Ethnographic Atlas XXXI: Peoples of Easternmost Europe

University of Pittsburgh- Of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education Ethnographic Atlas XXXI: Peoples of Easternmost Europe Author(s): Dmitri Bondarenko, Alexander Kazankov, Daria Khaltourina, Andrey Korotayev Source: Ethnology, Vol. 44, No. 3 (Summer, 2005), pp. 261-289 Published by: University of Pittsburgh- Of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3774059 Accessed: 01/04/2009 03:43 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. 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University of Pittsburgh- Of the Commonwealth System of Higher Education is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Ethnology. http://www.jstor.org ETHNOGRAPHIC ATLAS XXXI: PEOPLES OF EASTERNMOST EUROPE' Dmitri Bondarenko Alexander Kazankov Daria Khaltourina Russian Academy of Sciences Andrey Korotayev Russian State University for the Humanities In the current installment of the Ethnographic Atlas, we present formalized data (following Murdock's scheme) on seventeen peoples of the European part of the former Russian Empire and the Soviet Union not covered by any of the previous installments of the Ethnographic Atlas. Different peoples of the sample were integrated into Russia in different historical periods, from medieval (the Ingrians, Karelians, Veps, Votes) to early modern (the Besermyan, Bashkir, Chuvash, Kazan Tatar, Mordva, Udmurt) to modern (the Gagauz, Estonians, Lithuanian Karaim and Tatar, Latvians, Livs, Moldovans). Some of them have always remained within Russia's borders (the Besermyan, Bashkir, Chuvash, Ingrians, Karelians, Kazan Tatar, Mordva, Udmurt, Veps, Votes), while others departed after the fall of the Russian Empire, during the 1920s and 1930s, and live outside of Russia today. After the break up of the USSR, there arose the independent republics of Estonia (the Estonians), Latvia (the Latvians and Livs), Lithuania (the Lithuanian Karaim and Tatar), and Moldova (the Gagauz and Moldovans) (Kizilov 1984; Tishkov 1998). OVERVIEW The reviewed peoples belong to the following culturalblocks: Finno-Ugrian: Permic(the Udmurtand Besermyan)and Finn (the Erzia Mordva,Veps, Livvik Karelians,Ingrians,Estonians,Livs, Votes); Turkic(the KazanTatar,Lithuanian Tatar,Bashkir,Chuvash,Gagauz,LithuanianKaraim);Indoeuropean:Baltic (the Latvians),and Romanic (the Moldovans).The Besermyanspeak a dialect of the Udmurtlanguage.The Erzia Mordvaas Volga Finns are linguistically closer to the Baltic Finns than to the Permians(the Udmurtand Besermyan). Among Baltic Finnstwo groupsarerepresented:Northernand Southern.The Kareliansand Ingriansbelong to the formerand are linguistically very close to the Finns proper. In fact, Finnish linguists consider Ingrianto be a dialect of Finnish (see Shlygina 2003:593). The Veps also belong to the Northerngroup. The Votes and Livs togetherwith the Estoniansrepresentthe Southerngroupof the Baltic Finns. 261 ETHNOLOGYvol. 44 no. 3, Summer2005, pp. 261-289. ETHNOLOGY,c/o Departmentof Anthropology,The Universityof Pittsburgh,PittsburghPA 15260 USA Copyright? 2006 The Universityof Pittsburgh.All rightsreserved. 262 ETHNOLOGY The Udmurt belong to the Permiangroup of the Finno-Ugrianlinguistic familytogetherwith the Komi-ZyryanandKomi-Permiak.Theyareethnographic heirs of the local Anan'inoand Pjanoborarchaeologicalculturesof the eighthto the thirdcenturyBCE (Vladykin2000:433). By theirorigin, the Besermyansare a small group of southernUdmurts,having taken refuge among the northern Udmurtsin the wake of politicalturmoilcausedby the Tatar-Mongoldestruction of the Volga Bulgarianstate, the defeat of the GoldenHorde state by the armies of Tamerlan,andotherviolent politicalevents.Havingsettledoutsidethe former territoryof Volga Bulgaria,they retaineda clearly defined culturalidentityand their own self-name, which ultimately stems from the Arabic muslimlna (via PersianmosalmanandcorruptedTurkicbusuirmen). Althoughpagansoriginally, theyhadnever actuallybeen Muslims(RussianssuperficiallyChristianizedthem startingfrom the mid-eighteenthcenturyCE) (Napolskikh 1997:52-3; Goldina 1996:19). Muchmorenumerousthanthe Besermyan,the Chuvasharealso descendants of the refugee population that fled to the outskirtsof the Volga Bulgaria and mixed there with the Mari. Theirlanguage,being the only survivorof the early Bolgar (Proto-Bolgar), has won over the local Finno-Ugrian languages and dialects, and their culture in general being a blend of early Turkic and FinnoUgric traditions. To the beginning of the twentieth century, they retained a considerableportionofthe Proto-Bolgarpaganism(Vorobjev1956:30-5; Salmin 1994:162-4, 186, 272). Like the BesermyanandUdmurt,they were more or less Christianizedbeginning with the mid-eighteenthcentury. Together with the Gagauz,they are among the very few ChristianizedTurkicpeoples. Also apart from the Chuvash and Gagauz, all the other Turkic peoples of the present installment speak the languages of the Kypchak group, being thus the descendantsof the populationslinguisticallyassimilatedby the main population of the Golden Horde. From physical anthropologicaland culturalevidence, the Kazan Tatars(as well as the Chuvash) are the heirs to the Volga Bulgarianlegacy. They are the descendants of the population that stayed in the core of the Volga Bulgaria territoryand, contraryto the Chuvash,theywere linguisticallyassimilatedby the dominantKypchakethnic groups(Vasil'evandMatveeva 1986). Also unlikethe Chuvash,the KazanTatarhada traditionof theirown multinationalempire-the KazanKhanatestate (1438-1552), the heirof the GoldenHordestate(Hudjakov 1991). The elements of the nomadicTurkictraditionof the formerKypchakare much more evident in the Kazan Tatarculturecomparedto the cultureof the Chuvash. The same may be said about the Kazan Tatar's closest language relatives,the Bashkir.The main differencein the ethnichistoryof these peoples lies in the substrateof the non-Turkicculturaltexturethat is presentfrom early PEOPLESOF EASTERNMOSTEUROPE 263 times in theirrespectiveterritories(Rudenko1955:25-30). The presentterritory of the Republic of Tatarstangenerally coincides with the territoryof Volga Bulgaria, the latter, interestingly enough, lying within the area of the Imenkovskaja archaeologicalculture(Goldina1996:15).Thepointof interestlies in the fact that Imenkovskaja culture was created (partially) by the later descendants of the Zarubinetskajaculture, which ethnically is Baltic. In the Middle Volga region, the former Dnieper Balts mixing with the local FinnoUgric populationcreateda stabletraditionof productiveagriculture,which was inherited by the Proto-Bolgar conquerorsfrom the seventh to the thirteenth century(Vasil'evandMatveeva 1986:140-9; Matveeva 1981), andthroughthem by the Kazan Tatar. The blend of various culturaltraditions had created the backgroundforthe statecivilizationwith numerousrichcities (Bolgar,Bilar,and Suvar being the largest), all of which were ruthlessly burned by the nomadic Tatar-Mongolinvaders in the mid-thirteenthcentury. Naturally enough, the Kazan Tatargenerally show more evident signs of CentralMongoloid phenotypicadmixturethando the Chuvash,Besermyan,andUdmurt.This is even more true for the Bashkir. They, unlike the Kazan Tatar,did not acquire the ancient tradition of developed agriculturefrom their substratumethnic groups, the PermianFinno-Ugriansand Ugors proper.The southernpart of Bashkiriais a steppe, so up to the nineteenthcenturya considerableportion of the Bashkir populationremainednomadicandwere-so-calledtarkhans:free guardiansof the Russian Empire'ssouthernborders(Rudenko 1955:31-40). In the second half of the second and the beginning of the first millennium BCE, some territoriesof the presentRussianFederation(Novgorod, Pskov, and Leningradregions), EasternLatviaandthe whole of Estoniawere the zone of the ImitatedTextile-impressedPottery archaeologicalculture. This culture was a close relative of the Upper Volga variants of the Imitated Textile Ceramics culture(antecedentsto the present-dayMordvaand Mari peoples). That is why the closest linguisticrelativesof the Baltic Finns(includingthe Finns proper)are the Mordva(Napolskih 1993:16). The subsequenthistory of the Baltic and Volga Finns, however, was quite different.Having migrated,via UpperVolga and its tributaries,farto the west to the shores of the Baltic Sea, the ancestorsof the presentBaltic Finns came into close culturalinteractionwith ethnicgroupsquite differentfrom those operating in the first centuryBCE in the Volga region.Among these groups,apartfromthe linguisticallyassimilatedancestorsof the presentday Lapps,were settlersfrom the eastern parts of the Scandinavian Peninsula (i.e., peoples who spoke languagesprecedingthe FirstConsonantShiftof the Proto-Germanicpeople) and the Balts proper.The above-mentionedshift is usuallydatedby linguists at about the fifth centuryBCE, whereasthe cultureof the Stone Kurganswith box coffins 264 ETHNOLOGY (Steinkistengrdber)-unmistakablyScandinavianin origin-began to appearin mass on the shores of Estonia starting from the first century of the first millennium BCE. Gradually,the people who had spread the Stone Kurgans culturemergedwith the Baltic Finns,the resultof this mergingbeing culturesof the Encircled Stone Graves (Tarandergrdber)spreadingfrom the shores of the Baltic Sea into the innerregions,on the one hand,andreachingsouthernFinland, on the other. The