Recommendations for Neuropathic Pain Treatment

V. Demarin et al.: 2008; 47:181-191 Acta Clin Croat Recommendations for neuropathic pain treatment Ad hoc Committee of the Croatian Society for Neurovascular Disorders, Croatian Medical Association RECOMMENDATIONS FOR NEUROPATHIC PAIN TREATMENT Vida Demarin1, Vanja Bašiæ-Kes1, Iris Zavoreo1, Marijana Bosnar-Puretiæ1, Krešimir Rotim2, Velimir Lupret2, Mladen Periæ3, Željko Ivanec3, Lidija Fumiæ3, Ivo Lušiæ4, Anka Aleksiæ-Shihabi5, Biserka Kovaè6, Mira Ivankoviæ7, Helena Škobiæ8, Boris Maslov9, Natan Bornstein10, Kurt Niederkorn11, Osman Sinanoviæ12, Tanja Rundek13 University Department of Neurology, Sestre milosrdnice University Hospital, Zagreb, Croatia University Department of Neurosurgery, Sestre milosrdnice University Hospital, Zagreb, Croatia 3 University Department of Anesthesiology, Sestre milosrdnice University Hospital, Zagreb, Croatia 4 University Department of Neurology, Split University Hospital Center, Split, Croatia 5 Šibenik General Hospital, Šibenik, Croatia 6 Vukovar General Hospital, Vukovar, Croatia 7 Dubrovnik General Hospital, Dubrovnik, Croatia 8 University Department of Neurology, Mostar University Hospital, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina 9 University Department of Psychiatry, Mostar University Hospital, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina 10 University Department of Neurology, Tel Aviv University Hospital, Tel Aviv, Izrael 11 University Department of Neurology, Graz University Hospital, Graz, Austria 12 University Department of Neurology, Tuzla University Hospital, Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina 13 Department of Neurology, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA 1 2 SUMMARY – Damage to the somatosensory nervous system poses a risk for the development of neuropathic pain. Such an injury to the nervous system results in a series of neurobiological events resulting in sensitization of both the peripheral and central nervous system. The symptoms include continuous background pain (often burning or crushing in nature) and spasmodic pain (shooting, stabbing or “electrical”). The diagnosis of neuropathic pain is based primarily on the history and physical examination finding. Although monotherapy is the ideal approach, rational polypharmacy is often pragmatically used. Several classes of drugs are moderately effective, but complete or near-complete relief is unlikely. Antidepressants and anticonvulsants are most commonly used. Opioid analgesics can provide some relief but are less effective than for nociceptive pain; adverse effects may prevent adequate analgesia. Topical drugs and a lidocaine-containing patch may be effective for peripheral syndromes. Sympathetic blockade is usually ineffective except for some patients with complex regional pain syndrome. Key words: Neuralgia – etiology; Neuralgia – physiopathology; Neuralgia – therapy; Pain – therapy; Guideline ; Practice – guideline The International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) defines neuropathic pain as “pain initiated or caused by a primary lesion or dysfunction of the peripheral or central nervous system”1. Damage to the somatosensory nervous system represents a risk for the de- velopment of neuropathic pain. The consequences of such an injury to the nervous system include a series of neurobiological events resulting in sensitization of both the peripheral and central nervous system. Acta Clin Croat, Vol. 47, No. 3, 2008 11 Demarin.p65 181 & 30. 11. 08, 18:32 V. Demarin et al.: Recommendations for neuropathic pain treatment The symptoms include continuous background pain (often burning, tight or crushing in nature) and spasmodic pain (shooting, stabbing or sometimes “electrical”). Recently, therapeutic strategies aiming at selecting treatments by targeting the putative mechanisms of pain (mechanisms based strategies) have been proposed, yet this approach remains difficult to apply in clinical practice due to heterogeneity of the etiologies, symptoms and signs1-3. Table 1. The most common causes of neuropathic pain 1. Metabolic: Diabetes mellitus Uremia Hypothyroidism Porphyria Amyloidosis Vitamin B deficiency 2. Toxic: Alcohol Chemotherapy agents, especially vincristine, cisplatin, taxanes Glue sniffing Gold Lead