International visitor dining experiences: A conceptual framework

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 20 (2013) 34e42 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management journal homepage: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-hospitalityand-tourism-management International visitor dining experiences: A conceptual framework Serli Wijaya a, b, *, Brian King c, Thu-Huong Nguyen a, Alison Morrison a a College of Business, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia Hotel Management Program, Faculty of Economics, Petra Christian University, Surabaya, Indonesia c School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong b a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t Article history: Received 14 March 2013 Accepted 1 July 2013 Available online 20 September 2013 Visitors are increasingly travelling to destinations in search of culinary experiences. As a consequence, many Destination Marketing Organisations (DMOs) have sought to stimulate visitation by capitalising on the appeal of dining opportunities involving local food. However, such initiatives will only be effective if tourism providers have a thorough understanding of how visitors respond to the dining experiences that are offered. This paper proposes a conceptual framework of international visitor dining experiences with local food, by examining the experiences in the course of the pre-, during, and post-dining phases. With the visitor experience as its core, the framework takes into account the influence of both internal and external factors on the visitor experience. It is intended that the proposed framework will provide a more complete understanding of the visitor dining experience in destination settings. Ó 2013 The Authors. Keywords: Dining experience International visitor Local food Destination Conceptual framework 1. Introduction The early 21st century has been characterised by the emergence of the so-called experience economy (Pine & Gilmore, 1999). As part of this phenomenon and as described by Marson (2011), the tourism industry is undergoing a transformation in response to the evolving shape, scope, and nature of visitor activities. Richards (2012) asserts that the focus has shifted away from visiting typical ‘must see’ physical sights, to engaging in ‘must experience’ tourism activities, in which visitors can discover, participate, and learn about everyday life. Marson (2011) further implies that visitors are searching for and expecting new, unique and more meaningful travel experiences. One means of offering these is through the prospect of experiencing the cuisine that is endemic to the destination being visited (Richards, 2012). The literature has shown that food-related encounters function not only as a means of physiological sustenance, but also as an enhancement of overall destination experiences (Henderson, Yun, Poon, & Biwei, 2012; Hjalager & Richards, 2002). Evidence from a number of studies has indicated that visitor interest and preferences for food in destination settings can be a significant determinant of destination choices (Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Hall & * Corresponding author. College of Business, Victoria University, Footscray Park Campus, Ballarat Road, Footscray, PO Box 14428, Melbourne, VIC 8001, Australia. Tel.: þ61 3 9919 4962. E-mail address: serli.wijaya@live.vu.edu.au (S. Wijaya). 1447-6770/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 The Authors. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2013.07.001 Mitchell, 2001; Hall & Sharples, 2003). Meanwhile, Kivela and Crotts (2006), Nield, Kozak, and LeGrys (2000), and Ryu and Jang (2006), postulate the influence of food experiences on visitor perceptions, satisfaction, and intentions to revisit the destination. Moreover, Fields (2002), and Hegarty and O’Mahony (2001), affirm that food acts as a gateway for visitors to learn about another culture through a direct engagement with local cuisines in a destination, which differs from what they have at home. It is apparent that local food can serve as a means of assisting visitors to appreciate the culture which prevails in a destination (Long, 2004). The use of local food as a means of luring visitors to one destination rather than another requires a deep understanding of visitor food consumption and experiences (Mitchell & Hall, 2003). Larsen (2007) indicates the interactive nature of visitor experiences, and further, asserts that to understand it meticulously, the view should encompass: before the trip, processes during the trip, and after the trip. In the planning phase prior to the trip, visitors foresee possible events through expectations, whilst during the trip, visitors might have different perceptions of the actual undertaking of the events or experiences; and after the trip, they will have memories of the experienced events. However, Ryan (2003) claims that few researchers have scrutinised the visitor experience from the perspective suggested by Larsen (2007). To the authors’ knowledge, there has been no previous systematic conceptual modelling in the food-related tourism context analysing visitor consumptive experiences. Although a considerable number of studies have investigated food-related visitor experiences (Chang, Kivela, & Mak, 2011; Correia, Moital, da Costa, & Peres, 2008; Kim, Eves, & Scarles, 2009; S. Wijaya et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 20 (2013) 34e42 35 Kivela & Crotts, 2006, 2009; Namkung & Jang, 2007; Ryu & Jang, 2006; Yuksel, 2003), the research base for understanding such experiences has not yet been addressed comprehensively from the perspective of the three stages of visitor experience (pre-, during, and post-). Further research is therefore needed to provide an improved understanding of the visitor experience concept when applied to dining with local food in destination settings. The objective of this paper is to propose a comprehensive framework for