peoples who spread these cultures sprang from Finns and Scandinaviansof unknown linguistic attribution,with admixtureof the local Balts. Supposed Proto-Germans or Pre-Germans were culturally and linguistically assimilated, adding to present-day Finns and Estonians a considerable element of the lightly pigmented North Atlantic phenotype (Napolskih 1997:6-7). Migrationfrom Estoniato FinlandandKareliaput an end to the shortperiod of existence of the common Volga-Baltic Finn proto-languageand began the formation of the Northern and Southernlinguistic groups of the Baltic Finn languagesub-sub-family.The Karelians,Veps, andIngrians,unlikethe Lutheran Estonians, Livs, and the majority of the Latvians, belonged to the Russian Orthodox Church for their entire Christian history, as Northern Russian (Novgorod)missionarieswere the firstto baptizethem. The Estonians,Livs, and Votes belong to the Southerngroup. Vepsian is a distinct language within the Northern group. Historically, the Veps split from the Northern group in the beginningof the firstmillenniumCE andoccupiedterritoriesto the southwestof the Karelians.A partof theirpopulationcontributedto the formationof the local groupsof Karelians,those of Ludiks(Liitidikid)and (to a lesser degree) Livviks (Livvikid) (Pimenov 1994:124). The Ingrians (one of their self-names is Karjalain,the same as among the Karelians)split from the rest of the Karelians in the late first to early second millennium CE. After settling in the Karelian Isthmusand the Neva and Izhorariverbasins, they startedtheir southwestward movement in the eleventh century,reachingthe Luga and Narova rivers in the twelfth century. During that movement and later, the Ingriansassimilated a considerable number of the aboriginal Vote population (Shlygina 1994:159). The moder dialectsof the Ingrianlanguagehadformedby the seventeenthcentury(Shlygina 2003:592-3). By the beginningof the twentiethcenturyCE, all the Baltic Finns describedhere, apartfromthe Estoniansandsome groupsof Karelians,hadbeen heavily assimilated by the Russians while the Livs were almost totally assimilatedby the Latvians.The ancestorsof the Latvianscame to the Baltic Sea shores from the south at the end of the third and beginning of the second millenniumBCE. By the beginningof the firstmillenniumBCE the majortribal groups of the future Latvianshad formed:the Kurshes,Latgals, Zemgals, and PEOPLESOF EASTERNMOSTEUROPE 265 Sels. Though most of the Latvians are Lutherans,those of Latgalia (eastern Latvia)are predominantlyCatholic. Historically,the Latviansof Latgaliawere more influenced by the Russians than their brethrenof the western part of the country.As well as the majorityof otherpeoples of the Baltic Sea region, all the Latvianshave been influencedby the Germansfrom the Middle Ages on. TheMoldovansareculturallyRumanians,althoughpoliticallythey have been separatedfrom each other for the majorpartof their history (Vinokurov 1987; Luchtand Narumov 2001:575). The Moldovans speak Rumanian.All attempts of the Soviet authoritiesto create separateMoldovan norms of literacy failed (Luchtand Narumov 2001:575). The Gagauz are descendantsof variousTurkicpeoples includingthe ProtoBolgars,Pechenegs, andKypchaks(Kumans),with the evident admixtureof the Bolgar Slavs, Moldovans, and Rumanians.Theirlanguageis of the Oguz group of Turkic languages, the faith being that of the Orthodox Christianity.They predominantlylive in the south of Moldova, where they resettled from the Balkansin the late eighteenthto earlynineteenthcentury(Shabashov 1999). The Karaim are descendants of the Turkicized ancient aborigines of the Crimea. They practice a variety of Judaism which was and is treated with contempt by Orthodox Talmudic Jews. The Karaimspeak the CrimeanTatar language, which is a blend of Kypchak and Oguz Turkic dialects with a predominanceof Kypchak. Some Karaimwere resettledto the Trokaj(Troki) regionof Lithuaniaby Duke Vitautasin 1392, afterhis raidin the Crimea(Hafuz 1994). The LithuanianTatarssettled in Lithuaniaat the end of the fourteenth century.They originatedfrom the Golden and, later, Big and Nogai Hordes. In the courseof theircenturiesof settlementin non-Muslimsurroundings,theyhave lost many typically Muslim culturaltraitsand acquirednon-Muslim ones. The codes for the tables are defined in Ethnology6:154-69. TABLEA 1 Chl2 Chl3 Chl4 Ch15 Chl6 Chl7 Chl8 Chl9 Ch20 Ch21 Ch22 Ch23 3 1278: Bashkir 1279: Besermyan 1280: Chuvash 1281: Erzia Mordva 1282: Estonians 1283: Gagauz 1284: Ingrians 1285: Karelians 1286: Kazan Tatar 1287: Latvians 1288: LithuanianKaraim 1289: LithuanianTatar 7 12 14 16 19 20 22 24 25 27 00055 00019 00019 00028 00136 00037 00217 02323 00046 00127 00018 00019 Bd Go Go Db D Go D D Bd D D D N Em M M M Fm M Em N M N M oVp P Vp V Vu N V P oV V V Vu D A S A A D A S A A D D L Lo O S1 O O O Lo O O O O O O Oe O O O O O O O O O K K K K B K Bk Bk K K K K N Z N N . N N . O . E E D D D E D R E 266 ETHNOLOGY TABLEA Continued Ch24 Ch25 Ch26 Ch27 Ch28 1290: Livs 1291: Moldovans 1292: Udmurt 1293: Veps 1294: Votes M M M M M D Do Bd Do Oo 00811 00046 00019 11127 00217 V V oVu V V C A E 0 0 SI 0 0 A 0 0 SI 0 0 B K K K Bk N N N N D E 0 D D TABLE B I Chl2 Chl3 Ch14 ChiS Chl6 Chl7 Chl8 Chl9 Ch2O Ch2l Ch22 Ch23 Ch24 Ch25 Ch26 Ch27 Ch28 3 1278: Bashkir 1279: Besermyan 1280: Chuvash 1281: Erzia Mordva 1282: Estonians 1283: Gagauz 1284: Ingrians 1285: Karelians 1286: Kazan Tatar 1287: Latvians 1288: LithuanianKaraim 1289: LithuanianTatar 1290: Livs 1291: Moldovans 1292: Udmurt 1293: Veps 1294: Votes 28 30 31 32 34 35 IC Ic Ic Ic Ic Ic Ic Ec Ic Ic Hv Hv Ic IC IC IC Ic V V V V N V V V V N 8 4 4 6 8 7 2 2 8 8 5 3 3 7 4 2 2 34 34 24 24 24 34 24 34 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 34 24 C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C Q x x V V V V V 36 S C S S S 1 S 3 1 Q S S S 4 S S S 1 37 38 39 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 A 0 P A 0 A A 0 0 0 0 0 0 A 0 qEm pEm pSm pBm pBm qBm pBm pBm pEm pBm qEm qEm pBm pBm pBm pBm pBm TABLE C I Chl2 Ch13 Chl4 ChiS Chl16 Ch17 Chl8 Chl9 Ch2O Ch2l Ch22 Ch23 Ch24 Ch25 Ch26 Ch27 Ch28 3 1278: Bashkir 1279: Besermyan 1280: Chuvash 1281: Erzia Mordva 1282: Estonians 1283: Gagauz 1284: Ingrians 1285: Karelians 1286: Kazan Tatar 1287: Latvians 1288: LithuanianKaraim 1289: LithuanianTatar 1290: Livs 1291: Moldovans 1292: Udmurt 1293: Veps 1294: Votes 42 44 46 O O O O Mc Mc Mc Mc O Mc Mc Mc Mc Mc O Mc Mc F F F G Di F DO 0 Pc P M P F * F F Di F 0 F F Mc Gc Mc Mc M Mc 48 0 0 M 0 0 P Mc 0 Mc 0 0 Mc Mc 50 52 54 56 58 M O Mc Mc M O Mc Mc 0 Mc 0 0 M Mc Mc F MO Mc F M F F M 0 N M G M G 0 M F M M O 0 M F M 0 D M 0 M M M 0 M M M 0 0 0 M M M M M M D 0 D P G M G M D M Mc Ec N M D M D McD O P O N E E M Nc M G Mc G Ec N F Pc *Mc M F F Mc Mc Mc Mc M G * Mc M G F 60 62 M N N N N N N D M N P D E N N G N PEOPLESOF EASTERNMOSTEUROPE 267 TABLE D 1 Chl2 Chl3 Chl4 Ch15 Chl6 Ch17 Chl8 Ch19 Ch20 Ch21 Ch22 Ch23 Ch24 Ch25 Ch26 Ch27 Ch28 3 1278: Bashkir 1279: Besermyan 1280: Chuvash 1281:ErziaMordva 1282: Estonians 1283: Gagauz 1284: Ingrians 1285: Karelians 1286: Kazan Tatar 1287: Latvians 1288: LithuanianKaraim 1289: LithuanianTatar 1290: Livs 1291: Moldovans 1292: Udmurt 1293: Veps 1294: Votes 64 67 69 71 73 74 76 78 80-84 AIT UrF UrF UrF UrF AIT UrF UrF A1T IeB AIT IeS UrF IeR UrF UrF UrF Cw W We Ew Cw W W W Cw Cw C Cd W Cw We W W O O O O 0 O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O Of O Of O Of Of Of Of O Of Of O Of O E E E E E E E E E E E E A E E E E Pu Pe Pu Pe Pp Pu Pe Pe Pu Pp Pe Pe O Pu Pq Pu Pe Pu Pe Pu Pe Cq Pe Pe Pe Pu De Pe Pe Pe Pe Pq Pe Pe Ve A P A V T P P V V V V V P F A P RGWGW REWGW RGWGG REWGW RGWHG RGPHG REWGG REWGW RGWGG RGWGW RGWGW RGWGW RGWGW RGWHG REWGW REWGW REWGG 85-89 CGFDF REWGG RGWHG RGAHG RSPFW EEGGW REWHW RGWHW RESGG REWGW RGWGG SOURCES Chl2: Bashkir (Basquort. Bashkort, Bashkiry), with special reference to the BirskijUezd Bashkir.L: 54N, 56E. T: 1899. P. 1,320,000 in 1897 (all). Cluster 129. New. Comment.Columns 12 and 13: thoughthe bride-wealth(B) was considered more important,in economic termsthe amountof dowry(D) was so close to that of the bride-wealththatthe overall situationapproachedG ("Giftexchange, i.e., reciprocal exchange of gifts of substantial value . . .") (Maksimov 1997a/1902:137, referringto datacollected in 1771 and 1892). As van Gennep noticed in direct connection with the Bashkirmarriage,"if a detailed study is made of the amountof the kalym[bride-wealth] ... of the Ural-Altaic,and it is comparedto the purchaseprice of an animal,and then deductionsare made for gifts and wedding expenses ..., and when finally it is noted to whom kalym legally belongs, either as a whole or in a part, it becomes clear that the terms 'brideprice' and 'dowry'are inaccurate.It is a system of 'compensation,'which constitutesspecial institutionsthat,for aneconomist,areequivalentto the system of potlatches . . ." (van Gennep 1960:120, n.1); in addition, rare cases of the "abductionmarriage"arealso reported(Tolstov 1964:727). Column14:E variant ("Largeextended families")is also reported.Column 16: o ("Non-establishment of a common household")refersto the fact that,before the conclusion of all the marriagerituals, the bridegroom performed all the husband functions for a 268 ETHNOLOGY substantialtime visiting the bride'shouse (and observingmeanwhile a number of ritualprohibitions)(Maksimov 1997b/1908:176,referringto datacollected in 1890). Columns 25 and 26: all the cousin marriages were prohibited notwithstandingthe Islamic norms,but in accordancewith pre-IslamicBashkir lore (Kozlova 1964:109). Column 27: O (Omahakinship terminology)is also reportedfor some Bashkirgroups(Bikbulatov1964:5, 1981). Column28: E type ("Extensiveagriculture.. .") was still presentin the nineteenthcentury,but by the beginning of the twentieth century was pressed out by I ("Intensive agriculture . . .") (Kozlova 1964:28). Column 30: by the beginning of the twentieth century only a minority of the Bashkir remained unsedentarized. Column 37: "indifferentcircumstances"the circumcisionwas performedfrom between five or six monthsto ten yearsof age (Bikbulatov,Fatyhova1991:109). Column 42: the Bashkir had a ratherdeveloped iron metallurgy before the sixteenth to seventeenth century, when the Tsar government prohibited its practicefor the Bashkirand many otherethnic groupsof the Ural-Volga region (Tolstov 1964:703). Column73: the communityheadmanshouldbe elected (E); in reality, however, he was frequently appointed (A) by the Russian administration(Janguzin 1987:76). Columns 74-77: inheritancedistribution correspondedto pre-IslamicratherthanIslamicnormsthatwere not dominantin this sphereeven in the earlytwentiethcentury(Bikbulatovand Fatyhova1991). Column 87: A is also reported.Column88: C is also reported. Bikbulatov,N. V. 1964. Sistemarodstvabashkir(Kin System of the Bashkir).Moscow. 