow cytometry analysis were observed cell
cycle arrest at the G2/M phase [47]. A previous study
revealed that HAs in HL-60 cells, may induce apoptosis in
cancer cells. In HL-60 cells, HAs administration (0–4 mg/
ml) significantly and time- and dose-dependently promoted
apoptosis and elevated phosphorylation in p38 and c-Jun,
cytochrome c release, tBid, Fas, and FasL [48]. Takasawa
et al. also probed into the inhibitory properties of anthocyanidins (including pelargonidin, cyanidin, and DP) but
only DP caused dose- and time-dependent apoptosis in HL60 cells [49]. According to molecular evidence, delphinidin
3-sambubioside (Dp3-Sam) treatment of HL-60 cells caused
the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria into the
cytosol, the truncation of Bid, and a decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential in a time- and dosedependent manner [50]. In Jurkat cells treated with blackcurrant extract that were rich in cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside,
delphinidin-3-O-rutinoside, delphinidin-3-O-glucoside and
cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, apoptosis was induced along with
G2/M phase cell cycle arrest, upregulation of p73 and
caspase 3 but downregulation of Bad, Akt and Bcl-2 [51].
Other than the foregoing, DP (10–60 μg/mL) showed a
noteworthy cytotoxic impact on T24 cells with a considerable proportion of dead cells observed [52]. Further, Ouanouki et al. explored the effects of anthocyanidins on TGFβ-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and
their underlying mechanism(s), including cyanidin (Cy),
DP, malvidin (Mv), pelargonidin (Pg), and petunidin (Pt).
Anthocyanidins were added to human U-87 glioblastoma
(U-87 MG) cells either before, concurrently with, or after
the addition of TGF-β. The results showed that depending
on the treatment circumstances, anthocyanidins had varying
effects on TGF-β-induced EMT. Due to its ability to block
both the TGF-β Smad and non-Smad signaling pathways,
DP was shown to be the most powerful EMT inhibitor [53].
Previous research was elucidated that the combination of
DP treatment and the transfection of miR-137 mimics
resulted in the reduction of cell invasion and the growth
factor receptor (EGFR), angiogenic factors (VEGF and bFGF), invasive factors (MMP-9 and MMP-2), and survival
factors (p-Akt and NF-κB) [54]. MCF-10A cell treatments
with DP was consequently inhibited hepatocyte growth
factor (HGF) induced the expression of Met receptors,
phosphorylated downstream regulators such as Src and
FAK, and blocked mediated tyrosyl-phosphorylation [42].
Every anthocyanin pigment under investigation suppressed
the growth of the MCF-7 in a dose-dependent manner.
MCF-7 cell treatments with Dp-3-gluc was increased the
cytotoxicity as compared to the corresponding portosin. The
data suggested that the moiety in the phenolic ring (orthotrihydroxylated) is a crucial structural component to exert
cytotoxic activity in breast cancer (MCF-7) cells than
dihydroxylated compounds [55]. DP treatments resulted in a
partial reduction of MAPK signaling in ER-negative chemically altered MCF10A cells and triple-negative cells
(Table 2).
In HER2-overexpressing cells, DP significantly
increased the rate of apoptosis along with HER2 and MAPK
signaling reductions [22]. In MCF-7 (human breast) cancer
cells, DP dramatically reduced the expression of the MMP-
Medicinal Chemistry Research
9 protein generated by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate
(PMA). It blocked the activation of NFkappaB (NF-κB)
through MAPK signaling pathways, hence inhibiting the
transcriptional activity of the MMP-9 gene. Furthermore,
DP inhibited PMA-induced cancer cell invasion. According
to these findings, DP may be an effective antimetastatic
molecule that inhibits PMA-induced cancer cell invasion by
selectively blocking the expression of the MMP-9 gene,
which is dependent on NF-κB [56]. It is important to
mention that among the DP derivatives, delphinidin-3-Oglucoside has the best anticancer activity because it is easily
absorbed and appears in the blood plasma within 15 min of
oral administration. Catechol-O-methyl transferase metabolizes delphinidin-3-O-glucoside by methylating the 4′ OH
group in the B-ring and the metabolite shows a better distribution profile [57].
tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) and EGF, trigger
transcription factors AP-1 and NF-κB in different cancer
cell lines via PI3K-Akt and MEK-ERK pathways [62].