analysing visitor experiences when engaging with local food related dining in the destination. The framework is developed on the basis of a review of the relevant literature on visitor experiences in the tourism industry in general and in the dining-related contexts in particular. Taking account of the internal and external factors, the proposed framework views dining experiences as three sequential stages as follows: pre-, during, and post-dining. This paper represents a significant contribution to the literature in two ways. Firstly, the proposed conceptual framework contributes to the tourism marketing literature by providing a holistic investigation of the full spectrum of visitor experiences. Secondly, since culinary experiences can enhance the overall experience and help to engage visitors more actively with the destination, the proposed framework offers an improved understanding of foodoriented visitor behaviours. In addition, it expands the literature on culinary tourism by providing insights into dining experiences that are specific to international visitors. Adapting Mittal et al.’s (1999) CST, Woodside and Dubelaar (2002) introduced their theory of the ‘Tourism Consumption System’ (TCS) which is relevant to the tourism context. It attempts to achieve a deep understanding of the multiple immediate and downstream relationships amongst events that are experienced by a visitor prior to, during, and following a tourism trip. A set of related travel thoughts, decisions, and behaviours evolve along these stages when consuming tourism-related products. The central proposition of TCS theory is that the thoughts, decisions, and behaviours regarding one activity at one stage of tourism consumption experience, will influence the thoughts, decisions, and behaviours for activities occurring at other stages. In addition, visitor backgrounds (e.g. demographic and social) and destination service providers are included in Woodside and Dubelaar’s (2002) theory as the influential variables of visitor decisions and behaviours. In accordance with Woodside and Dubelaar’s (2002) theory, Larsen (2007), views visitor experiences as an accumulated and circulating process of: expectations before the trip, perceptions during the trip, and memories after the trip. These three would accumulate and create visitors’ overall assessment and feelings toward the trip, which in turn, would influence visitors’ expectations for the next trip (Larsen, 2007). 2. Literature review Given the experiential nature of the tourism and hospitality industry, creating unforgettable experiences for visitors is critical to business success (King, 2002; Oh, Fiore, & Jeoung, 2007). For the visitor, destinations are seen as comprehensive bundles of tourism experiential products and services (Zouni & Kouremenos, 2008). Delivery of experience quality for visitors is complex since it is multi-influential and involves mobilising a variety of tourism stakeholders (Nickerson, 2006). Considerable effort has been dedicated to examining the underlying factors which impact on the quality of the tourism experience (Nickerson, 2006; Ryan, 2002, 2011). Ryan (2002) asserts that the quality of tourism experience involves not only the attributes provided by tourism suppliers, but also the attributes brought by the visitor. He further explains that quality is shaped by internal factors such as: visitor’s motives, past experience, knowledge of the destination, and individual personalities. In addition, the quality of the experience is also influenced by external factors such as: the induced marketing images relating to the destination, travel activities, patterns of change at the place, and people with whom the destination is shared (Ryan, 2011). Consistent with Ryan’s view (2002), Nickerson (2006) proposes three factors that influence the quality of tourism experience: the traveller, the product or destination, and the local population. First, the traveller visits a destination with ideas or expectations about prospective experiences. These ideas or expectations are formed by individual social constructions, perceptions derived from media, product images, preconception knowledge, and visitor past experiences. The second influential factor described by Nickerson (2006) is tourism product and that refers to all experiences with products or services offered by tourism and hospitality business operators (e.g. tour operators, accommodation, food service, transportation and attractions), as well as experiences with public sector (government) services like information about public services. The activities undertaken during travel are also included as the tourism product factor. The final factor affecting the quality of the tourism experience is the local population that pertains to quality of life, residents’ attitude towards tourism, and the sense of place fostered by the local population (e.g. host-guest social contacts) (Nickerson, 2006). 2.1. Conceptualising the visitor experience Experience is a broad concept that reflects aspects of daily life and can therefore be interpreted from various perspectives (Caru & Cova, 2003). From a psychological perspective, Larsen (2007) suggests that experience can be categorised into two general types. One focuses on what happens here and now in a specific situation, whilst the other highlights an accumulation of expectations, perceptions, and memories over a period of time. Meanwhile, considering the growing importance of the experiential aspect in product consumption, Caru and Cova (2003) declare that experience is a key element in understanding consumption behaviours. Pine and Gilmore (1999), the originators of the term ‘experience economy’, describe that experiences occur within a person who is engaged with an event at a physical, emotional, intellectual or even spiritual level, and is left with memorable impressions. Thus, from the marketing point of view, consumption experience is no longer limited to some pre-purchase or post-purchase