1980. Bashkirskijaul. Ocherk obshchestvennoji kul'tumojzhizni (BashkirAul: An Essay on Social and CulturalLife). Ufa. 1980. Istoricheskoerazvitiebashkirskojsistemyrodstva(HistoricalDevelopmentofthe Bashkir Kin System). Obychai i kul'tumo-bytovyetraditsii bashkir (Customs and Everyday Life Cultural Traditions of the Bashkir), eds. R. G. Kuzeev and N. V. Bikbulatov,pp. 3-23. Ufa. 1981. Bashkirskajasistemarodstva(BashkirKin System).Moscow. Bikbulatov,N. V., and F. F. Fatyhova.1991. Semejnyjbytbashkir.XIX-XX w. (FamilyEverydayLife of the Bashkir in the Nineteenthand TwentiethCenturies).Moscow. Bikbulatov, N. V., and R. G. Kuzeev (eds.). 1976. EtnografijaBashkirii (Ethnographyof Bashkiria).Ufa. Bikbulatov, N. V., and V. V. Pimenov. 1998. Bashkiry(The Bashkir).Narody i religii mira. Entsiklopedija(Peoples andReligions of the World.Encyclopedia),ed. V. A. Tishkov, pp. 85-8. Moscow. Janguzin,R. Z. 1987. Sotsial'najastrukturabashkirskogoobshchestvav XVIII-XIX vv. (Social Structureof the BashkirSociety in the Eighteenthand NineteenthCenturies).Ufa. Karlov, V. V. 1990. Vvedenie v etnografijunarodovSSSR (Introductionto the Ethnographyof the Peoples of the USSR). Vol. 1. Moscow. Kazantsev,N. 1866. Opisaniebashkirtsev(A Descriptionof the Bashkir).St. Petersburg. PEOPLESOF EASTERNMOSTEUROPE 269 Kinkov,A. 1927. K istorii sem'i i brakau bashkir,tatar,mordvy,chuvash(Historyof Familyand Marriage among the Bashkir, Tatar,Mordva, Chuvash). Bashkirskijkraevedcheskij sborik 2:54-61. Kozlova, K. I. 1964. EtnografijanarodovPovolzh'ja(Ethnographyofthe Volga Region Peoples). Moscow. 1982. Neslavjanskie narody evropejskoj chasti SSSR (Non-Slavic Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Etnografija(Ethnography),eds. Ju. V. Bromlej, and G. E. Markov,pp. 244-56. Moscow. Maksimov,A. N. 1997a. Iz istoriisem'iu russkihinorodtsev(Fromthe Historyof Familyof NonRussianPeoples of Russia).MaksimovA.N. Izbrannyetrudy(MaksimovA.N. Selected Works), pp. 113-40. Moscow. 1997b. Ogranichenijaotnoshenijmezhduodnimiz suprugovi rodstvennikamidrugogo (The Limitationof ContactsbetweenOne of the Spouses andthe Relatives of the Other). MaksimovA.N. Izbrannyetrudy(Selected Works),pp. 159-216. Moscow. Nazarov,P. S. 1890. K etnografiibashkir(To the Ethnographyof the Bashkir)Etnograficheskoe obozrenie 1(4):164-92. Nikol'skij,D. P. 1899. Bashkiry.Etnograficheskoei sanitamo-antropologicheskoeissledovanie (Bashkirs: Ethnographicand Medical-AnthropologicalStudy). Ph.D. Dissertation. Imperatorskajavoennajameditsinskajaakademija.St. Petersburg. Rudenko,S. I. 1925. Bashkiry.Opytetnologicheskojmonografii(The Bashkirs.An Ethnological Monograph).Vol. 2. EverydayLife of the Bashkir.Leningrad. 1953. Bashkiry. Istoriko-etnograficheskieocherki (The Bashkir. Historical and EthnographicEssays). Moscow. Shakirova,N. F. 1988. Dikorastushchierastenijav traditsionnompitaniibashkir(Wild Plantsin TraditionalDiet of the Bashkir).Sovetskajaetnografija3:99-109. S. Tolstov, P. (ed.). 1964. Narody evropejskojchasti SSSR (Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Vol. 2. Moscow. van Gennep,A. 1960. The Rites of Passage. Chicago. Ch 13: Besermyan (Beserman, Besermen, Besermyane), with special reference to the Glazovskij Uezd Besermyan.L: 58N, 52E. T: 1894. P. 10,034 in 1926 (all). Cluster 124. New. Comment. Column 12: the combination of bride-wealth and dowry is reported,the amountof bride-wealthwas determinedfirst, with negotiationson the dowry amountonly startingafterwards.Column 13: abductionmarriagesnormallywith the consent of both brideand her parents;however, for the early twentieth century, marriages involving a real coercive abduction are also reported (Popova 1998:91). Column 14: small extended families (F) were also attested, but rather rarely (Shtejnfeld 1894:7-8). Miheev, I. S. 1901. Neskol'ko slov o besermjanah(A Few Words on the Besermyan).Izvestija Obshchestvaistorii, arheologii i etnografii(Kazan')1(17):51-60. Popova, E. V. 1992. Prazdnichnoeobshcheniemolodezhi:igry i razvlechenija(po kalendarym obrjadam besermjan) (Celebratory Communication of the Youth: Games and Entertainments[On CalendarRituals of the Besermyan]). Traditsionnoepovedenie i 270 ETHNOLOGY obshchenie udmurtov (TraditionalBehavior and Communicationof the Udmurt), ed. G. K. Shkljaev,pp. 61-74. Izhevsk. Shkljaev,G. K. (ed.). 1997. 0 besermjanah(Aboutthe Besermyan).Izhevsk. Stejnfel'd,N. P. 1894. Besermjane:Opyt Etnograficheskogoisseldovanija(The Besrmyan:An EthnographicStudy). Vjatka. Vladykin,V. E., and E. V. Panova. 1998. Besermjane(The Besermyan).Narody i religii mira. Entsiklopedija(Peoples andReligionsofthe World.Encyclopaedia),ed. V. A. Tishkov, pp. 96-7. Moscow. Chl4: Chuvash(Chavash,Chuvashy),with specialreferenceto the Virjalgroup. L: 57N, 53E. T: 1908. P. 845,000in 1897; 1,117,000 in 1926 (all). Cluster129bis. New. Comment.Column 12: combinationof bride-wealthanddowry,whereasthe amountof dowryshouldhave been roughlyequivalentto the one of bride-wealth (Maksimov 1997/1902:137 based on datacollected from the eighteenthcentury up to 1890); Column 13: abductionmarriagesthatin the earlytwentiethcentury were ratherrarelyattested,and could be performedboth with a bride's consent (though secretly from her parents), or without it, thus involving an actual abduction(Tolstov 1964:621-2); Column 14: small extended families are also reported;the polygyny was not unknown among the Chuvash prior to their Christianization;however, notwithstandingthe generallysuperfluouscharacter of the latter,the polygyny was not reportedat all for the Chuvashby the time of the observation (1908); Columns 17 and 18: v for nuclear families, P for extended ones; u and M were also attested,but extremely rarely;Column 19: however, if a man lived in his father'svillage, it was forbiddento him to marry a woman from his mother's village (but not his father's [Maksimov 1997/1908:176, reportingdatacollected in 1868]); Column30: variantH is also reported;Column34: C refersto the ChristianGod;the Chuvashwere considered to be Christianized,but their Christianizationwas always rathersuperfluous (though it still affected family relations, see above note to Column 14), and variouspre-Christianreligiousbeliefs remainedratherstrong,includingthe ones concerningthe polytheistic pantheon,within which the high god, Syuldi-Tora, should be rathercoded as A; "it goes without saying that the Chuvashare bad Christiansandhave a rathervague idea of Christ"(Semenov 1901:74); Column 39: however, sheep (s) were even a bit moreimportantthancattle (B); horses (E) were also very important;Column42: the ironmetallurgydisappearedamongthe Chuvashin the seventeenthcenturyafterthe prohibitionimposedby the imperial government on its practice by the native peoples of the Volga-Urals region; Column47: actually,one observes a combinationof a few villages specializing in leather working with unspecialized one in the rest of the villages; PEOPLESOF EASTERNMOSTEUROPE 271 Column 73: a community headmanwas supposed to be elected (E), however, frequentlyhe was appointed(A) by the Russian administration. Aleksandrov,N. A. 1899. Cheremisy i chuvashi. (Lesnaja okraina)(The Mari and Chuvash. Forest Province). Moscow. Denisova, N. P. 1984. Administrativno-fiskal'nyei pravovye funktsii obshchiny u chuvashej andJurisdictionalFunctionsofthe Chuvash (IX - nachaloXX v.) (Administrative-Fiscal Community in the Nineteenth and early Twentieth Centuries). Voprosy istorii dorevoljutsionnoj Chuvashii (Issues of the History of pre-Revolution Chuvashia), ed. N. E. Egorov and V. A. Prohorova,pp. 46-71. Cheboksary. Fuks,A. 1840. Zapiskio chuvashahi cheremisahKazanskojgubemii (Notes on the Chuvashand Mari of the KazanskajaGuberia). Kazan'. Guzenkova, T. S., and V. P. Ivanov. 