Interestingly, DP has been shown to suppress TPAinduced AP-1, NF-κB, COX-2, PGE2 expression in JB6P
+ cells [26]. DP also mitigated TPA-cellular transformation brought via inhibiting the phosphorylation of
ERK, MEK, ribosomal protein S6 kinase, and mitogen
stress activator protein kinase in JB6P mouse epidermal
cells [63]. Cyanidin can directly interact with PI3K in an
ATP-competitive manner to block AP-1 and NF-κB production via the PI3K/Akt/p70S6 pathway. It can also
prevent JB6P+ cells from undergoing cellular transformation when treated with EGF [64]. These studies indicate that DP and its derivatives (in part) elicit their
anticancer effect through prevention of cellular
transformation.
Insights into the mechanisms of anticancer
activity of DP and its derivatives
Modulation of anti-oncogene and relative protein
expression
Anticancer activity by differentiation induction
Ha et al. elucidated that anthocyanins was triggered the
transcription of p21 and p27 in colon and prostate cancer
cells as well as upregulated p53 to activate the DNA repair
system. Cancer cells underwent cell cycle arrest on the
coupling of p21 and CDKs [65]. Anwar et al. discovered
that Caco-2 cell growth was suppressed by berry
anthocyanin-rich extract. This was achieved by upregulating the expression of p21Waf/Cif1, arresting the cell cycle,
and further causing death by activating caspase-3 [66].
According to Chen et al. [67], anthocyanins (peonidin
3-Glucoside and cyanidin 3-Glucoside) was induced cell
cycle arrest at G0/G1 and G2/M, downregulated the
expressions of CDK-1 and CDK-2, cyclin-E, cyclin-B,
cyclin-A in breast cancer cells. Consequently, anthocyanins
was inhibited the progression of breast cancer cells by
arresting the cell cycle at various stages of division by upregulating the expression of anti-oncogenes and downregulating the expression of oncogenes, along with the
expression of various cyclins and their partners, CDKs and/
or CDKIs [67].
The phenomenon known as differentiation induction occurs
as a result of differentiation inducers, malignant cells differentiate into mature, normal cells. Many cancerous cells
go through cell division and generate less differentiated
cells [58, 59]. Anthocyanins can impede tumorigenesis and
cause cancer cells to differentiate terminally. Cyanidin-3-Oβglucopyranoside (Cy-g), for example, triggered PI3K and
PKC in a dose-dependent manner to induce the differentiation of the human acute promyelocytic leukemia cell
line (HL-60). This was understood by identifying indicators
and kinase inhibitors during cell differentiation. Moreover,
Cy-g (200 mg/mL) administration caused HL-60 cells to
prevent the oncogene (c-Myc) and exhibit differentiation
features such as improved adhesion and greater esterase
activity. However, after being treated with PI3K and PKC
inhibitors, marked decrement in the differentiation activity
of Cy-g against HL-60 was observed [60]. Lastly, Cy-g
upregulated the expression of cAMP, tyrosinase, and
MART-1 which induced the differentiation in the melanoma
cell line (TVM-A12) [61]. Thus, DP and its derivatives can
hinder cancer at early stages by inducing differentiation,
which in turn affects the final size of the tumor and
malignancy. Such extents of differentiation influence the
malignancy to some degree.
Anticancer effect via inhibition of cellular
transformations
One of the processes which favor tumorigenesis are cellular changes. Certain carcinogens, including 12-O-
Chemoprotective effect via modulation of the Nrf2
pathway
The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitor is
the potential inhibitor of tumor development and metastasis.
In one of the earlier attempts, DP suppressed vascular
endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2), receptor
tyrosine kinase 2 (ErbB2), VEGF receptor-3 (VEGFR3),
and insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R), indicating that the molecule has a wide range of receptor tyrosine
kinases inhibitory activity [68]. In another study, DP
Medicinal Chemistry Research
Fig. 4 Anticancer effect of
delphinidin through mechanisms
linked to Nrf2-dependent
signaling
reduced VEGF-induced angiogenesis and enhanced antioxidative activities [69]. It was also shown to considerably
improve tetradecanoylphorbol acetate -induced in mouse
epidermal cells, increase the activity of ARE-driven luciferase, and upregulated Nrf2-related genes. Demethylation
at CpG positions of the Nrf2 promoter was associated with
activation of the Nrf2-ARE pathway in the mouse. Other
researchers identified that DNA methyltransferase and histone deacetylase protein expression decreased in tandem
after reduction of CpG methylation in the Nrf2 promoter
area [15]. The findings of Xu et al. indicated that hydrogen
peroxide reduced liver cancer cell line viability via ROS
generation, but DP pretreatment promoted cell survival. DP
pretreatment increased Nrf2 expression by facilitating the
uncoupling of Nrf2 and Keap1 and Nrf2 was modulated its
expression via an ARE-like element located in the proximal
region of NFE2L2 gene promoter and DP-assisted to inhibit
NF-Kb pathway that results in inhibition of translation of
genes related to pro-informatory cytokines [70] (Fig. 4).