activities, but involves additional activities influencing consumer decisions and future actions. In other words, consumption experience is spread over time and can be divided into several stages of experience (Caru & Cova, 2003). The discussion about consumption experiences in tourism emerged in the early 1960s in Clawson and Knetsch’s (1963) study of outdoor recreation, followed by Cohen’s (1979) original reference to the term tourist experience. Mittal, Kumar, and Tsiros (1999) conceptualise consumption experience by proposing the ‘Consumption System Theory’ (CST). In their study, Mittal et al. (1999) characterise a consumption system as involving three dimensions: a product/service’s attribute-level evaluation, satisfaction, and behavioural intention. As a system, consumption occurs when a bundle of products and services is consumed over time in multiple episodes. The consumption system encompasses a series of activities within the wider process of consumer decisionmaking, ranging from pre-purchase activities such as need recognition and information search, to post-purchase activities such as satisfaction and future behaviour (Mittal et al., 1999). 2.2. Factors influencing the visitor experience 36 S. Wijaya et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 20 (2013) 34e42 The three factors proposed by Nickerson (2006) provide a valuable contribution to understanding the visitor experiences in a more general tourism context. In a detailed examination of food tourism, Mak, Lumbers, Eves, and Chang (2012) recognise three underlying factors affecting the consumption of food-related travel: the tourists, the food in the destination, and the destination environment. Included within tourist related factors are cultural or religious influences, socio-demographic factors, food-related personality traits, exposure effect/past experience, and motivational factors. Components of the destination food factor include food sensory attributes, food content, methods of preparation and cooking, food or cuisine type, food availability, and food price/value. Lastly, the destination environment factor involves gastronomic image, marketing communications, contextual influences, service encounters, servicescape, and seasonality (Mak et al., 2012). The preceding discussions have suggested that visitor experience is complex. As Volo (2009) has highlighted, its complexity is reflected in the difficulties in defining the concept, as well as in identifying and measuring visitor experience components. Despite an extensive and growing body of literature discussing visitor experience, Jennings (2010) and Jurowski (2009), point out that the essence of visitor experience and its conceptual structure remains elusive. Several researchers have attempted to conceptualise the temporal nature of visitor experience and illustrate it into an experiential phase framework (Clawson & Knetsch, 1963; Cutler & Carmichael, 2010; Knutson, Beck, Kim, & Cha, 2010; Yuan, 2009). These existing frameworks are respectively analysed in the following section. 2.3. The evolution of visitor experience frameworks A phasing of experience framework is proposed by Clawson and Knetsch (1963) in the context of outdoor recreation activity. There are five distinct yet interacting phases of experience that each individual encounters, beginning with planning (anticipation), travel to site, on-site activity, return travel, and recollection. Although Clawson and Knetsch’s recreation experience framework (1963) recognises the individual engagement at different stages of experience, it seems deficient in providing the information about visitors’ attitudinal and behavioural dimensions, such as, what and how the visitor thinks, feels, and perceives at each stage of the experience. The merit of including attitudinal and behavioural dimensions is addressed by Yuan (2009). The structural relationships among the major components of hospitality experience, service, and customer satisfaction are developed to propose a better way to understand the experience. Yuan’s framework incorporates three important stimuli for consideration by service providers when creating or staging products/services for the customers to experience. These stimuli include the physical product, the service, and the environment. The level of the customer’s perceptions, involvement, and interactions with these stimuli leads to either satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the overall experience. Yuan’s (2009) study, however, focuses more on the measurement of perceived quality and satisfaction concepts, thus, it lacks any consideration of pre-experience (i.e. expectations) and of the future behavioural intentions phase. Knutson et al.’s (2010) experience construct framework is more complex than Clawson and Knetsch’s (1963), and Yuan’s (2009) frameworks, and offers a useful indication of the structural relationships between stages of experience. Adopting O’Sullivan and Spangler’s pre-, participation, and post- phases of experience (1998), Knutson et al.’s (2010) framework incorporates four major constructs of hospitality experiences, namely: service quality, value, satisfaction, and consumer experiences. The pre-experience stage includes concepts of expectations, promotional activities, word-of-mouth, and personal memories from previous experiences. Expectations function as the foundation for the preexperience stage and for underpinning perceived quality in the participation (during experience) stage. At the post-experience stage, the key outcomes examined by Knutson et al. (2010) involve personal perceptions of the experience, the value that they attach to the experience, and satisfaction with the experience. However, the linear relationship structures amongst the concepts examined in Knutson et al.’s (2010) framework have indicated the need to adopt a quantitative research approach to measure each construct. Yet such an approach, as argued by Jennings (2010), could be limited in