1998. Chuvashi (The Chuvash). Narody i religii mira (Peoples and Religions of the World), ed. V. A. Tishkov, pp. 631-3. Moscow. Jagafova, E. 1998. Samarskie chuvashi (istoriko-etnograficheskieocherki). Konets XVIInachalo XX w. (The Chuvashof Samara[Historical-Ethnographic Essays]. From the Late Seventeenthto the EarlyTwentiethCentury).Samara. Karlov,V. V. 1990. Vvedenie v etnografijunarodovSSSR (Introductionto the Ethnographyof the Peoples of the USSR). Vol. 1. Moscow. Komissarov,G. I. 1911. ChuvashiKazanskogoZavolzh'ja (The Chuvashof the Kazan' TransVolga Region). Kazan'. Kozlova, K. I. 1964. EtnografijanarodovPovolzh'ja(Ethnographyofthe Volga Region Peoples). Moscow. 1982. Neslavjanskie narody evropejskoj chasti SSSR (Non-Slavic Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Etnografija(Ethnography),eds. Ju. V. Bromlej and G. E. Markov,pp. 244-56. Moscow. Maksimov, A. N. 1997a. Iz istorii sem'i u russkihinorodtsev (From the History of Family of Non-Russian Peoples of Russia). Izbrannyetrudy (Selected Works), pp. 113-40. Moscow. 1997b. Ogranichenijaotnoshenijmezhduodnimiz suprugovi rodstvennikamidrugogo (The Limitationof the ContactsbetweenOne of the Spouses andRelatives of the Other). Izbrannyetrudy(Selected Works),pp. 159-216. Moscow. Mihajlov, S. M. 1882. Chuvashskiesvad'by (ChuvashWeddings). Kazan'. Nikol'skij, N. V. 1908. Konspektpo etnografii Chuvash(Synopsis of ChuvashEthnography). Kazan'. F. 1870. Materialy dlja etnografii Rossii. Kazanskajagubemija (Materials for the A. Rittih, Ethnographyof Russia. KazanskajaBugeria). Part2. Kazan'. Sboev, V. A. n.d. Zametkio chuvashah(Notes on the Chuvash).N.P. Semenov, V. P. (ed.). 1900. Rossija. Polnoe geograficheskoe opisanie nashego otechestva. Nastol'naja i dorozhnaja kniga dlja russkih ljudej (Russia: Complete Geographic Descriptionof OurFatherland.Guideforthe RussianPeople). Vol. 6. Sredneei Nizhnee Povolzh'e i Zavolzh'e (The Middle and Lower Volga and Trans-Volga Regions). St. Petersburg. Skvortsov,M. I. (ed.). 2001. Hrestomatijapo kul'tureChuvashskogokraja:dorevoljutsionnyj (Reading Book on the Cultureof the Chuvash Kraj:PrerevolutionaryPeriod). Cheboksary. 272 ETHNOLOGY Tolstov, S. P. (ed.). 1964. NarodyevropejskojchastiSSSR (Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Vol. 2. Moscow. Vorob'ev, N. I., A. N. L'vova, N. R. Romanov,and A. R. Simonova. 1956-1970. Chuvashi: Etnograficheskoeissledovanie (The Chuvash:An EthnographicStudy). Parts land 2. Cheboksary. Chl 5: ErziaMordva(Erzja/ErzyaMordvins),with special referenceto those of the BoklinskijUezd. L: 53N, 50E. T: 1895. P. 1,025,000 in 1897 (all Mordvins). Cluster 124. New. Comment.Columns 12 and 13:combinationof dowryandbride-wealth,with the amount of dowry exceeding that of bride-wealth (Kozlova 1964:114), abductionmarriages(with the bride's consent, but in secret from her parents) were very rareby the time of the observation;although,accordingto Mel'nikov (1981/1867 [1851]):109, they were morewidespreadbeforethe Christianization of the Mordvain the seventeenthcentury;however,theirnumberappearsto have declined by the second half of that century(Jurchenkov1995:162-3, based on data ascending to 1664); note that in the late nineteenth century, the ritual abductionof the bride was an integralpartof the marriageceremony;Columns 14 and 15: however, extended families (E and F) were also frequentlyattested; a strict monogamy was only established among the Mordva after the Christianization;a few cases of polygyny (including sororal polygyny) are reportedfor the seventeenthand eighteenthcenturies,however, it is clear thatit was not widespread(Mel'nikov 1981/1867 [1851]:110; Jurchenkov1995:162, 216, reporting data ascending to 1664, 1769, and 1770); Column 18: note, however,thata week or two afterthe wedding,the newly-wed woman's brothers came to her new home and took her to her parents' home for a month or so; Column34: note the co-presenceof"B" version,due to the fact thatChristianity among the Erziaco-existed with polytheisticbeliefs, within which the high god (Shkaj) would be coded as B, ratherthan C (Mel'nikov 1981/1867:44-59; Petruhinand Helimskij 1982:566);Column42: the iron metallurgydisappeared among the Mordva in the seventeenthcenturyafterthe prohibitionimposed by the imperialgovernmenton its practiceby the nativepeoples of the Volga-Urals region (Mel'nikov 1981/1867:42);Column49: however, a partialspecialization is attested for some villages; Column 75: this pattern is suggested to have developed in the nineteenthcenturyin connectionwith the progressivesplits of extended families involving the distributionof the divided property(Serkina 2002:17-18). Balashov, V. A. (ed.). 1995. Mordva: istoriko-kul'turye ocherki (The Mordva: HistoricalCulturalEssays). Saransk. PEOPLESOF EASTERNMOSTEUROPE 273 Belitser, V. N., and K. A. Kotkova (eds.). 1963. Issledovanija po material'noj kul'ture mordovskogonaroda(The MordvaMaterialCulture).Moscow. Fedjanovich,T. P. 1997. Semejnyeobychai i obrjadyfinno-ugorskihnarodovUralo-Povolzh'ja (konetsXIX veka - 1980-e gody) (FamilyCustomsandRites ofthe Finno-UgricPeoples of the Ural-Volga Region from the LateNineteenthCenturyto the 1990s). Moscow. Jurchenkov,V. 1995. Vzgljad so storony. Mordovskijnarod i kraj v sochinenijah zapadnoevropejskihavtorovVI-XVIII stoletij(Look fromthe Outside:The MordvaPeople and Land in the Works of West EuropeanAuthorsof the Sixth to EighteenthCenturies). Saransk. Karlov,V. V. 1990. Vvedenie v etnografijunarodovSSSR (Introductionto the Ethnographyof the Peoples of the USSR). Vol. 1. Moscow. Kozlov, V. I. (ed.). 1981. Mordva: istoriko-etnograficheskieocherki (Mordva: HistoricalEthnographicEssays). Saransk. Kozlova, K. I. 1964. Etnografija narodov Povolzh'ja (Ethnographyof the Volga Region Peoples). Moscow. 1982. Neslavjanskie narody evropejskoj chasti SSSR (Non-Slavic Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Etnografija(Ethnography),eds. Ju. V. Bromlejand G. E. Markov,pp. 244-56. Moscow. Majnov, V. N. 1885. Ocherkjuridicheskogobyta mordvy (An Essay on Legal Customs of the Mordva). St. Petersburg. Maksimov,A. N. 1997a. Iz istoriisem'i u russkihinorodtsev(Fromthe Historyof Familyamong the Non-Russian Peoples of Russia). Izbrannyetrudy (Selected Works), pp. 113-40. Moscow. 1997b. Ogranichenijaotnoshenijmezhduodnimiz suprugovi rodstvennikamidrugogo (The Limitationof ContactsbetweenOne of the Spouses andthe Relatives of the Other). Izbrannyetrudy(Selected Works),pp. 159-216. Moscow. Markelov, M. 1928. Sistemy rodstva u ugro-finskihnarodnostej (Kin Systems of the UgroFinnishPeoples). Etnografija1:44-78. Mel'nikov, P. I. (AndrejPecherskij). 1981. Ocherkimordvy(The MordvaEssays). Saransk. Mokshin, N. F. (ed.). 1990. Bytovaja kul'turamordvy (EverdayLife Cultureof the Mordva). Saransk. Mokshin, N. F., and T. P. Fedjanovich. 1998. Mordva (The Mordva). Narody i religii mira. Entsiklopedija(Peoples andReligionsof the World.Encyclopaedia),ed. V. A. Tishkov, pp. 353-6. Moscow. Petruhin, V. Ja., and E. A. Helimskij. 1982. Finno-ugorskaja mifologija (Finno-Ugric Mythology). Mify narodovmira(Mythsof the Peoples of the World). Vol. 2, ed. S. A. Tokarev,pp. 563-8. Moscow. Serkina,S. S. 2002. Obshchinai obychnoepravoudel'nyhkrest'janSimbirskojgubemii v kontse XVIII - pervoj polovine XIX veka (Community and Traditional Law System of Appanage Peasants of the SimbriskajaGuberia in the Late Eighteenth to Early NineteenthCenturies).Ph.D. Thesis.NII gumanitamyhnaukpriPravitel'stveRespubliki Mordovija.Saransk. Smimov, I. N. 1895. Mordva.Kazan'. Tolstov, S. P. (ed.). 1964. Narody evropejskojchasti SSSR (Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Vol. 2. Moscow. Tumajkin,V. P. 1974. Sosedskaja obshchina zavolzhskoj mordvy v poreformennyjperiod (po materialam Samarskoj gubemii) (Neighbor Community of the Mordva in the 274 ETHNOLOGY Trans-VolgaRegion before the Reforms [based on the Materials from the Saranskaja Gubemia]). Ph.D. Thesis. Moscow StateUniversity.Moscow. Chl6: Estonians (Eestlased, Maarahvas, Hiumaases, Saaremaased, Setu, Estontsy, Chud'), with special referenceto the Valkskij Uezd. L:59N, 26E. T: 1908. P. c. 350,000 in 1897 (within the territoryof the present-dayEstonia). Cluster 124. New. Comment.Column 18:uxorilocalresidencewas practicedwhen a farmerhad no sons, thus the farmwent to his daughter,whose husbandmoved to her house so that the farm could be run (due to a very high level of relative male contributionto subsistence attestedat the given time); Columns 43-50: by the early twentieth century, industrialproductionhad been rapidly developing in many spheres(especially in metal working,weaving, andboat building),though it had not entirely pressed out the traditionalhome production. Commercial agriculture,animalhusbandryandfishingwere also developing;in particular,Di in Columns 44 and 45 refers to the combinationof female home weaving and male employmentat industrialweaving mills. Aleksandrov,V. A., andN. V. Shlygina(eds.). 1971. Sel'skie poselenijaPribaltiki(XIII-XX vv.) (RuralSettlementsof the Baltic Region [fromthe Eighteenthto the TwentiethCentury]). Moscow. Feoktistova,L. H. 1980. Zemledelie u estontsev:XVIII- nachaloXX v. (Agricultureamongthe Estonians:Fromthe Eighteenthto the EarlyTwentiethCentury).Moscow. V. Karlov, V. 1990. Vvedenie v etnografijunarodovSSSR (Introductionto the Ethnographyof the Peoples of the USSR). Vol. 1. Moscow. Kozlova, K. I. 1982. Neslavjanskienarodyevropejskojchasti SSSR (Non- Slavic Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Etnografija(Ethnography),eds. Ju. V. Bromlejand G. E. Markov,pp. 244-56. Moscow. Luts, A. 1959. Estonskoe morskoe rybolovstvov XIX-XX vekah (EstonianSea Fishing in the Nineteenth and TwentiethCenturies).Sovetskajaetnografija3:26-46. Rejsner,M. (ed.). 