Inhibition of cancer via modulation of ERK1/2 and
PI3K/AKT signaling pathways
The signaling pathway of protein kinases is inhibited due to
autophagy [50]. More research is required to understand
how it regulates redox equilibrium. For example, through
antioxidative activity, and the possible mechanisms. An
investigation involving endothelial cells revealed the
antiproliferative and antiangiogenic effects of DP, which
could have been mediated through the deactivation of PDE2
in VEGF-induced upregulation of extracellular kinases
MEK/ERK, PI3K, and activating transcription factors
(CREB/ATF1). Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), VEGF,
and epidermal growth factor (EGF) expression was reduced
after the exposure of DP in cobalt chloride-induced lung
cancer due to inhibition of PI3K/Akt/mTOR and ERK
signaling [71]. Human lung cancer cell (A549) treatments
with DP reduced cell proliferation by inducing overexpression of PI3K/Akt and EGFR/VEGFR2 signaling
[35]. Another report indicated that DP exerted antiproliferative activity against colon and rat breast cancer
cells, where endothelial cells after exposure to DP mitigated
mitochondrial respiration by activating Akt [72].
Usually, the tumor growth factor (TGF)-β triggers the
EMT which facilitates tumor cell invasion and advancement. It has since been shown that DP is an effective EMT
inhibitor in human glioblastoma cell line by downregulating
the TGF/ERK, TGF/Smad2, and EMT-related proteins i.e.,
snail and fibronectin [40]. In agreement with the foregoing
results, EMT induction was prevented in hepatocellular
carcinoma cells after treatments with DP. This was achieved
via modulation of the expressions of matrix
metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2), EGFR, AKT, and ERK. In
ovarian cancer cell lines, DP inhibited cell proliferation and
promoted apoptosis via modulating PI3K/Akt and ERK1/2/
JN phosphorylation [73].
Medicinal Chemistry Research
This is further supported by the anti-proliferative and
pro-apoptotic effects of DP in ovarian cancer cells that are
resistant to paclitaxel via downregulating the expressions of
PI3K/AKT and ERK1/2 signaling [74]. It is expected that
autophagy-mediated vacuolization and growth inhibition is
another possible mechanism of DP anticancer activity in
HCC cell lines. One such probe found that DP reduced cell
proliferation, promoted apoptosis, and induced protective
autophagy against breast cancer cells by downregulating
AKT/mTOR and upregulating AMPK/FOXO3a [75].
Ozbay and Nahta were elucidated that DP has a significant
degree of cytotoxicity for breast cancer cells and has strong
interaction with the Her2 receptor and in vitro experiment
was detected downregulation of ERK1/2 signaling pathway
by treatments of DP (12.5 to 100 μg/mL.) in DHER2 and
ER-positive breast cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner
[22].
Inhibition of cancer progression via regulation of
mTOR-related pathway
The mTOR-related pathway is involved in autophagy and
is the most important in the activation of autophagy. In
breast cancer cell types bearing the MCF-7 phenotype,
several phytochemical substances influence autophagy via
the mTOR pathway [76]. The link between DP, autophagy,
and the mTOR pathway was investigated. The eukaryotic
translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4e) and 70 kDa ribosomal S6 kinase (p70s6k) were shown to be adversely
affected following DP treatment, which showed that delphinidin had an influence on mTOR activity. Treatment
with delphinidin particularly inhibits the Akt branch
upstream of mTOR [77, 78]. According to Steelman et al.
breast cancer is typically caused by a malfunction in the
mTOR pathway in mammary tissue rather than uterine
tissue [78]. Delphinidin reduced the proliferation of positive breast cancer cells (HER-2) through the mTOR
pathway, which suggests that DP reduces proliferation and
autophagy produced via modulating the mTOR pathway.
Under situations of oxidative stress and energy shortage in
eukaryotic cells, 5′ AMP-activated protein kinase
(AMPK), an energy sensor in cells, activates autophagy.