Mercury Other drugs including hydralazine, isoniazid, nitrofurantoin, pheny toin, thalidomide 3. Traumatic: Carpal tunnel syndrome Cervical or lumbar radiculopathy Complex regional pain syndrome Spinal cord injury Stump pain Amputation (phantom limb pain) 4. Infections Herpes zoster HIV Borreliosis Epstein Barr virus 6. Genetic: Fabry disease HMSN (hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy) 7. Vascular: Cerebrovascular disease (ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke) Vasculitis (cryoglobulinemia, lupus erythematosus, polyarteritis nodosa) 8. Carcinomatous: Paraneoplastic syndrome Compressive Infiltrative 9. Diverse: Syrinx Epilepsy ALS 10. Head and face neuralgia Trigeminal Glossopharyngeal Hypoglossal Any condition that damages neural tissue or impairs its function can be a source of neuropathic pain. Injury, inflammation, ischemia, metabolic derangement, toxins, tumor and primary neurological disease may lead to neuropathic pain4-8. Neuropathic pain that is associated with disorders such as diabetes mellitus and herpes zoster is most frequently described and studied. However, these disorders are certainly not the exclusive causes of neuropathic pain8-15. Radiculopathy, which may be an underlying cause in many cases involving lower back pain, is probably the most frequent peripheral nerve pain generator. The pathophysiology of neuropathic pain is very complex and includes both peripheral and central mechanisms (Table 1). Usually, a combination of peripheral and central mechanisms accounts for the clinical presentation of neuropathic pain. The mechanisms involved in causing different clinical phenomena of neuropathic pain include: 1) pathological activity in sensitized or awakened silent nociceptors; 2) ectopic activity along damaged axons and in dorsal root ganglion cells; 3) facilitated transmitter release due to upregulation of calcium channels; 4) central sensitization of dorsal horn neurons from increased afferent input; and 5) central sensitization from the loss of central inhibition/increased central facilitation. The complexity of neuropathic pain is emphasized by the fact that there is no known direct relationship between the mechanisms and symptoms or signs caused by such a mechanism8-12. The generator of pain can be located in the peripheral or central nervous system, or both. One of the characteristics of neuropathic pain is that pain continues in the absence of ongoing non-neurological tissue damage. It may be the result of damage or pathological changes in the nervous system, which are responsible for the peripheral and central mechanism of neuropathic pain. Clinical features Neuropathic pain can be stimulus-independent and stimulus-dependent. Stimulus-independent pain Stimulus-independent pain is spontaneous pain. Spontaneous pain (continuous or intermittent) is commonly described as burning, shooting or shock-like. Paresthesias and dysesthesias can originate peripherally via Acta Clin Croat, Vol. 47, No. 3, 2008 & 11 Demarin.p65 5. Immune: Guillain-Barre syndrome Multiple sclerosis Monoclonal gammopathies Eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome Etiology of neuropathic pain 182 30. 11. 08, 18:32 V. Demarin et al.: Recommendations for neuropathic pain treatment ectopic impulses along the Aβ, Aδ, and C fibers, arising as spontaneous activity due to the processes such as damaged sodium channels that accumulate along affected nerves, causing a drift towards threshold potential. Paroxysmal shooting or electrical pain as well as continuous burning pain most likely occur from ectopic or ephaptic discharges arising in any type of fiber. Stimulusindependent pain may also occur as the result of reduced inhibitory input from the brain or spinal cord4-8. Stimulus-evoked pain Stimulus-evoked pain includes allodynia (pain evoked by a non-painful touch) and hyperalgesia (increased pain evoked by a painful stimulus). Allodynia can be caused by the lightest stimulation such as skin contact with clothing. Hyperalgesia is an exaggerated pain response produced by a normally painful stimulus, while allodynia is pain produced by a stimulus that is not usually painful. An essential part of neuropathic pain is the loss (partial or complete) of afferent sensory function and the paradoxical presence of certain