1916. Esty i latyshi,ih istorijai byt (The EstoniansandLatvians,TheirHistory and EverydayLife). Moscow. Sedov, V. V. (ed.). 1987. Finno-ugryi baltyv epohusrednevekov'ja(The Finno-UgricandBaltic Peoples in the Medieval Epoch). Moscow. Tijk, A. M. 1977. Zimnie narodnye igry estontsev (Winter Folk Games of the Estonians). Sovetskajapedagogika i shkola 12:69-81. Tolstov, S. P. (ed.). 1964. Narody evropejskojchasti SSSR (Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Vol. 2. Moscow. E. Viaari, 1953. Terminologijarodstvav pribaltijsko-finskihjazykah(Kin Terms in the BalticFinnish Languages).Ph.D. Thesis. Tartuskijgosudarstvennyjuniversitet.Tartu. Vul'fson,E. S. 1908. Esty, ih zhizn' i nravy(Estonians,TheirLife and Morals). Moscow. Wiedemann,F. J. 1876. Aus dem innem und ausem Leben der Ehsten. St. Petersburg. PEOPLESOF EASTERNMOSTEUROPE 275 Chl7: Gagauz (Gagauzi, Gagauzy), with special reference to those of the BenderskijUezd. L: 45N, 29E. T: 1894. P. 36,127 in 1897 (all). Cluster 136bis. New. Comment.Column13:abductionmarriageswereperformedwhen the parents did not give theirconsent, or when a groomhadnot enoughwealth for a standard marriage,and, according to Moshkov (1901, 48:125-6), "they are not rare"; Columns 25 and 26: cousin marriageswere not possible, the marriagewas not allowed even if a link between two cousins resultedin a child (Moshkov 1901, 48:100); Column 29: cultivationof vegetables (v) and fruittrees was also very important;Column 31: "theGagauzlive in enormousvillages, 2 to 5 thousand inhabitantseach. Small villages are totally absent . . .", whereas the largest Gagauz settlement (denoted by Moshkov as "alarge commercial village") had about 10 thousand inhabitants (Moshkov 1900:6-7); Column 36: the only reportedpostpartumsex taboo was the prohibitionof sex between husbandand wife on the 40thnight after childbirth,as on the 40th day the wife was supposed to go to church "to take a prayer"(Moshkov 1900:25); Column 40: sheep breedingwas also very important;Column61: professionalshepherds(Moshkov 1902, 55:83-85). Guboglo,M. N. 1998. Gagauzy.Narodyi Religii mira.Entsiklopedija(Peoples and Religions of the World), ed. V. A. Tishkov, p. 129. Moscow. Moshkov,V. A. 1900 1902. GagauzyBenderskogouezda. Etnograficheskieocherki i materialy (Gagauzy of the Benderskij Uezd: Ethnographic Essays and Materials). Etnograficheskoeobozrenie 1900, 1(44):1-89; 1901(48):98-160; 1901, 2(49):1-49; 4(51):1-80; 1902, 3(54): 1-66; 4(55):1-91. Semenov, V. P. (ed.). 1900. Rossija. Polnoe geograficheskoe opisanie nashego otechestva. Nastol'naja i dorozhnaja kniga dlja russkih ljudej (Russia: Complete Geographic Descriptionof OurFatherland.Guidefor RussianPeople). Vol. 14. Novirossija i Krym (Novorossija and Crimea).St. Petersburg. Tolstov, S. P. (ed.). 1964. Narody evropejskojchasti SSSR (Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Vol. 2. Moscow. Chl 8: Ingrians(Izhorians,Izhora,Inkerilainen,Inkeroine,Izhoralaine,Karjalain, InkerinSuomalainen,IngrianFinns,Izhortsy),with special referenceto those of the KingiseppRajon,the LeningradRegion. L: 59N, 29E. T: 1927. P. 26,137 in 1926 (all). Cluster 124. New. Comment. Column 13: however, there are indications of the presence of abduction marriages in the past (Kiuru 1993); Columns 25 and 26: cousin marriageswere effectively prohibitedby the Orthodox Church; Column 28: however, extensive agriculture(E) was not unknown;Column 61: however, the presenceof professional shepherdsis also reported. 276 ETHNOLOGY Keppen, P. 1853. Selenija, obitaemye izhorami,v SanktPeterburgskojGubemii (Settlements Inhabited by the Ingrians in the St. Petersburg Gubemia). Uchjonye zapiski imperatorskojAkademiinaukpo I i III otdelenijam2(3):412-22. E. Kiuru, S. 1993. Motivy svatovstvai dobyvanijazheny v svadebnojpoezii i epicheskihrunah izhorov (Motifs of Match-MakingandWife-Gettingin WeddingPoetryandEpic Runas of the Ingrians).Fol'kloristikaKarelii(FolkloreStudiesofKarelia), eds. E. S. Kiuruand N. A. Krinichnaja,pp. 22-38. Petrozavodsk. Kon'kova, 0. 1995. Izhora. Zametki o narode, kotoryj zhil rjadom s nami, no ostalsja nam neznakom(The Izhora:Notes on an EthnicGroupWhichLived Near Us but Remained Unknownto Us). Rossijskajaprovintsija6:152-7. Laanest,A. H. 1974. Izhora.Voprosy istorii 3:217-9. Sedov, V. V. (ed.). 1987. Finno-ugryi balty v epohu srednevekov'ja(Finno-Ugricand Baltic Peoples in the Medieval Epoch). Moscow. Semenov, V. P. (ed.). 1900. Rossija. Polnoe geograficheskoe opisanie nashego otechestva. Nastol'naja i dorozhnaja kniga dlja russkih ljudej (Russia: Complete Geographic Descriptionof OurFatherland.Guidefor RussianPeople). Vol. 3. Ozemajaoblast'.St. Petersburg. Shlygina,N. V. 1998. Izhortsy(The Ingrians).Narodyi religii mira.Entsiklopedija(Peoples and Religions of the World. Encyclopedia.),ed. V. A. Tishkov, p. 180. Moscow. A. Sjogren, 1833. Uber die finnischeBevolkerungdes St.- PetersburgischenGouverements und uber der Ursprungdes Namens Ingermanland.St. Petersburg. S. Tolstov, P. (ed.). 1964. Narodyevropejskojchasti SSSR (Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Vol. 2. Moscow. Ushakov, N. V. 1990. Traditsionnoezhilishche finnojazychnyhnarodovLeningradskojoblasti nachalaXX v. (TraditionalHouseofthe FinnishSpeakingPeoples ofthe Leningradskaja Oblast' in the Early Twentieth Century). Sovremennoe finno-ugrovedenie. Opyt i problemy (ContemporaryFinno-UgricStudies:Experience and Problems), ed. O. M. Fishman,pp. 1-19. Leningrad. Uspenskij,D. 1845. Ingry,vaty,jagrjamjai savolaksy(The Ingriansand Votes). Finskijvestnik 2:1-19. Zolotarev, D. A. 1927. U izhor (Among the Ingrians).Trudy Leningradskogoobshchestva izuchenijamestnogo kraja 1:1-42. Chl9: Karelians (Karjalaizet, Karjalaini, Karely, Livgilyajne, Livvikjoj, Lyuudilaine,Lyuudikjoj),with special referenceto the Liwikjoj group of the Olonetskij Uezd. L: 64N, 33E. T: 1874. P. 208,100 in 1897 (all). Cluster 124. New. Comment. Column 13: however, there are indications of the presence of abductionmarriagesin the past (Kiuru 1993); Column 14: however, the move from extendedto nuclearfamily as the dominantform of domestic organization was observed just in the period surveyed (Semenov 1900; Cheremin 1909); Column 28: however, intensive agriculture(I) was also practiced;Column 30: dispersedfamilyhomesteads(N) arealso reported;Column40: reindeerbreeding is attestedamong northernmostKarelians. PEOPLESOF EASTERNMOSTEUROPE 277 Cheremin,N. A. 1909. Ozeryj kraj(The Lake Region). Moscow. Efimenko,A. 1877. Narodnyejuridicheskieobychailoparej,karelov i samoedov Arhangel'skoj Guberii (TraditionalLegal Customs of the Saami, Karelians,and Samoyeds of the Arhangel'skajaGuberia). St. Petersburg. Kiuru,E. S. 1993. Temadobyvanijazhenyv epicheskihrunah.K semantikepoeticheskihobrazov (Wife-Getting Motif in the Epic Runas: Towards the Semantics of Poetic Images). Petrozavodsk. Klement'ev,V. I. 1983. Karely. Etnograficheskijocherk (The Karelians:EthnographicEssay). Petrozavodsk. 1998. Karely.Narodyi religii mira.Entsiklopedija(Peoples andReligions ofthe World. Encyclopedia.), ed. V. A. Tishkov, pp. 225-7. Moscow. Kochkurkina,S. I. 1986. Korela i Rus'(Kareliaand Russia). Leningrad. Kozlova, K. I. 1982. Neslavjanskienarodyevropejskojchasti SSSR (Non-Slavic Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Etnografija(Ethnography),eds. Ju. V. Bromlejand G. E. Markov,pp. 244-56. Moscow. [Lennrot,E.] 1985. PuteshestvijaE. Lennrota.Putevki, zametki, dnevniki, pis'ma 1828-1842 (Lennrot'sJourneys:TravelNotes, Diaries, Letters. 1828-1842). Petrozavodsk. Majnov, V. N. 1877. Poezdka v Obonezhje i Korelu (Travel to Onezhje and Karelia). St. Petersburg. Maksimov, A. N. 1997. Proishozhdenie olenevodstva (Origins of Reindeer Husbandry). Maksimov A. N. Izbrannyetrudy. (MaksimovA. N. Selected Works), pp. 279-311. Moscow. Mal'mi,V. V. 1987. Narodnye igry Karelii (Folk Games of Karelia).Petrozavodsk. Nikol'skaja, R. F., and E. I. Klement'ev (eds.). 1976. EtnografijaKarelii (Ethnographyof Karelia).Petrozavodsk. Semenov, V. P. (ed.). 1900. Rossija. Polnoe geograficheskoe opisanie nashego otechestva. Nastol'naja i dorozhnaja kniga dlja russkih ljudej (Russia: Complete Geographic Description of Our Fatherland.Guide for Russian People). Vol. 3. Ozeraja oblast'. St. Petersburg. Surhasko,Ju. Ju. 1977. Karel'skajasvadebnajaobrjadnost'(konets XIX-nachalo v.) (Karelian Wedding Rituals [LateNineteenthto EarlyTwentiethCentury]).Leningrad. 1985. Semejnyeobrjadyi verovanijakarel,konetsXIX- nachaloXX v. (FamilyRituals and Beliefs of Karelians,Late Nineteenthto EarlyTwentiethCentury).Leningrad. Taroeva,R. F. 1965. Material'najakul'turakarel (Karel'skajaASSR). Etnograficheskijocherk (MaterialCultureof Karelians[Karel'skajaASSR]. EthnographicEssay). Moscow. Tolstov, S. P. (ed.). 1964. Narody evropejskojchasti SSSR (Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Vol. 2. Moscow. Zherbin, A. S. (ed.). 