uncovering the actual experiences that each individual thinks or feels. Cutler and Carmichael’s (2010) framework of visitor experience differs from what has been proposed by Clawson and Knetsch (1963), Yuan (2009), and Knutson et al. (2010). A key strength of Cutler and Carmichael’s (2010) framework is that it acknowledges the complexity of visitor experience as multi-phased, multi-influential, and multi-outcome, and thus, formulates them into a single conceptual model. In addition, Cutler and Carmichael (2010) consider two realms shaping the visitor experience: the influential and the personal. The influential realm includes factors outside the individual and consists of physical aspects, and product/service aspects. The personal realm involves elements embedded within each individual visitor such as, knowledge, memories, perceptions, emotions, and self-identity (Cutler & Carmichael, 2010). The outcomes of experience relate to overall evaluations of a trip, indicated by visitor satisfaction or dissatisfaction. The overall evaluation can influence and is influenced by individual elements and by the experience itself (Cutler & Carmichael, 2010). Several common characteristics are evident from the frameworks that were noted above. First, Yuan’s (2009) framework is similar to Cutler and Carmichael’s (2010) in acknowledging the presence of external factors that shape the experience. Both studies incorporate aspects associated with product/service and physical/ environment factors as determinants of the quality of experience outcomes. In the context of the travel dining experience, including these factors is essential since dining involves visitors in the tangible realm including the food, how it is served (i.e. service aspect), and the physical surroundings. Consequently, such factors will affect visitor evaluations of the quality of their dining experiences. However, none of the frameworks that have been discussed considers internal factors as contributing to the visitor experience. The internal factors include various aspects that are embedded in the individual visitor and relate to visitor demographics, and travel situational aspects such as travel purpose, length of visit, and travel party. As has been noted by Ryan (2002), and Woodside and Dubelaar (2002), such aspects can affect travel-related decisions made by the visitors at each stage of the experience, which in turn, influence the quality of the overall experience. Furthermore, although most of the existing frameworks view and examine experiences as sequential phases, none has been developed with a specific focus on international visitor dining experiences with local food in destination settings. This gap is important, given the increasing tendency of international visitors to travel to destinations for local culinary experiences, where this can enhance the overall destination experience (Henderson et al., 2012). A conceptual framework is needed that acknowledges the complexity of the visitor experience as multi-phased, multi-influential, and multi-outcomes, while incorporating suitable elements of the existing studies that have been discussed, in order to understand how international visitors experience local food in destination settings. The present paper therefore aims to address this research gap. S. Wijaya et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 20 (2013) 34e42 3. Visitor dining experience framework development The framework proposed in this paper characterises the complex nature of visitor experience, as described by Ryan (2011) as multi-phases, multi-influential, and multi-outcomes. The framework is an adaptation of components of Knutson et.al.’s (2010) three stages of experience, of Cutler and Carmichael’s (2010) and Yuan’s (2009) influential external factors of visitor experience, and of Mak et al.’s (2012) influential factors of visitor food consumption. As illustrated in Fig. 1, the conceptual framework consists of three major components of the visitor dining experience as follows: - Stages of the visitor dining experience Influential factors of local food related dining experiences The outcomes of experience at each stage of dining 3.1. Stages and outcomes of the visitor dining experiences Within the proposed framework, the multi-phase experiences are represented in three sequential related dining stages experienced by international visitors. Adapting Woodside and Dubelaar’s (2002) Tourism Consumption System theory, the framework acknowledges that each visitor’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviour that evolve from one stage of the dining would affect the thoughts, emotions, and behaviour that emerge at subsequent dining stages. Each stage of dining along with its anticipated experience outcomes is discussed as follows. 3.1.1. Pre-dining experience stage This stage refers to how the international visitors foresee their engagement with local food prior to the actual dining experiences in the destination. Pre-dining encompasses expectations that the visitors have about various aspects pertaining to dining with local food, as well as the likelihood of experiential outcomes pertaining to it. According to Zeithaml and Bitner (2002), expectations are defined as desires or wants of customers, in particular, what they believe a service provider should offer. In the tourism context, Fluker and Turner (2000) delineate expectations as the perceived likelihood that a particular act would be followed by a particular outcome. Visitors make decisions based on certain expected outcomes and their reactions to outcomes are in part influenced by what they initially expected (Dickson & Hall, 2006). 