hyperphenomena in the painful area. In peripheral neuropathic pain, the sensory loss involves either all or selected sensory modalities. In central neuropathic pain, there is a partial or complete loss of spino-thalamo-cortical functions4-8. The distribution of sensory loss represents an important step for pain assessment and identification of the nervous system damage, and can be transferred to a phantom map. Combined with pain location, the distribution of sensory loss can determine whether this loss is confined to one or several nerves, to a group of fascicles, to nerve roots, to dermatomes, to the somatosensory map of damaged brain structures, or whether the sensory loss is part of a somatization disorder4. In neuropathic pain, the sensory loss is confined to the innervation territory corresponding to the damaged part of the nervous system, be it peripheral or central. Examples of neuropathic pain include diabetic neuropathy, trigeminal neuralgia, radiculopathies, phantom limb pain, and complex regional pain syndrome4-7,11. Neuropathic pain assessment The diagnosis of neuropathic pain is based primarily on the history and physical examination finding. A detailed history, physical examination and diagnostic procedures are necessary to properly and fully define the putative mechanisms involved in a given neuropathic pain syndrome. On physical examination, it is important to identify the location, quality, intensity and pattern of pain. Neurological examination uses simple bedside tests to assess the patient for the presence or absence of specific stimulus-evoked signs. Testing of reflexes, a comprehensive motor examination, and autonomic examination are all essential to the understanding of neuropathies. The motor, sensory and autonomic systems may be tested by electromyoneurography, microneurography, quantitative sensory testing, and quantitative sudomotor axon reflex test. Treatment Regardless of the cause, neuropathic pain affects multiple aspects of the patient’s life. The management of neuropathic pain involves a multidisciplinary approach. Therapy for neuropathic pain includes the use of both non-interventional (pharmacological, psychological and physical therapy) and interventional therapies15-30. Without due consideration of the diagnosis, rehabilitation and psychosocial issues, treatment has a limited chance of success. For peripheral nerve lesions, mobilization is needed to prevent trophic changes, disuse atrophy, and joint ankylosis. Surgery may be needed to alleviate compression. Psychological factors must be constantly considered from the start of treatment. Anxiety and depression must be treated appropriately. When dysfunction is entrenched, patients may benefit from the comprehensive approach provided by a pain clinic9-13. Pharmacotherapy The best clinical approach to applied pharmacology currently incorporates empiric observation and identification of the possible mechanisms of the neuropathic lesion31-55. Then the clinician should use the best pharmacological therapy available that matches the putative drug mechanisms. Although monotherapy is the ideal approach, rational polypharmacy is often pragmatically used. Several classes of drugs are moderately effective, but complete or near-complete relief is unlikely. Antidepressants and anticonvulsants are most commonly used. Evidence of efficacy is strong for several antidepressants and anticonvulsants31-55. Opioid analgesics can provide some relief but are less effective than for nociceptive pain; adverse effects may prevent adequate analgesia. Topical drugs and a lido- Acta Clin Croat, Vol. 47, No. 3, 2008 11 Demarin.p65 183 &! 30. 11. 08, 18:32 V. Demarin et al.: Recommendations for neuropathic pain treatment caine containing patch may be effective for peripheral syndromes. Sympathetic blockade is usually ineffective except for some patients with complex regional pain syndrome9,10,56-89. suicide. They can cause cognitive impairment and gait disturbances in elderly patients. SSNRIs (duloxetine, venlafaxine) are safer to use than TCAs and are a better option in patients with cardiac disease15,16,31-35. ANTIDEPRESSANTS ANTICONVULSANTS Antidepressants have a well-established beneficial effect in various neuropathic pain states. Antidepressants used in neuropathic pain treatment include tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and selective serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SSNRIs) (duloxetine and venlafaxine), while the effect of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) is lower15,16. TCAs have been widely used to treat various types of neuropathic pain including central post-stroke pain, post-herpetic neuralgia, painful diabetic and nondiabetic polyneuropathy, but not spinal cord injury pain, phantom limb pain, or pain in HIV-neuropathy15,66. Antihyperalgesic effects of tricyclic antidepressants may be related to enhancement of the noradrenergic descending inhibitory pathways and partial sodium channel blockade, the mechanisms that are independent of their antidepressant effects16. Starting doses of TCAs should be low and dosage should be titrated slowly until pain is adequately controlled or side effects limit continued titration. Some of the third generation antidepressants, especially venlafaxine and duloxetine, have shown comparable efficacy to TCAs, but with a better side effect profile. Duloxetine is an SSNRI that inhibits the reuptake of both serotonin and norepinephrine. It has demonstrated significantly greater pain relief compared with placebo in few trials in patients with diabetic polyneuropathy. The optimal dosage of duloxetine is 60 mg/day33. Venlafaxine is an SSNRI that inhibits serotonin reuptake at lower dosages and both serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake at higher dosages. The efficacy dosage of venlafaxine is 150-225 mg/day. Two-to-four weeks are often required to titrate to an effective dosage31,32,51. The anticonvulsant compounds are some of the best-studied drugs for neuropathic pain, and there is substantial evidence for their efficacy based on metaanalyses and randomized clinical trials17,19. They have several pharmacological actions that can interfere with the processes involved in neuronal hyperexcitability, either by decreasing excitatory or increasing inhibitory transmission, thereby exerting a net neuronal depressant effect. Perhaps the most extensively studied agent is pregabalin, which has shown, in a large number of multicenter clinical studies, clear efficacy in reducing pain and improving sleep in patients with postherpetic neuralgia and diabetic polyneuropathy. The effective dosage is 300-600 mg/day, administered in two to three divided doses. Improvement can be seen within days49,50,52,53,77,78. Pregabalin is believed to exert its analgesic effect by binding to the α2 delta subunit of voltage-gated calcium channels on primary afferent nerves and reducing the release of neurotransmitters from their central terminals. Multicenter clinical trials have shown the efficacy of gabapentin at a dosage of 900-3600 mg/day in the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia and diabetic polyneuropathy. Gabapentin is a GABA receptor agonist. The ability of the drug to block L-type voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels is the probable reason for its antiepileptic and analgesic properties17,46-48,71,75,76. Gabapentin has also shown efficacy in other forms of neuropathic pain such as HIV-associated painful polyneuropathy, pain in Guillain-Barre syndrome, phantom limb pain, cancer-related neuropathic pain, but only on the basis of single or limited numbers of studies. The most common side effects of gabapentin and pregabalin include dizziness, somnolence, peripheral edema and dry mouth. There is also evidence for the efficacy of topiramate, lamotrigine, carbamazepine and oxcarbamazepine in the treatment of different neuropathic pain conditions41,42. Carbamazepine and perhaps oxcarbamazepine are used as first-line therapy for trigeminal neuralgia. Both Side effects of TCAs TCAs have many side effects which include dry mouth, constipation, sweating, dizziness, disturbed vision, drowsiness, palpitation, orthostatic hypotension, sedation and urinary hesitation38,54,70,73,74. An electrocardiogram is mandatory before the initiation of treatment. TCAs should be used with caution in patients at risk of Acta Clin Croat, Vol. 47, No. 3, 2008 &" 11 Demarin.p65 184 30. 11. 