According to Aryal et al., autophagy was triggered in
pancreatic cells by AMPK and directly activates the
downstream Unc-51 Like Autophagy Activating Kinase 1
(ULK1) via inhibiting mTOR phosphorylation [79]. The
study found that AMPK phosphorylated ULK1 at ser317
and reduced the activation of mTOR, which showed a link
between ULK1 and mTOR in delphinidin-induced autophagy. So, it was concluded that delphinidin was inhibited
the proliferation of breast cancer cell lines (BT474 and
MDA-MB-453) via activating liver kinase B1 (LKB1) and
AMPK [80] Forkhead box O (FoxO) transcription factor
FOXO3a was shown to promote the expression of genes
involved in autophagy. When AMPK was activated,
FOXO3a was increased, which led to the activation of
autophagy. It was indicated that FOXO3a triggers
autophagy-related genes. Autophagy-related genes are
regulated by the AMPK-FOXO3a axis in a variety of cell
types, according to several studies [81]. The PI3K/Akt/
mTOR pathway is a desirable target for anticancer drugs
and DP targets these pathways to exert its anticancer
activity. The mTOR, protein kinase B (Akt), and phosphoinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) signal transduction pathways are
crucially involved in the control of numerous vital physiological processes, including growth, angiogenesis,
apoptosis, survival, and metabolism [82, 83]. These signaling pathways are typically downregulated in a variety
of malignancies and other inflammatory diseases like
psoriasis [84]. DP-regulated PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway by
feedback loops, partly through the upregulation of mTOR.
Two functionally different protein complexes contain
mTOR: mTORC1 and mTORC2. Protein translation
results from phosphorylated mTORC1 of p70S6 kinase
(p70S6K), which phosphorylates 4E-BP1 and the S6
ribosomal protein [85]. As part of the feedback loop,
mTORC2 phosphorylates serine 473 to activate Akt,
which then phosphorylates TSC2 and PRAS40 to activate
mTORC1 and promote keratinocyte hyperproliferation
while suppressing differentiation [86, 87] (Fig. 5).
Clinical evidence on the anticancer potential of
delphinidin and its derivatives
While preclinical studies provide strong evidence for the
anticancer potential of DP and its derivatives, clinical evidence supporting the same is still limited and requires further validation through rigorous trials. Most of the evidence
supporting DP’s anticancer effects comes from in vitro
studies and animal models. Some observational studies have
shown that diets rich in anthocyanins, including delphinidin, are associated with a reduced risk of certain cancers
[88, 89]. For example, Zhang et al. [90] found that dietary
intake of total anthocyanidins and of all six subclasses
including cyanidin, DP and its derivatives (malvidin and
petunidin), peonidin, and pelargonidin was related to a
reduced risk of lung cancer in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian (PLCO) cancer screening cohort.
In general, there is still limited clinical trial data to
validate the efficacy and safety of DP and its derivatives in
humans. Such studies when conducted in the future could
also consider employing combination therapies by investigating the potential synergistic effects of DP with other
anticancer agents which could provide new therapeutic
strategies and improve the stability of DP to exploit its
anticancer benefits.
Medicinal Chemistry Research
Fig. 5 Delphinidin modulates
PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling by
inhibiting both upstream and
downstream signals in the
system, PI3K/Akt and mTOR
can be targeted at the same time
to reduce cell and tissue
development, promote
angiogenesis, and restore normal
tissue architecture. Delphinidin
inhibits cell survival and
proliferation by blocking the
PI3K/Akt pathway as well as the
mTOR pathway
Limitations of delphinidin and its derivatives as
sources of anticancer drugs
Delphinidin has shown promise as an anticancer agent due
to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiproliferative
properties. However, several limitations must be addressed
before it can be considered a viable anticancer drug. These
include:
(a) Poor solubility of DP in water poses challenges for
formulation and delivery. Such low solubilities lead to
poor absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, which can
limit its bioavailability and efficacy when administered orally. Moreover, DP undergoes rapid metabolism and degradation in the body, which further
reduces its effective concentration at the target site.
(b) The pharmacokinetics of DP is another striking
medical limitation of its use in anticancer therapy.
For example, DP is a molecule with a short biological
half-life, emphasizing that it can be rapidly eliminated
from the body. This would necessitate frequent dosing
to maintain its therapeutic concentrations at any given
time. It is to date not very clear how the distribution of
DP to cancerous tissues occurs, and its ability to reach
and penetrate tumors in effective concentrations is
under debate.