37 A considerable number of studies have explored the relationship between expectations and visitor behaviour and experiences (del Bosque, Martin, & de los Salmones, 2009; Fluker & Turner, 2000; Gnoth, 1997; Hsu, Cai, & Li, 2009; Sheng & Chen, 2012; Sukalakamala & Boyce, 2007). Gnoth (1997) claims managing visitors’ expectations is extremely important since expectations can significantly influence the visitors’ choice process and perceptions of destination experience, which in turn, affect the visitors’ overall satisfaction. Given that eating plays an integral role in travel, visitors expect that their food-related experiences within the destination will be enjoyable and memorable (Kivela & Crotts, 2009), regardless of the primacy of culinary experiences as travel motivator. This therefore indicates the critical role of selecting an effective measurement to allow the researcher to make an accurate identification of visitor dining expectations. In their evaluation of the measurement of expectations, Dickson and Hall (2006) propose two alternative approaches: first, conducted before the experience and second, after/post the experience (i.e. retrospective recall). In aggregate, more studies have relied on retrospective recall than have measured expectations at the time of their formulation. Under the retrospective recall approach, the timing for assessing the expectations is undertaken after the experience is over (Dickson & Hall, 2006), assuming that participants are still capable of recalling accurately and report their expectations even after a considerable time has passed. However, such an approach is subject to critique on the basis of validity since people’s ability to recall events, feelings, time periods, expectations, or preferences, are deficient or even sometime exaggerative (Noe & Uysal, 1997). Considering the limitations of retrospectivity that were discussed previously, the present framework proposes that the measurement of visitor dining expectations is conducted prior to actual visitor encounters with local food consumption in the destination. On this basis, visitors should be probed shortly after their arrival at the destination, though prior to dining with local food. This process is crucial for ensuring that visitor responses about their dining expectations with local food are free of bias from their perceptions of the actual dining activity. 3.1.2. During-dining experience stage This stage relates to the actual encounters with the local food that occur at the destination. It focuses on the perceived quality Internal factors Visitor demographics Travel characteristics Past dining experiences Preconceptions/ prior knowledge Stages of visitor experience PRE-DINING DURING-DINING POST-DINING Expectations Perceptions Satisfaction & behavioural intentions Experience outcomes Food quality Food cultural-related Physical dining Social External factors Fig. 1. International visitor dining experiences with local food: a conceptual framework. Source: adapted from Cutler and Carmichael (2010), Knutson et al. (2010), Mak et al. (2012), Woodside and Dubelaar (2002), and Yuan (2009). 38 S. Wijaya et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 20 (2013) 34e42 of the visitor’s dining experience. According to Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry (1988), perceived quality is defined as a form of overall evaluation, a global judgement, or an attitude toward purchasing products. It occurs after a comparison between expectations and actual perceptions of performance. Parasuraman et al. (1988) indicate that perceived quality is a highly subjective and relativistic phenomenon that varies depending on who is assessing the product or service. Despite its subjectivity, Yuan and Wu (2008) argue that there is a close relationship between expectations and perceptions concerning the quality of products and services, hence, assessing customers’ perceived quality cannot be undertaken without measuring expectations of quality. Having said this, the following proposition is formulated: Visitor expectations of dining experiences with local food influence the perceived quality of dining experiences with local food (proposition 1). In addition, the perceived quality of the dining experience with local food in the proposed framework is viewed on the basis of two dimensions: visitor cognition (thoughts) and emotions (feelings), as adapted from Yuan (2009). Cognition arises as a result of all of the relevant dining-related information that is transmitted to the conscious mind through the senses: for instance, what visitors think about the local food that they see, smell, taste, and touch. By contrast, emotion involves visitor affective responses such as, excitement, joy, surprise, disappointment that are evoked during the course of dining experiences. 3.1.3. Post-dining experience stage This stage refers to all of the experiences after dining, which is reflected in visitor satisfaction and behavioural intentions. The literature shows that there are two ways to measure satisfaction, namely transaction-specific and cumulative aspects (Yuan & Wu, 2008). The transaction-specific perspective sees satisfaction as how consumers assess the value that they gain after completing a transaction (Oliver, 1977). The cumulative perspective aligns with the essence of the experience concept and acknowledges consumer expectations and/or experiences that have occurred prior to consumption as part of the whole experience thereby affecting the level of satisfaction at, during and after the process of experiencing (Berry, Carbone, & Haeckel, 2002). Satisfaction is commonly viewed as an indicator of the quality of an experience (Ryan, 2002). Ryan further affirms that a satisfactory experience involves congruence between expectations and performance, whereas dissatisfaction is reflective of a gap between expectations and the perceived quality of the tourism consumption experience. At the postdining stage, the proposed framework also examines future behavioural intentions as another outcome of dining experiences. They include the intention to consume local food during future visits to the destination, as well as the willingness to recommend dining experiences involving the local food to others. In light of this view, the proposition is developed as