1983. Karely Karel'skojASSR (The Karelians of the Karelian ASSR [AutonomousSoviet Socialist Republic]).Petrozavodsk. Ch20:KazanTatars(KazanskieTatary,Kazanly,Tatarlar),with specialreference to those of the AlatyrskijUezd. L: 55N, 50E. T: 1910. P. 675,419 in 1897 (all). Cluster 129. New. Comment.Columns 12 and 13: thoughthe bride-wealth(B) was considered more importantculturally,in economic terms the amountof dowry (D) was so close to the bride-wealththatthe overallsituationapproachedG ("Giftexchange, 278 ETHNOLOGY i.e., reciprocalexchange of gifts of substantialvalue..."); in general,the overall patternwas ratherclose to the one describedabove for the Bashkirin comments to Columns 12 and 13; Column 14: the presence of a number of extended families (F and E) is also reported;Columns 25 and 26: however, cousin marriages were rare and disapproved; Column 28: E type ("Extensive agriculture . . .") was still present in the early twentieth century, but was not importanteconomically;Column37: thoughcircumcisionwas usuallyperformed between 6 and 10 years of age, it was sometimes done before this age (but, anyway,aftertwo months);Column40: cattlebreedingwas also very important; Column 42: the iron metallurgy disappearedamong the Kazan Tatar in the seventeenthcenturyafterthe prohibitionimposedby the imperialgovernmenton its practice by the native peoples of the Volga-Urals region (Vorob'ev 1953:77-8); Columns 74-77: elites (descendantsof murza s and tarkhan s) practiced the Islamic inheritancenorms ("inheritanceby children, but with daughtersreceiving less than sons,"De). Ahmarov,G. N. 1907. Svadebnyeobrjadykazanskihtatar(WeddingRitualsofthe KazanTatars). Kazan'. Ishakov,D. M., Ju.G. Muhametshin,S. V. Suslova,R. K. Urazmanova,andN. A. Halikov. 1998. Tatary.Narody i religii mira(Peoples and Religions of the World), ed. V. A. Tishkov, pp. 515-20. Moscow. Karlov,V. V. 1990. Vvedenie v etnografijunarodovSSSR (Introductionto the Ethnographyof the Peoples of the USSR). Vol. 1. Moscow. Kozlova,K. I. 1964. EtnografijanarodovPovolzh'ja(Ethnographyofthe Volga Region Peoples). Moscow. 1982. Neslavjanskie narody evropejskoj chasti SSSR (Non-Slavic Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Etnografija(Ethnography),eds. Ju. V. Bromlejand G. E. Markov,pp. 244-56. Moscow. Maksimov,A. N. 1997a. Iz istoriisem'iu russkihinorodtsev(Fromthe Historyof Familyamong the Non-Russian Peoples of Russia). Izbrannyetrudy (Selected Works), pp. 113-40. Moscow. 1997b. Ogranichenijaotnoshenijmezhduodnimiz suprugovi rodstvennikamidrugogo (The Limitationof ContactsbetweenOne of the Spousesandthe Relativesof the Other). Izbrannyetrudy(Selected Works),pp. 159-216. Moscow. Pinegin,M. N. 1891. Svadebnyeobychaikazanskihtatar(WeddingCustomsof the KazanTatar). St. Petersburg. Putsykovich,F. F. 1900. Tatary.St. Petersburg. Ramazanova,D. B. 1991. Terminyrodstvai svojstvav tatarskomjazyke(Kin andAffinityTerms in the TatarLanguage).Parts 1 2. Kazan'. Rittih, A. F. 1870. Materialydlja etnografii Rossii. Kazanskajagubemija (Materials for the Ethnographyof Russia. The KazanskajaGubemia).Part.2. Kazan'. Speranskij,A. 1914. Kazanskietatary(istoriko-etnograficheskijocherk) (The Kazan Tatar:A Historical-EthnographicEssay). Kazan'. PEOPLES OF EASTERNMOST EUROPE 279 Suharev,A. A. 1904. Kazanskietatary.OpytEtnograficheskogoi mediko-antropologicheskogo issledovanija(The KazanTatar:An EthnographicandMedicalAnthropologicalStudy). St. Petersburg. Vorob'ev, N. I. 1953. Kazanskie tatary (Etnograficheskoeissledovanie material'nojkul'tury dooktjabr'skogoperioda) (The Kazan Tatar:An EthnographicStudy of the Material Cultureof the pre-RevolutionPeriod).Kazan'. Vorob'ev, N. I., and G. M. Hisamutdinov(eds.). 1967. TatarySrednego Povolzh'ja i Priural'ja (The Tatarof the Middle Volga and Ural Region). Moscow. ZnamenskijP. V. 1910. Kazanskietatary.Kazan'. Ch21: Latvians (Latvieshi, Latyshi), with special reference to the Vidzeme group.L: 57N, 24E. T: 1881. P. c. 1,312,000 in 1897 (all). Cluster 125. New. Comment.Columns43-51: at the time of observation,industrialproduction was developingin some spheres(especially,in metalworkingandboatbuilding), yet, it had not pressed out completelythe traditionalhome production. Anonymous.1869. Zametkio latyshahtrehinfljandskihuezdov Vitebskojgubemii (Notes on the Latviansof the ThreeInfliandianUezds of the VitebskajaGuberia ). Vilenskij sborik 1:223-43. Aleksandrov,N. A. 1900. Inorodtsylesov (Non-RussianWoodlandPeoples). Moscow. Aleksandrov,V. A., andN. V. Shlygina(eds.). 1971. Sel'skieposelenijaPribaltiki(XIII-XX vv.) (RuralSettlementsof the Baltic Region [Eighteenthto TwentiethCentury]).Moscow. Cheshihin-Vetrinskij,V. E. 1901. Sredi latyshej(Among the Latvians).Moscow. Efremova,L. S. 1982. Latyshskajakrest'janskajasem'jav Latgale, 1860-1939 (LatvianRural Family in Latgal). Riga. V. Karlov, V. 1990. Vvedenie v etnografijunarodovSSSR (Introductionto the Ethnographyof the Peoples of the USSR). Vol. 1. Moscow. Kozlova, K. I. 1982. Neslavjanskienarodyevropejskojchasti SSSR (Non-Slavic Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Etnografija(Ethnography),eds. Ju. V. Bromlej and G. E. Markov,pp. 244-56. Moscow. Novoselov, Ju. 1911. Latyshi. Ocherki po etnografii i sovremennoj kul'ture latyshej (The Latvians.Essays on Ethnographyand Modem Cultureof the Latvians).Riga. Rejsner,M. (ed.). 1916. Esty i latyshi,ih istorijai byt (The Estoniansand Latvians.TheirHistory and EverydayLife). Moscow. Sedov, V. V. (ed.). 1987. Finno-ugrici baltyv epohusrednevekov'ja(The Finno-UgricandBaltic Peoples in the Medieval Epoch). Moscow. Shtraus,V. P. 1994. Latyshi(The Latvians).NarodyRossii. Entsiklopedija(Peoples of Russia. Encyclopedia), ed. V. A. Tishkov, pp. 220-3. Moscow. Tolstov, S. P. (ed.). 1964. Narody evropejskojchasti SSSR (Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Vol. 2. Moscow. Trejland,F. Ja. (ed.). 1881. Materialy po etnografii latyshskogo plemeni (Materials on the Ethnographyof the Latvians).Moscow. Vol'ter,E. A. 1890. Materialydlja etnografiilatyshskogoplemeniVitebskojGuberii (Materials for Ethnographyof the Latviansof the VitebskayaGubemia). St. Petersburg. 280 ETHNOLOGY Ch22: LithuanianKaraim(Karaites,Karailar),with special referenceto those of the Trakajarea.L: 55N, 23E. T: 1895. P. 800 in 1987 (all). Cluster 129. New. Comment. Column 13: however, there are indications of the presence of abductionmarriagesin the past; Column 19: however, one may consider as a "dem"(D) the whole relativelysmall communityof the LithuanianKaraimsthat was explicitly endogamousdue to the prohibitionof marriageswith membersof the other confessions (and, consequently,the otherethnic groups);Columns20 and21: communitymembersin generaltriedto avoid marryingwomen fromthe same patrilinealdescent group,but such marriageswere not strictlyprohibited; Columns28-31: aftertheirdeportationfrom Crimeato Trakaj,the Karaimwere allotteda plot of landin the southwestpartof the town, nearthe castle. In Trakaj, the Karaim constitutedtwo groups, one of which specialized in guardingthe bridgesand servingas the personalguardsof the monarch;the othergroupmade theirliving with horticulture,craftsandtrade,andalso workedas translatorsand secretaries;the LithuanianKaraimwereknownas verygood horticulturalists,the cucumbers produced by them were especially famous; up to the nineteenth century, the Lithuanian Karaim constituted one autonomous community occupying a particularquarterwithin Trakaj(officially, it was considered a separatetown with its own town seal), in the nineteenthcenturya considerable numberof the Karaimsettled outside this quarter;Column 36: sexual relations between the spouses were prohibitedfor the whole period of breastfeeding (as well as duringpregnancy). ocherki(1926-1929) (Historical-Ethnographic Eljashevish,B. S. 1994. Istoriko-Etnograficheskie Essays [1926-1929]). Moscow. Firkovich,R. 1969. Karaimikav Litve (The KaraimStudies in Lithuania).Trakaj. Hafuz, M. E. 1994. Karaimy. Istoriko-etnograficheskieocherki (The Karaim: HistoricalEthnographicEssays). Moscow: In- t etnol. i antrop.RAN. Kefeli V. I. 1992. Karaimy(The Karaim).Pushchino. MuhlinskijA. 1862. 0 karaimahv Imperiii TsarstvePol'skom(Aboutthe Karaimin the Russian Empireand Polish Kingdom). Supplementto the "Gakarmel"Magazine,2(38):1-14. 1902. Issledovanieo proishozhdeniii sostojaniilitovskihtatar(OriginsandCurrentLife of the LithuanianTatar).2nded. Odessa. Shapshal,S. M. 1995. Karaimyv Krymu,Litve i Pol'she(The Karaimin the Crimea,Lithuania, andPoland).Karaimskajanarodnaja entsiklopedija,1 (The KaraimFolk Encyclopedia). Moscow. Tuhan-Baranowski,M. 1896. O muslimachlitewskich(Onthe LithuanianMuslims).Warszawa. Vjartsinkjavjachus,Ju. 1989. Etnograficheskajavystavkakaraimov(EthnographicExhibitionof the Karaim).Vil'njus. Ch23: Lithuanian Tatar, with special reference to those of the Vilenskaja Guberija. L: 55N, 24E. T: 1905. P. <4,500 in 1897 (all). Cluster 129. New. PEOPLESOF EASTERNMOSTEUROPE 281 Comment.Column 14: no instancesof polygynousmarriageswere reported for the LithuanianTatarsince the mid-sixteenthcentury;Columns 25 and 26: though marriages with second cousins were not prohibited, they were not approvedeither-it was said thatsuchmarriages"didnot have God'sblessing on them" (Shimelevich 1905:10); Columns 28 and 29: in addition to intensive, predominantlycommercial horticulturalproductionof vegetables (which was predominant),the LithuanianKaraimspracticedintensive agricultureas regards the cereals production (note that the modem commercial horticultureshould eventuallybe distinguishedin the Atlas fromthe archaicsubsistence);Columns 73-77: note that Shimelevich (1905:12) makes the following observationat the verybeginningof the section describingthe respectivecharacteristics:"Thelongterm life of the LithuanianTatarwithin the environmentof the populationthat was alien to them as regardstheirancestrallanguage,beliefs and customs, led to the total disappearanceof theiroriginallegal customs";Columns 64-66: though the LithuanianTatarsspoke originallya Turkiclanguage, in the early Modem periodthey switched to Byelorussian,whereasby the mid-nineteenthcenturya partof them startedusing Polish and Russian (Shimelevich 1905:4, 7; Grishin 1995:73; Iskhakovet al. 1998:515). Grishin,Ja. Ja. 1995. Pol'sko-litovskietatary(NaslednikiZolotoj Ordy)(The Polish-Lithuanian Tatar.Heirs to the Golden Horde).Kazan'. Iskhakov,D. M., Ju. G. Muhametshin,S. V. Suslova, R. K. Urazmanova,and N. A. Halikov. 