08, 18:32 V. Demarin et al.: Recommendations for neuropathic pain treatment drugs should be initiated at low dosages and slowly increased up to the efficacy or side effects. The effective dosages of carbamazepine are in the range of 200-1200 mg/day and of oxcarbamazepine 600-1800 mg/day18. Side effects of anticonvulsants The most common side effects of anticonvulsants include sedation, dizziness and gait abnormalities. Liver enzymes, blood cells, platelets and sodium levels must be monitored for at least one year because of the possible risk of hepatitis-anaplastic effects or hyponatremia39-51. Lamotrigine is generally well tolerated. Side effects include dizziness, nausea, headache and fatigue40,43-45,63. OPIOIDS Opioids may be useful, especially in acute stage, but their use for chronic pain management remains somewhat controversial55-61,90-96. Opioids inhibit pain transmission mainly via presynaptic and postsynaptic receptors in the dorsal horn. Although neuropathic pain does not respond reliably to opioids, randomized trials have shown an effect of opioids (oxycodone, morphine and methadone) in painful polyneuropathy, postherpetic neuralgia, phantom limb pain, and mixed neuropathic pain. Opioid analgesics and tramadol have shown efficacy in many trials in patients with different kinds of neuropathic pains, and when patients do not have good response to first-line medications, opioid agonists can be used as a second-line treatment alone or in combination with the first-line medications. In some specific cases, opioid analgesics and tramadol can be used as first-line medications. Circumstances in which opioid analgesics and tramadol can be used as first-line medications are during titration of a first-line medication to an efficacious dosage, episodic exacerbation of severe pain, acute neuropathic pain, and neuropathic cancer pain. Opioids exert their analgesic effect through at least four groups of receptors. The distribution of these receptors throughout the body, along with their tissue densities within numerous organ systems, accounts for the global and varied effects of these drugs55-60. Opioids are available in a variety of preparations. In addition to common ways of administration, they may be given transdermally (fentanyl or buprenorphin patch), transmucosally (fentanyl oral) and intraspinally83,88-91. Side effects Opioids have many side effects including constipation, sedation, nausea, dizziness and vomiting. In elderly patients, opioids can cause cognitive impairment and gait disturbances. Physical dependence develops in all patients chronically treated with opioid analgesics, and patients must be advised that they should not discontinue these medications on their own. Tramadol Tramadol is a weak µ-opioid agonist and a mixed serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. Tramadol at an average dose of around 200 mg/day for 6 weeks was shown to produce a statistically significant reduction in the mean pain intensity in patients with painful diabetic neuropathy compared with those receiving placebo87,88. Topical treatments Lidocaine patches are increasingly used in the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia and focal peripheral neuropathic pain. Side effects of lidocaine are mild skin reactions (erythema and localized rash). Lidocaine patch 5% should be avoided in patients receiving antiarrhythmic medications and in patients with severe hepatic dysfunction80-85. Topically applied capscain has shown significant effect in diabetic neuropathy and postherpetic neuralgia. Non-pharmacological treatment for neuropathic pain ACUPUNCTURE Acupuncture is a complementary and alternative medical modality. Since 1998, a considerable number of acupuncture studies have been reported. It has been integrated into palliative care medicine. Most of controlled clinical trials (23/27) have shown results favoring acupuncture use for the conditions such as headache or pain. They also have shown that acupuncture is safe and clinically cost-effective for the management of common symptoms in palliative care and hospice patients. There is a risk of skin irritation or an allergic reaction from the application of needles to the skin, but these problems are relatively rare and easily managed by shifting the needle position. There are not yet enough evidence-based treatment recommendations20-22,65. Acta Clin Croat, Vol. 47, No. 3, 2008 11 Demarin.p65 185 &# 30. 11. 