follows: Visitor perceptions of dining experiences with local food influence the overall dining satisfaction and the visitor future behavioural intentions (proposition 2). Additionally, in correspond with Larsen (2007), who considers visitor experience as a circulating process of expectations, perceptions, and memories, the proposed framework views the local food related dining by international visitors in the destination as a circular process of various experience outcomes that occur at each stage of dining. Therefore, it is stated that: Visitor experiences at the post-dining stage would influence visitor expectations for the next local food related dining activities (proposition 3). Furthermore, the sequential nature of dining experience stages proposed in the framework provides a methodological implication in terms of the operationalisation of the framework. As described earlier, to ensure freedom from bias, this research suggests that the examination of experience at the pre-dining stage (i.e. the expectations) is taken prior to visitors undertaking the actual dining experience at the destination. Also, to obtain a comprehensive view concerning various experiences at all dining stages, the research participants involved in three dining stages are suggested be the same. That is, those who are probed to describe their perceptions of the actual dining, as well as satisfactions after dining should be those who had been approached to reveal their expectations prior to local food related dining. Undertaking such an approach would obtain not only a holistic understanding of the local food related dining experiences, but also allow the complexities surrounding the experiences to emerge and to be projected precisely. Hence, methodologically, this would improve the validity of the data collected. 3.2. Influential factors of the visitor dining experiences The proposed framework encompasses both internal and external factors and their influence on visitor dining experiences involving local food. As is evident in Fig. 1, the internal factors which affect the visitor dining experience are divided into four: visitor demographic profiles, travel characteristics, preconceptions about local food of the visited destination, and previous dining experiences involving the local food. Numerous studies have previously confirmed the role of individual visitor characteristics pertaining to socio-demographics and travel characteristics in shaping tourism dining experiences (Hong, Morrison, & Cai, 1996; Kim et al., 2009; Mak et al., 2012; Mattila, 2000; Shenoy, 2005; Tse & Crotts, 2005). For instance, Kim et al. (2009) reveal that visitor’s demographic factors, such as, gender, age, and education, significantly influence the visitors’ consumption of local food. On the other hand, groups of scholars like Kwun and Oh (2006), Mak et al. (2012), and Ryu and Jang (2006) argue that in addition to demographic characteristics, a visitor’s past experiences and gastronomic images held in the visitor’s mind should also be considered as essential elements affecting visitor dining experiences with local food. Given these views, in relation to the measurement of visitor demographic profiles, the attributes such as, gender, age, and country of residence or nationality are proposed. Meanwhile, travel characteristics could be measured based on prevalent attributes like visitor’s purpose of travel, frequency of visit, and travel party. Further, visitor preconceptions about local food refer to level of knowledge about local food of the visited destination that international visitors have from various sources of information. The aforementioned discussion has led to the formulation of: The visitor dining experience with local food in the destination is influenced by internal factors involving socio-demographics, travel-characteristics, past experiences, and visitor preconceptions or prior knowledge about local food of the visited destination (proposition 4). As mentioned previously by Ryan (2011), the quality of experience is affected by factors that are external to the visitors as well as S. Wijaya et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 20 (2013) 34e42 by the internal characteristics of the visitors. The proposed framework groups the external factors influencing local food related dining experiences into four, namely: food quality, food cultural-related, physical dining, and social aspects. First, with respect to the food quality aspect, the literature has shown a wide range of attributes measuring food quality. They vary from food presentation or appearance, taste, food health-related characteristics, food quantity and variety (Ha & Jang, 2010; Jang, Ha, & Silkes, 2009; Karim & Chi, 2010; Namkung & Jang, 2007, 2008; Raajpoot, 2002; Ryu & Han, 2010). Sulek and Hensley (2004) argue that food quality is one of the most important elements of the dining experience. For instance, the work of Correia et al. (2008) and Namkung and Jang (2007), investigate the associations between food quality and consumer behaviour concepts like satisfaction, behavioural intention, and loyalty. The attributes for measuring the food quality aspects are partially adopted those in Mak et al.’s (2012) study which include food ingredients, food appearance, and the taste of the food. Moreover, Cohen and Avieli (2004) advocate that for some international visitors, eating local food can be an impediment when travelling, especially when the destination has a culinary culture that is distinct from what is familiar in home environments. For this group, named by Fischler (1988) as the food neophobic group, issues, such as, food hygiene, ‘strange’ food ingredients, unfamiliar tastes, can constrain them from trying the local food (Cohen & Avieli, 2004). In contrast to the food neophobic group, other visitors, called food neophilic, are more open to searching for novel and even strange dishes (Fischler, 1988). Amongst this group, seeking local food becomes a push motivator