(c) There are stability issues around DP and its
derivatives. DP is in principle a chemically unstable
molecule, especially under physiological conditions,
which can lead to rapid degradation and loss of
activity. Thus, specific storage conditions and
facilities are inevitably required to keep it stable,
and this ultimately complicates its use in clinical
settings.
(d) As with most phytochemicals, there are probable
toxicity and side effects associated with DP. The
molecule is generally considered to be safe but its
cytotoxicity on normal (healthy non-cancerous) cells
at higher concentrations raise concerns about potential side effects. Thus, long-term safety data and
potential toxicological effects of DP in humans will
need to be explored further in future.
(e) The exact mechanisms through which DP exerts its
anticancer effects are yet to be fully elucidated. This
complexity can make it difficult to predict its
behavior in different cancer types and stages. It
should also be expected that the effectiveness of DP
and its derivatives will vary significantly depending
on the type of cancer, the stage of the disease, and
individual patient factors.
(f) Delivering of DP is another challenge in its
utilization for cancer therapy, and at the moment,
effective delivery systems that can specifically target
cancer cells while sparing normal cells are still under
development.
Overall, DP and its derivatives hold a great promise as
source of anticancer moleucles. However, the aforementioned limitations have to be addressed through advanced
research and development efforts, including improved
Medicinal Chemistry Research
delivery systems, comprehensive clinical trials, and detailed
studies on its mechanisms of action and long-term safety.
Conclusions
Delphinidin and its derivatives have been shown to exert
anticancer properties against various cell lines, including
breast cancer, endothelial cells, and human colon cancer
cells. DP and derivatives promote apoptosis in cancer cells
and have potential health benefits. The anticancer mechanism of action involved targeting cyclooxygenase-2Prostaglandin E2 pathway, mitogen-activated protein kinases/extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling pathway,
induction of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, intrinsic
apoptotic pathway, and inhibition of Poly ADP-ribose
polymerase, PI3K/AKT pathways, and modulate mTOR,
and Nrf2 signaling. The review highlighted important signaling pathways that showed DP and its derivatives influence a broad range of signaling mediators. The review has
narrated preclinical trials to report the anticancer effect of
DP and mentioned the occurrence of DP derivatives in
different plants that can be isolated and investigated for
their anticancer effects and possible development into
anticancer drugs.
Author contributions: SI conceptualized and performed literature
search. SI and TO drafted the initial version of the manuscript.
Visualization of collected data were done by IK and UMK. All the
authors read and approved the manuscript.
Funding Open access funding provided by University of the Free
State.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
LC3-II
MCL-1
MMP-2
MMP-9
mTOR
NQO1
PARP
p-Akt
p-BAD
p-ERK
p-FAK
PGE2
PGK1
p-GSK3β
PI3K
p-MSK
p-p90RSK
PSA
p-SHP-2
pS6
PUMA
p70S6K
SRD5A1
TGF β
UHRF1
XIAP
8-OHdG
Microtubule-associated protein light chain 3-II
Myeloid cell leukemia 1
Matrix metalloproteinases 2
Matrix metalloproteinase-9
Mammalian target of rapamycin
Nad(p)h/quinone oxidoreductase 1
Poly(adp-ribose) polymerase
Phosphorylated akt
Phosphorylated bcl-2-associated death promoter
Phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated
protein kinase
Phosphorylated focal adhesion kinase
Prostaglandin E2
Phosphoglycerate kinase 1
Phosphorylated glycogen synthase kinase-3β
Phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase
Phosphorylated mitogen and stress-activated protein
kinase,
Phosphorylated p90 ribosomal S6 kinase,
Prostate-specific antigen
Phosphorylated SH2 domain-containing protein tyrosine
phosphatase-2
Phosphorylated S6,
p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis
Phosphorylated 70S6 kinase,
Steroid 5 α-reductase type I
Transforming growth factor β
Ubiquitin-like PHD ring finger 1
X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein
8-hydroxy-20-deoxyguanosine.
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References
Abbreviations
ATG-12
ATG-5
b-FGF
CDK1/2
CD31
CPD
DHT
DNMT
EGFR
DR5
HDACs
HDAC3
HIF-α
Autophagy-related gene 12
Autophagy-related gene 5
Basic fibroblast growth factor
Cyclin-dependent kinase 1/2,
Cluster of differentiation 31
Cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer
Dihydrotestosterone
DNA methyltransferase
Epidermal growth factor receptor
Death receptor 5
Histone deacetylases
Histone deacetylase 3
Hypoxia-inducible factor alpha, Hmox1: heme
oxygenase 1
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