08, 18:32 V. Demarin et al.: Recommendations for neuropathic pain treatment TRANSCUTANEOUS ELECTRICAL NERVE STIMULATION (TENS) TENS seems to be better than placebo in the treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy23-26. OTHER Laser therapy, mechanotherapy (massage), electrotherapy (galvanization, iontophoresis), ultrasound therapy, thermotherapy (cold and warm), hydro/balneotherapy, and behavioral therapy (relaxation, biofeedback) have been reported. As yet, there are no evidence based treatment recommendations due to the lack of controlled studies in this field. Painful Polyneuropathy According to many guidelines, established efficacy in painful polyneuropathy (PPN) has been reported for tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), duloxetine, venlafaxine, gabapentin (GBP), pregabalin, opioids and tramadol9,12,15. The best approach is to start therapy with TCA or GBP/pregabalin. The serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) duloxetine and venlafaxine are considered second choice because of moderate efficacy, but are safer and have less contraindications than TCAs and should be preferred to TCA, particularly in patients with cardiovascular risk factors9,15. Second/thirdline therapy includes opioids and lamotrigine (LTG)15. Treatments with weaker/lack of efficacy include capsaicin, topical lidocaine, mexiletine, oxcarbazepine (OXC), selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and topiramate35,62. HIV-associated neuropathy and chemotherapy-induced neuropathy HIV-associated polyneuropathy has been found refractory to most currently assessed drugs. This may be due to the particular mechanisms of pain in this often progressive condition and/or to a high placebo response, observed in many trials62-69. Postherpetic Neuralgia In postherpetic neuralgia (PHN), drugs with established efficacy include TCAs, GBP, pregabalin, topical lidocaine and opioids. Less effective drugs are capsaicin, tramadol and valproate79-82,84-87. Many guidelines Table 2. Classification of evidence for the main categories of neuropathic pain drug treatment* Pain condition Recommendations for first line Gabapentin (1200-3600 mg/day) Pregabalin (150-600 mg/day) Opioids SNRI(venlafaxine:150-225 mg/day; duloxetine: 60-120mg/day) TCA (amitriptyline: 10-60 mg/day) Gabapentin (1200-3600 mg/day) Pregabalin (150-600 mg/day) 5% Lidocaine patches TCA CBZ (200-1200 mg/day) OXC (600-1800 mg/day) TCA (amitriptyline: 10-60 mg/day) Gabapentin up to 3600 mg/day Pregabalin up to 460 mg/day PPN PHN TN CP Recommendations for second or third line Lamotrigine Opioids SNRI Tramadol (275-400 mg/day) Capsaicin Opioids Tramadol Valproate Surgery Cannabinoids Lamotrigine Opioids *Modified according to EFNS Guidelines on Pharmacological Treatment of Neuropathic Pain 2006 PPN = painful polyneuropathies; PHN = postherpetic neuralgia; TN = trigeminal neuralgia; CP = central pain Acta Clin Croat, Vol. 47, No. 3, 2008 &$ 11 Demarin.p65 186 30. 11. 08, 18:32 V. Demarin et al.: Recommendations for neuropathic pain treatment recommend TCAs, GBP/pregabalin and lidocaine patches as first-line therapy. Opioids are second choice although they are very effective in treating PHN92-94. Topical capsaicin may also provide relief, although it is often poorly tolerated. Owing to excellent tolerability, topical lidocaine may be preferred in the elderly, particularly in patients with allodynia and small area of pain. Intrathecal corticosteroid injection can be considered for patients that continue to have intractable pain despite the above measures. These injections do not work for trigeminal nerve-related pain. The effectiveness of therapies such as TENS and acupuncture has not been proven. Trigeminal Neuralgia The most widely used drug in idiopathic trigeminal neuralgia (TN) is CBZ (200 to 1200 mg/day). The drug is highly effective and side effects are generally manageable, particularly if low doses are prescribed initially with gradual titration. Patients with symptoms that are refractory to CBZ monotherapy may benefit from combination therapy with gabapentin, lamotrigine, topiramate, baclofen or tizanidine95,96,102-111. Patients with TN that are unresponsive or suffer intolerable adverse effects with medical therapy are candidates for surgery. The two major types of procedures are microvascular decompression and ablative procedures such as radiofrequency rhizotomy and gamma knife. Ablative procedures are less invasive and are generally associated with a high initial response rate, but recurrence is common and the incidence of facial numbness is higher than with microvascular decompression109. Central Pain Considering the small number of randomized controlled trials in central pain and the generally small sample sizes, the treatment may be based on the general principles for peripheral neuropathic pain treatment and for side effect profile. 