1998. Tatary.Narodyi religii mira.Entsiklopedija(Peoples andReligions of the World. Encyclopedia), ed. V.A. Tishkov, pp. 515-20. Moscow. Muhlinskij,A. 1902. Issledovanie o proishozhdeniii sostojaniilitovskih tatar(Researchon the Origins and the PresentDay Life of the LithuanianTatar).Odessa. Shimelevich, M. 1905. Litovskie tatary(Etnograficheskijocherk) (The LithuanianTatar [An EthnographicEssay]). Vil'na. Tuhan-Baranowski,M. 1896. O muslimachlitewskich(On the LithuanianMuslims). Warszawa. Ch24: Livs (Livians, Livonians, Liivod, Liibod, Liivnikad, Liivlist, Kalamied, Raandalist),with special referenceto NorthwestCourland.L: 57N, 23E. T: 1847. P. 2,074 in 1835; c. 3000 in 1860 (all). Cluster 124. New. Comment:Columns 25 and 26: cousin marriageswere prohibited;Column 30: however, since the mid-nineteenthcentury, separatedetached farmsteads startedto appearbeside multifarmsettlements; Column 40: however, sheepbreedingand pig-breedingwere also immensely important;Column 74: by the time of the observation,all the inhabitantsof all the 14 Liv villages were serfs of ethnicallyGermanlandowners;Livs were consideredto be their nonhereditary tenantsand did not have any legal ownershiprightswith respectto the landthey cultivated. 282 ETHNOLOGY Beitipa, L. 1995. The Livs of the River Gauja.Turaida. Hillner, W. 1847. Die Liven an der Nordkiistevon Kurland. Bulletin de la Classe historicophilologique de l'AcademieImperialede sciences de Saint Petersbourg3:201-6. Koppen,P. 1847. Die BewohnerKur-undLivlandsimAllgemeinenunddie Liven ins besondere. Bulletinde la Classehistorico-philologiquede l'AcademieImperialede sciences de Saint Petersbourg3:257-61. Sjogren,A. J. 1847. Reise nach Livlandund Kurlandzur GenauenUntersuchungder Reste der Liwen und Krewingen.Weimar. 1849. Zur EthnographieLivlands. Bulletin de la Classe historicophilologique de l'AcademieImperialede sciences de SaintPetersbourg7:1-26, 33-45, 49-70. 1855. Rapport de M. Sjogren sur son voyage. Bulletin de la Classe historicophilologique de 1'AcademieImperialede sciences de Saint Petersbourg10:268-72. Tolstov, S. P. (ed.). 1964. NarodyevropejskojchastiSSSR (Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Vol. 2. Moscow. Videman,F. I. 1870. Obzorprezhnejsud'byi nyneshnegosostojanijalivov (Review of the Past and the Presentof the Livs). St. Petersburg. Ch25: Moldovans (Moldoven, Moldavans,Moldavane),with special reference to the Beletskij Uezd. L: 47N, 29E. T: 1900. P. 921,000 in 1897 (within Bessarabia).Cluster 127. New. Comment. Column 13: abduction marriageswith a bride's consent (but secretly from her parents);Column 14: however, the presence of a significant numberof extendedfamilies (G, F andE) is also reported;Column28: extensive agriculture,however, was also practiced;Column29: cultivationof vegetables and fruit trees was also very important,and the importanceof non-food crop cultivation was increasing; Column 30: in the meantime, the number of independenthomesteadswas growing in the southernareas;Column 40: sheep and goats were more importantthancattle;Column75: with "e"becoming more and more importantat the end of the nineteenthcentury;Column 78: however, insistence on virginity was reportedfor the earlierperiod (Kantemir1973:156, writtenbetween 1714 and 1716); Columns85-89: this type of dwelling became more and more widespread since the last decades of the nineteenth century graduallypressing out the one describedin Columns 80-84. Aleksandrov, N. A. 1900. Stepi. Bessarabija. Moldavane (rumyny) (Steppes. Bessarabia. Moldovans [Rumanians]).Moscow. Kantemir,D. K. 1973. OpisanieMoldavii (Descriptionof Moldova). Kishinev. Karlov,V. V. 1990. Vvedenie v etnografijunarodovSSSR (Introductionto the Ethnographyof the Peoples of the USSR). Vol. 1. Moscow. Kozlova, K. I. 1982. Neslavjanskienarodyevropejskojchasti SSSR (Non-Slavic Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Etnografija(Ethnography),eds. Ju. V. Bromlejand G. E. Markov,pp. 244-56. Moscow. Pljusnin,P. 1899. Bessarabija.St. Petersburg. PEOPLESOF EASTERNMOSTEUROPE 283 Postolaki, E. A. 1987. Moldavskoe narodnoetkachestvo (XIX- nachalo XX v.) (Moldovan TraditionalWeaving [Nineteenthto EarlyTwentiethCentury]).Kishinev. Salmanovich, M. Ja. 1947. Zhilishche korennogo naselenija MSSR (Houses of the Native Populationof the MSSR [MoldovanSoviet Socialist Republic]). Sovetskajaetnografija 4:209-33. Semenov, V. P. (ed.). 1900. Rossija. Polnoe geograficheskoe opisanie nashego otechestva. Nastol'naja i dorozhnaja kniga dlja russkih ljudej (Russia: Complete Geographic Descriptionof Our Fatherland.Guide for the Russian People). Vol. 14. Novorossija i Krym(Novorussia and Crimea).St. Petersburg. Tolstov, S. P. (ed.). 1964. Narodyevropejskojchasti SSSR (Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Vol. 2. Moscow. Zashchuk, A. 0. 1859. Materialy dlja geografii i statistiki Rossii, sobrannye ofitserami general'nogoshtaba.Bessarabskajaoblast'.(Materialsfor Geographyand Statisticsof Russia Collected by the Officers of the General Staff. The Bessarabia Region.). Vol. I-II. St. Petersburg. Ch26:Udmurt(Utmort,Ukmort,Udmurty,Votiak,Votyak,Votjaki),with special referenceto those of the Sarapul'skijUezd. L: 57N, 53E. T: 1890. P. c. 48,000 in 1719; 420,000 in 1897; 504,000 in 1926 (all). Cluster 124. New. Comment.Columns 12 and 13: thoughthe bridewealth (B) was considered more importantculturally,in economic terms the amountof dowry (D) was so close to the one of the bridewealth,thatthe overallsituationapproachedG ("Gift exchange, i.e., reciprocalexchange of gifts of substantialvalue..."); in general, the overall patternwas ratherclose to the one describedabove for the Bashkirin commentsto Columns 12 and 13;abductionmarriageswere reportedeven forthe first years after the 1917 Revolution, they were more widespread in the nineteenthcentury(Rittih 1870:212;Kozlova 1964:114;Tolstov 1964:501) and, thus, Columns 12 and 13 could be coded alternativelyas "Go";Column 14: extended families (F and E) existed in the previous period; Column 18: matri/uxorilocalresidencewas practicedextremelyrare,mostly when a daughter was the only child in a family; in such cases a groom could move to his bride's house so thathis father-in-lawcould pass his farm(thatneeded a man to be run) to his son-in-law; Column 20: the patrilinealexogamy is accounted for by the presenceof actualexogamouspatrilinealgroupsin the previousperiod,for some Udmurtcommunitiesthe presence of exogamous patrilinealgroups is reported up to the earlytwentiethcentury(VladykinandHristoljubova1985:84); Column 28: extensive agriculture(E) was also practicedratherwidely, and it was even dominantamong some northerngroupsof the Udmurt;Column 30: variantH is also reported;Column31: settlementswith 101-200 inhabitantsconstituted29% of the total number,30.7%was constitutedby settlementswith 201-500 people, whereasthe percentageof small villages (<100) was also significant (32%; see Hristoljubova1981:33). In 1916 the overall mean settlement size in Udmurtia 284 ETHNOLOGY was 225 (Hristoljubova1981:23), whereaswithin the focal Sarapul'skijUezd it was 290 (Hristoljubova1981:20);Column34: C refersto the ChristianGod;with regardto the pagan beliefs, which survived up to a certain extent among the Udmurtup to the observationtime, theirhigh god, Inmar,shouldbe rathercoded as B; Column 41: note that milk and dairyproductsplayed a minor role in the traditionalUdmurt diet (Tolstov 1964:495); Column 42: the iron metallurgy disappearedamong the Udmurtin the seventeenthcenturyafterthe prohibition imposed by the imperialgovernmenton its practiceby the native peoples of the Volga-Urals region; Columns 75 and 77: the Udmurtinheritancedistribution normscan be also characterizedas a combinationof ultimo- andprimogeniture; Columns 85-89 referto the dwellings of richerfamilies (who could also live in two-storybuildings with brickbasement). Buch, M. 1882. Die Wotjaken.Eine ethnologischeStudien.Helsingfors. Busygin, E. P., andN. V. Zorin 1984. EtnografijanarodovSrednegoPovolzh'ja(Ethnographyof the Peoples of the Middle Volga Region). Part. 1. Kazan'. Dolganova, L. N., I. A. Morozov, and E. N. Minasenko. 1995. Igry i razvlechenijaudmurtov: istorija i sovremennost' (Games and Entertainmentsof the Udmurt: History and Modernity).Moscow. Fedjanovich,T. P. 1997. Semejnyeobychaii obrjadyfinno-ugorskihnarodovUralo-Povolzhja (konets XIX veka 1980- e gody) (Family Customs and Rituals of the Finno-Ugric Peoples of the Ural-Volga Region from the Late Nineteenth Centuryto the 1990s). Moscow. Haruzina,V. N. 1898. Votjaki. Moscow. Hristoljubova,L. S. (ed.). 1981. Sel'skieposelenijaUdmurtiiv XIX-XX vv (RuralSettlements of the Udmurtin the Nineteenthand TwentiethCenturies).Izhevsk. Ivanova, M. G. (ed.). 1999. Finno-ugry Povolzh'ja i Priural'jav srednie veka (Finno-Ugric Peoples of the Volga and Ural Region in the Middle Ages). Izhevsk. Karlov,V. V. 1990. Vvedenie v etnografijunarodovSSSR (Introductionto the Ethnographyof the Peoples of the USSR). Vol. 1. Moscow. Kozlova, K. I. 1964. EtnografijanarodovPovolzh'ja(Ethnographyofthe Volga Region Peoples). Moscow. 