for visiting a particular destination (Tikkanen, 2007). Experiences of eating the local food allow them to learn a new culture through coming into contact with local residents, eating like the locals, and exploring new cuisines that they are unlikely to encounter at home (Fields, 2002; Hegarty & O’Mahony, 2001). In addition, Beer (2008) puts forth the role of authenticity that visitors anticipate to experiencing when dining with the local food in the destination. As Pratt (2007) states, the concept of authenticity evokes a range of meanings such as original, genuine, real, true, true to itself. When applied to food, authenticity is a quality attributed to a range of cuisines that are specific to a particular location. Beyond this, authenticity refers to the story and meaning pertaining to the place and culture of the food that is embedded as a representation of the culture. Indeed, in many cases, for the food neophilic group, it is the stories behind the food, such as, the origins of a particular ethnic food, which could have greater appeal than the food itself (Morgan, Watson, & Hemmington, 2008). Accordingly, the visitors can gain a truly authentic cultural experience (Okumus, Okumus, & McKercher, 2007), as well as a more satisfying form of engagement with the local people and places (Pratt, 2007). Given the intensity of cultural interactions that the international visitors would experience when dining with local food, it is imperative to incorporate the food cultural-related aspects such as, methods of cooking and ways of eating, food authenticity, and food familiarity in the proposed framework. Turning to the physical aspect of dining, Henderson et al. (2012) assert that international visitor dining experiences in the destination can occur in various establishments, from dining exclusively in hotels or restaurants to consuming food at street stalls or in food hawker centres. Dining experiences within these places can stimulate various feelings of involvement and place attachment, depending upon the quality of food and service provision (Pendergast, 2006). Moreover, as argued by Sparks, Bowen, and Klag (2004), these aspects are showcases for the culture and influence overall destination experiences through the process of forming connections with the host culture. With reference to this 39 aspect, Cutler and Carmichael (2010) in their model suggest that the physical aspects of visitor experiences should consider spatial and place-based elements of the destination. In the service context, this often refers to the concept of servicescape e the physical environment that influences perceptions of service e (Bitner, 1992). Meanwhile, the atmosphere of the foodservice is defined as the “individual emotional total experience throughout the entire meal including social experience, comfort, and intimacy” (Hansen, Jensen, & Gustafsson, 2005, p. 145). In the proposed framework, the physical dining aspects refer to the dining atmosphere, type of dining establishment where the experience with local food is occurring (e.g. restaurants or street food stalls), and the cleanliness of the dining environment. The aforementioned discussion has indicated the salient role of food quality, food culture-related, and physical dining aspects, thus, they are incorporated as external factors of the visitors that affect their dining on local food at each stage of experience. In addition to these aspects, the literature has noted that the provision of memorable dining experiences is also determined by the capacity of the staff providing the service and delivering the food. For instance, Gibbs and Ritchie (2010) in their study reveal that the capacity of the staff providing the service and delivering the food is considered as one key determinant of the provision of memorable dining experiences. Likewise, Wall and Berry (2007) highlight the significant impact of employee quality on customer expectations towards dining experiences. There has been growing attention in the literature to the importance of dining experience as a means of fulfilling visitor social needs when they travel to a destination (Antun, Frash, Costen, & Runyan, 2010; Batra, 2008; Ignatov & Smith, 2006; Kim & Lee, 2012). Ignatov and Smith’s (2006) study for example, reveals that spending time with family and friends is a significant reason for choosing to eat local food in a destination setting. Similarly, Kim and Lee’s (2012) study also highlights the significant role of other customers as a part of the social aspect in shaping visitor dining expectations. In light of this view, both the interactions with service personnel as well as with other people (e.g. friends, family, and other people in the dining place such as the locals) are considered as the social aspects and are incorporated within the framework as the external influential factor of the visitor dining experiences. Based on the above discussion, it is proposed that: The visitor dining experience with local food in the destination is influenced by external factors including food quality, food cultural-related, physical, and social aspects (proposition 5). 