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BMJ 2007;334:201-8. 110. FROMM GH, AUMENTADO D, TERRENCE CF. A clinical and experimental investigation of the effects of tizanidine in trigeminal neuralgia. Pain 1993;53:265-71. 111. NURMIKKO TJ, ELDRIDGE PR. Trigeminal neuralgia – pathophysiology, diagnosis and current treatment. Br J Anaesth 2001;87:117-32. 112. BOIVIE J. Central pain. In: MacMAHON SB, KOLTZENBURG M, eds. Wall and Melzack’s textbook of pain. Oxford: Churchill Livingstone – Elsevier, 2005:1057-75. 113. ATTAL N, BOUHASSIRA D. Central neuropathic pain. In: PAPPAGALLO M, ed. The neurological basis of pain. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005:301-19. 114. LEIJON G, BOIVIE J. Central post-stroke pain – a controlled trial of amitriptyline and carbamazepine. Pain 1989;36:27– 36. 115. CARDENAS DD, WARMS CA, TURNER JA. Efficacy of amitriptyline for relief of pain in spinal cord injury: results of a randomized controlled trial. Pain 2002;96:365-73. 98. JENSEN TS. Anticonvulsants in neuropathic pain: rationale and clinical evidence. Eur J Pain 2002;6(Suppl A):61-8. 116. VESTERGAARD K, ANDERSEN G, GOTTRUP H. Lamotrigine for central poststroke pain: a randomized controlled trial. Neurology 2001;56:184-90. 99. KUTLUAY E, McCAGUE K, D’SOUZA J. Safety and tolerability of oxcarbazepine in elderly patients with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behavior 2003;4:175-80. 117. FINNERUP NB, SINDRUP SH, BACH FW. Lamotrigine in spinal cord injury pain: a randomized controlled trial. Pain 2002;96:375-83. Acta Clin Croat, Vol. 47, No. 3, 2008 ' 11 Demarin.p65 190 30. 11. 08, 18:33 V. Demarin et al.: Recommendations for neuropathic pain treatment 118. LEVENDOGLU F, OGUN CO, OZERBIL O. Gabapentin is a first line drug for the treatment of neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury. Spine 2004;29:743-51. 119. DREWES AM, ANDREASEN A, POULSEN LH. Valproate for treatment of chronic central pain after spinal cord injury.A double-blind cross-over study. Paraplegia 1994;32:565-9. 120. CHIOU-TAN FY, TUEL SM, JOHNSON JC. Effect of mexiletine on spinal cord injury dysesthetic pain. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1996;75:84-7. 121. SVENDSEN KB, JENSEN TS, BACH FW. The cannabinoid dronabinol reduces central pain in multiple sclerosis. A randomised double-blind placebo controlled cross-over trial. BMJ 2004;329:253-61. 122. ROG DJ, NURMIKKO TJ, FRIEDE T. Randomized, controlled trial of cannabis-based medicine in central pain in multiple sclerosis. Neurology 2005;65:812-9. Sažetak Ošteæenje somatosenzornog sustava predstavlja rizik za nastanak neuropatske boli. Rezultat takvog ošteæenja su promjene koje dovode do senzitizacije perifernog i središnjeg živèanog sustava. Simptomi ukljuèuju kontinuiranu bol (koja se opisuje kao žareæa, paleæa) ili sporadiènu bol (najèešæe se opisuje kao probadajuæa, trgajuæa, poput strujnog udara). Dijagnoza se temelji na anamnezi i nalazu fizikalnog pregleda. Prvu liniju u lijeèenju neuropatske boli predstavljaju antidepresivi i antiepileptici. Opioidi ponekad mogu dovesti do analgezije, iako puno slabije nego kod nociceptivne boli. Širu uporabu sprjeèavaju nuspojave. U perifernim bolnim sindromima uèinkovitim su se pokazali flasteri lidokaina. Simpatièki blokovi su uglavnom neuèinkoviti osim u sluèaju kompleksnog regionalnog bolnog sindroma. Kljuène rijeèi: Neuralgija – etiologija; Neuralgija – fiziopatologija; Neuralgija – terapija; Bol – terapija; Smjernice; Praksa – smjernice Acta Clin Croat, Vol. 47, No. 3, 2008 11 Demarin.p65 191 ' 30. 11. 08, 18:33 V. Demarin et al.: Recommendations for neuropathic pain treatment Acta Clin Croat, Vol. 47, No. 3, 2008 ' 11 Demarin.p65 192 30. 11. 08, 18:33