1982. Neslavjanskie narody evropejskoj chasti SSSR (Non-Slavic Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Etnografija(Ethnography),eds. Ju. V. Bromlejand G. E. Markov,pp. 244-56. Moscow. V. Majer, E. (ed.). 1985. Semejnyji obshchestvennyjbyt udmurtovv XVIII-XX vv. (FamilyLife and EverydayLife of the Udmurtin the Eighteenthto TwentiethCenturies).Ustinov. Maksimov,A. N. 1997a. Iz istorii sem'iu russkihinorodtsev(Fromthe Historyof Familyof the Non-Russian Peoples of Russia). Izbrannyetrudy (Selected Works), pp. 113-40. Moscow. 1997b. Ogranichenijaotnoshenijmezhduodnimiz suprugovi rodstvennikamidrugogo (The Limitationof ContactsbetweenOneof the Spousesandthe Relativesof the Other). Izbrannyetrudy(Selected Works),pp. 159-216. Moscow. PEOPLES OF EASTERNMOST EUROPE 285 Petruhin, V. Ja., and E. A. Helimskij. 1982. Finno-ugorskajamifologija (Finno-Ugric Mythology). Mify narodovmara.Entsiklopedija(Myths of the Peoples of the World. Encyclopedia). Vol. 2, ed. S. A. Tokarev,pp. 563-8. Moscow. ocherki(TheUdmurt.HistoricalPimenov,V. V. (ed.). 1993. Udmurty.Istoriko-etnograficheskie EthnographicEssays). Izhevsk. Rittih, A. F. 1870. Materialy dlja etnografiiRossii. Kazanskajagubernija(Materials for the Ethnographyof Russia. KazanskajaGuberia). Part.2. Kazan. Shkljaev, G. K. (ed.). 1992. Traditsionnoepovedenie i obshchenie udmurtov (Traditional Behavior and Communicationof the Udmurt).Izhevsk. Simchenko,Ju. B. (ed.). 1990. Udmurty.Moscow. Smimov, I. N. 1890. Votjaki (The Udmurt).Kazan'. Tolstov, S. P. (ed.). 1964. Narodyevropejskojchasti SSSR (Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Vol. 2. Moscow. Vasil'ev, I. 1902. Obersicht tiber die heidnischenGebriuche, Aberglaubenund Religion der Wotjakenin den GouvemementsWjatkaund Kasan.Helsingfors. Vereshchagin,G. E. 1886. Votjaki Sosnovskogo kraja(The Votiak of the Sosnovskij Kraj). St. Petersburg. 1889. Votjaki Sarapul'skogouezda Vjatskoj gubernii(The Votiak of the Sarapul'skij Uezd of ViatskajaGubernia).St. Petersburg. Vladykin, V. E., and L. S. Hristoljubova. 1984. Ocherki etnografii udmurtov (Essays on Ethnographyof the Udmurt).Izhevsk. 1985. Udmurty. Narody Povolzhja i Priural'ja.Istoriko-Etnograficheskieocherki (Peoples of the Volga and Ural Region), ed. R. G. Kuzeev, pp. 75-107. Moscow. 1997. Etnografijaudmurtov(Ethnographyof the Udmurt).Izhevsk. 1998.Udmurty. Narody i religii mira (Peoples and Religions of the World), ed. V. A. Tishkov, pp. 559-61. Moscow. Ch27: Veps (Vepsians, Chudy, Chukhari,Chuhari, Bepsya, Bepsja, Veps', Lyudinikad, Tyagalazhet, Tjagalazhet), with special reference to the PetrozavodskijUezd Veps. L: 61N, 35E. T: 1900. P. 25,284 in 1897; 32,773 in 1926 (all). Cluster 124. New. Comment. Column 13: abductionmarriage;however, it was rarelyattested before the 1917 Revolution, and much more frequentlyin the 1920s (Morev 1924:50-51; Borisova 1924:63-65); Column14:a numberof small (F) andlarge (E) extended families was also reported;Column 16: three to four weeks after marriage,a newlywed wife would returnto herparents'house and stay abouttwo weeks; Column 19: it was consideredthat a "good man" should find his wife within his own village or neighboringones, whereas "badmen"find theirwives "overthe hills", i.e. in distantplaces. A wife was normallyfoundwithin 3 - 6 km from the place where one lived, whereas a woman married to one who lived 15 km from her native village was considered to be married to a "faraway man" (Malinovskaya 1930:196-8); however, a strict endogamy within a village (or a cluster of neighboring villages) did not exist; Columns 25 and 26: cousin marriages were effectively prohibited by the Orthodox Church; Column 28: 286 ETHNOLOGY intensive agriculture(I) was dominant,but extensive agriculture(E) was also practiced;Column 36: post-partumsex taboos seem to have disappearedunder the Russian influence; Columns 51 and 59: however, nonspecialized boat buildingand fishing were also known;Column72: formerpresenceof slaveryis tentativelysuggestedby archaeologicaldata(Sedov 1987:57); Column78: "it is a rare16-year-oldgirl who has no sex with herboyfriend"(Semenov 1900:120); quite curiously the authorattributesthis to the influence of "the serfdom that existed here in the past"(Semenov 1900:120). Borisova, A. 1924. Vzaimootnoshenijapolov u chuharej(GenderRelations among the Veps). Staryj i novyj byt (Old and New Everyday Life Styles), ed. V. G. Bogoraz-Tan, pp. 59-79. Leningrad. Z. Etoeva, I. 1977. Poselenija i zhilishchavepsov kontsaXIX- nachalaXX v. (Settlementsand Homes of the Veps in the LateNineteenthand EarlyTwentiethCenturies).Etnografija narodov Vostochnoj Evropy (Ethnographyof the East EuropeanPeoples), ed. A. A. Shennikov,pp. 125-39. Leningrad. Kozlova, K. I. 1982. Neslavjanskienarodyevropejskojchasti SSSR (Non-Slavic Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Etnografija(Ethnography),eds. Ju. V. Bromlejand G. E. Markov,pp. 244-56. Moscow. Makar'ev,S. A. 1929. Vepsy. Karelo-Murmanskijkraj 1:6-10, 2:31-2, 11/12:38-42. 1932.Vepsy. Etnograficheskijocherk(The Veps: An EthnographicEssay). Leningrad. Malinovskaja, Z. P. 1930. Iz materialov po etnografii vepsov (From Materials on Veps Ethnography).Zapadno-finskijsbomik (West-Finnish Edited Volume), ed. V. V. Bartol'd,pp. 163-200. Leningrad. Morev, N. 1924. "Staroei novoe" (ocherk iz byta chuharej)("Old and New" [An Essay on EverydayLife of the Veps]). Staryji novyj byt (Old and New Styles of EverydayLife), ed. V. G. Bogoraz-Tan,pp. 45-57. Leningrad. Pimenov,V. V. 1965. Vepsy. Ocherketnicheskojistoriii genezisa kul'tury(The Veps: An Essay on Ethnic Culture,History and Origins).Moscow. 1998. Vepsy. Narodyi religii mira.Entsiklopedija(Peoples andReligionsofthe World), ed. V. A. Tishkov, pp. 124-5. Moscow. Ravdonikas, V. I. 1926. Chuhari (The Veps). Tihvinskij kraj. Kraevedsheskij sbomik po Tihvinskomuuezdu (Tihvinskijkraj. Local Studies Volume on the TihvinskijUezd), ed. V. I. Ravdonikas,pp. 242-61. Tihvin. Sedov, V. V. (ed.). 1987. Finno-ugryi balty v epohu srednevekov'ja(Finno-Ugric and Baltic Peoples in the Medieval Epoch). Moscow. Semenov, V. P. (ed.). 1900. Rossija. Polnoe geograficheskoe opisanie nashego otechestva. Nastol'naja i dorozhnaja kniga dlja russkih ljudej (Russia: Complete Geographic Descriptionof OurFatherland.TableRoadBook for RussianPeople). Vol. 3. Ozeraja oblast'. St. Petersburg. Tolstov, S. P. (ed.). 1964. Narodyevropejskojchasti SSSR (Peoples of the EuropeanPartof the USSR). Vol. 2. Moscow. Ushakov, N. V. 1990. Traditsionnoezhilishche finnojazyshnyhnarodovLeningradskojoblasti nachalav. (TraditionalHouses of the Finnish-SpeakingPeoples of the Leningradskaja Oblast' in the Early Twentieth Century). Sovremennoe finno-ugrovedenie. Opyt i PEOPLESOF EASTERNMOSTEUROPE 287 problemy(ContemporaryFinnish-UgricStudies:Experienceand Problems),ed. O. M. Fishman,pp. 1-19. Leningrad. Vinokurova,I. Ju. 1994. Kalendamyeobychai,obrjadyi prazdnikivepsov (konets XIX-nachalo XX v.) (CalendarCustoms,Rituals,andHolidaysof the Veps [LateNineteenthto Early TwentiethCentury]).St. Petersburg. 1996. Traditsionnye prazdniki vepsov Prionezhja (konets XIX- nachalo XX v.) (TraditionalHolidays of the Veps of Prionezhje[Late Nineteenth to Early Twentieth Century]).Petrozavodsk. Zajtseva,M. I. 1975. Terminyrodstvav vepsskomjazyke(KinshipTermsin the Veps Language). Uchjonye zapiski Tartuskogogosudaratvennogouniversiteta344:296-306. Ch28: Votes (Vod', Maavaitchi),with special referenceto those of the Yamburg Uezd. L: 59N, 29E. T: 1900. P. 5,148 in 1848; c. 1,000 in 1917 (all). Cluster124. New. Comment.Columns25 and26: cousin marriageswere effectively prohibited by the OrthodoxChurch-when a bride and groom came to a church for their wedding,the priestalways askedthem beforethe ceremonyif they were related, if the couple turned out to be cousins, their marriagewas refused (Uspenskij 1845:9-10); Column 28: extensive agriculturewas also practiced;Column 34: however, as Uspenskij (1845:8) notes, though "all the Votes are orthodox Christians,as they do not know Russian,let alone ChurchSlavonic, they do not understandat all the dogmas of the OrthodoxChurch,and most of them believe in pagansuperstitions,"whereasVote pagansdo not appearto have had a notion of the supremegod; Columns 85-89: the secondarytype of dwelling existed, but it differedfromthe primaryone by characteristicsnot reflectedin these columns. Jazykov,D. I. 1840. O finskih zhiteljahS. PeterburgskojGubemii (About the FinnishResidents of the St. PetersburgGubemia).Russkijistoricheskijsborik 1:300-25 (translationof Sj6gren 1833). Keppen, P. 1851. Vod' i votskajapjatina(The Votes and Votes' Region). Zhural ministerstva narodnogoprosveshchenija70:41-67, 100-46. i derev'jabudut,a nas ne budet??(The Votes: LandandTrees Kon'kova,0. 1996. Vod':<<Zemlja Will Be and We Will Not?). Rossijskajaprovintsija2:164-7. Sedov, V. V. (ed.). 1987. Finno-ugryi balty v epohu srednevekov'ja(Finno-Ugric and Baltic Peoples in the Medieval Epoch). Moscow. Semenov, V. P. (ed.). 1900. Rossija. Polnoe geograficheskoe opisanie nashego otechestva. Nastol'naja i dorozhnaja kniga dlja russkih ljudej (Russia: Complete Geographic Description of Our Fatherland.Guide for Russian People). Vol. 3. Ozemaja oblast'. St. Petersburg. Shlygina, N. V. 1998. Vod' (The Votes). Narody i religii mira. Entsiklopedija(Peoples and Religions of the World. Encyclopedia),ed. V. A. Tishkov, p. 126. Moscow. 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