4. Conclusions and implications for future research The paper has highlighted the complexity of the visitor experience with its multiple phases, factors, and outcomes. In attempting to find clarity within this context, the proposed framework views dining experiences as involving sequential relationships between the three dining stages. As has been shown, the pre-dining stage refers to how international visitors foresee their engagement with the various aspects that may concern dining with local food, as well as the prospect of associated experiential outcomes. The during-dining stage relates to actual encounters with local food within the destination, as reflected in visitor perceptions of the dining experience. Lastly, the postdining stage refers to visitor satisfaction and behavioural intentions that emerge after the dining experience has been concluded. Both internal and external factors constitute to affect the visitor experience at each stage of dining. The applicable internal factors include demographics, travel characteristics, past-dining experience, and preconceptions about local food, 40 S. Wijaya et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 20 (2013) 34e42 whilst the external factors encompass food quality, food culturalrelated, physical, and social aspects. This conceptual paper has provided a preliminary move towards a more solidly based understanding of how international visitors engage in local food dining experiences in destination settings. Some limitations of the research have been noted. Firstly, the framework that has been proposed is self-evidently a simplification of reality. Whereas engaging with local food related dining is viewed by some international visitors as novel and unique, this is not the case for all (Cohen & Avieli, 2004). Overall evaluations of dining experiences by visitors are influenced by issues such as, different food cultures, hygiene, and dietary restrictions. On this basis, dining with local food in destination settings can be complex and challenging. It is debatable whether the dynamics of such experiences can be appropriately captured in by the components that have been incorporated within the proposed framework. Secondly, the proposed framework is comprehensive in its coverage; on this basis, any empirical investigation should be both systematic and rigorous if it is to encompass the complex relationships between the various stages, factors, and outcomes of the visitor dining experience. It is acknowledged that it is critical to select an appropriate research design with a view to ensuring that the framework and propositions have been adequately validated. The use of a single research approach may be inadequate for addressing the complexity of the visitor experience (Palmer, 2010). From a sampling perspective, the selection of the same group of research participants at the three dining stages as has been suggested makes it an uneasy task to manage the field work in a timely manner. However, it is considered worth adopting such an approach since it allows the development of a holistic understanding of the complexities of the dining experiences, thereby improving the validity of the data that is collected. Given the absence of previous research to provide a comprehensive analysis of the visitor dining experience, the framework that has been proposed in this paper should contribute to the body of food tourism knowledge and improve the understanding of food-related visitor behaviours. The framework forms a basis for undertaking subsequent empirical research that can provide firsthand insights from international visitors pertaining to dining with local food in the destination context. It is finally noted that future empirical investigations which draw upon the framework should be conducted in settings where local food is utilised as a means of stimulating visitation and enhancing the destination experience. Conflict of interest None declared. References Antun, J. 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Boston: McGraw-Hill. Zouni, G., & Kouremenos, A. (2008). Do tourism providers know their visitors? An investigation of tourism experience at a destination. Tourism & Hospitality Research, 8(4), 282e297. Serli Wijaya is PhD candidate in the College of Business at Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. Prior to her current station, she has worked as a senior academic staff at Hotel Management Program, Faculty of Economics, Petra Christian University, Surabaya, Indonesia. She has involved in various research projects with local tourism government bodies in East Java, Indonesia. She has been awarded DIKTI Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of Education and Culture, Republic of Indonesia, for her study. Her research interests are visitor behaviour, food service marketing, and culinary tourism. Professor Brian King is Associate Dean in the School of Hotel and Tourism Management at Hong Kong Polytechnic University. He was previously at Victoria University, Australia including as Pro Vice-Chancellor (Industry & Community) and Head of the School of Hospitality, Tourism & Marketing. He specializes in tourism marketing with an emphasis on cultural dimensions and emerging Asia-Pacific markets. He has published books and journal articles on tourism marketing, resorts and tourism in the Asia-Pacific Region. He is Co-editor-in-chief of Tourism, Culture and Communication. He holds a number of industry board positions. He is an elected fellow of the International Academy for the Study of Tourism and of CAUTHE. 42 S. Wijaya et al. / Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 20 (2013) 34e42 Dr. Thu-Huong Nguyen is lecturer in the College of Business, Victoria University, Australia. She has published book chapters and international journal articles on tourism, hospitality and event marketing with an emphasis on cross-cultural studies and Diasporas tourism. She had more than ten years working experience in the tourism industry in Germany, Vietnam and Australia. She also worked as a consultant and a marketer for a number of tourism and pharmaceutical companies worldwide. Professor Alison Morrison is Professor of Tourism, Hospitality and Events at Victoria University, prior to which she was the Head of School of International Business. Before joining VU in 2011, Alison has held a number of posts during her career including Professor at the School of Management, Surrey University, and Vice-Dean (Research) of the Strathclyde Business School at the University of Strathclyde. She has been publishing extensively and teaching since 1984. She specialises in small and entrepreneurial hospitality and tourism businesses. She has authored a wide range of journal papers and books related to entrepreneurship and has co-edited In Search of Hospitality and Hospitality a Social Lens.