Athletic Insight (2012)
Volume 4, Number 1 pp.
ISSN: 1947-6299
© 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL COMPONENTS OF ELITE
CYCLING#
Timothy Baghurst*
Department of Health, Physical Education,
Recreation and Athletic Training
Henderson State University, Arkadelphia, AR 71999
ABSTRACT
Current expertise theory suggests that while variables such as genetics and
environmental factors are likely to play a role in the development of an expert, other
mediators such as deliberate practice and an adaptation to task constraints lead to
expertise. However, empirical research describing the underlying mechanisms
responsible for expertise in sport is limited. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to
gain an understanding of the psychological components of elite cycling. Five cyclists (4
male, 1 female) from the British national and junior cycling squads were interviewed to
determine expertise from a psychological perspective. Interviews revealed that both
deliberate physiological training and overcoming psychological obstacles were of
particular importance. Specifically, the interpretation of anxiety and pain as being
debilitative or facilitative as well as social support concerns were found to effect
performance. Implications for expertise development and future psychological
intervention protocols in cycling are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
The usefulness of investigating the nature and function of expertise has been well
documented (Proctor, 1995). Its worth is derived from being able to determine what separates
elite from novice, what segregates great from good, and what distinguishes outstanding from
normal. Investigation into expertise typically proceeds in three steps (Ericsson & Smith,
1991). The first step is to identify characteristics of elite athletes or their performances which
distinguish them from others within that sporting domain. This is often accomplished by
testing both elite and novice athletes in a controlled condition. The second step involves
conducting a thorough analysis of the expert’s performance in an attempt to determine the
#
*
Note: This research was conducted at the Bangor University, Wales.
Direct correspondence to: Timothy Baghurst, Department of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Athletic
Training, Wells 210, Henderson State University, Arkadelphia, AR 71999. E-mail: tbaghurst@live.com.
Phone: (870) 230 5140.
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Timothy Baghurst
nature of the cognitive processes involved. This is generally undertaken by comparing elite
and novice performers’ cognition in relation to a task or set of tasks that determine superior
performance. The third and final step requires developing an account of the expert’s processes
and knowledge structures. This account should provide an insight into the performer’s
understandings, thoughts, and practices that enable him or her to function as an expert.
According to Abernethy (1993), the knowledge generated from expertise research has an
immediate relevance to coaches, sport and exercise scientists, and the practitioners concerned
with testing, training, and identifying of potential elite performers. Thus, the aim of this study
was to investigate the third step of the strategy suggested by Ericsson and Smith (1991) in
order to develop an understanding of psychological functioning of elite cyclists.Expert in this
study was defined as 10 years of deliberate practice (Ericsson, Krampe, andTesch-Römer,
1993), and an assumption was made that having an elite status in a sport was associated with
expertise.Thus, the aim was to compile and mapelite performers’ thought processes in order
to provide a potential method for the acceleration of skill acquisition in the non-elite
performer.
QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE METHODOLOGIES
Qualitative research holds an advantage over quantitative research when investigating
individuals through its use of a more “human” approach (Reason and Rowan, 1981).While
quantitative results may provide substantial evidence for a particular aspect, humans are
complex and multiple interpretations might be derived from the information provided by an
individual (Pidgeon, 1996).In addition, a qualitative approach allows for the discovery of new
theories and ideas.This is seen as equally important because, if previous theory has been
developed through a positivist approach, then there is the likelihood that knowledge has been
distorted in some way leading to “false” theories and conclusions (Kuhn, 1962).
Although quantitative research plays a significant role within scientific research, methods
must be chosen according to the purpose of the investigation (Bryman, 1988).Therefore, in
consideration of the aim of this investigation, open-ended interviews, a qualitative measure,
was employed in the present study.
Interviews were based on the premises of grounded theory, but did not strictly adhere to
grounded theory structure. Glaser and Strauss (1967) developed grounded theory for the
purpose of generating theories that are derived from a sound setting and grounded in or
generated by qualitative research.Although grounded theory may be applicable in the
acquisition of new information, Reissman (1993) suggests that in order for the researcher to
dissect the information given, some form of theoretical backing must be in place in order to
interpret the results.Glaser and Strauss (1967) recommend that, “the researcher does not
approach reality as “tabula rasa” or blank sheet” (p. 3).However, these recommendations
question whether grounded theory can be used to develop new theory when it relies on
previous theory in the first place.Pidgeon and Henwood (1997) answer this question
succinctly:
The resolution of this conundrum is to recognise that it makes no sense to claim that
research can proceed either from testing theory alone, or from a pure, inductive analysis
of data ….the value of grounded theory approach is that it suggests a set of procedures
The Psychological Components Ofelite Cycling
3
which facilitate the operation of subjectivity (and in particular the researcher’s
interpretation and creativity) in the process of qualitative data analysis. (p. 255)
Thus, grounded theory should be used as a means of constantly comparing what previous
research suggests and what emerges from the data to develop new theory in a ‘flip-flop’
design (Eccles, Walsh, andIngledew, 2002).
Within the framework of this studyand based on Reissman’s (1993) recommendations,
prior to data collection some understanding of expertise research and its fundamental basis
was investigated.Expertise has been studied in many forms; however, a summation of
previous research may be found in the conclusions of Ericsson and Lehmann’s (1996) study
which suggests that experts are more likely to adapt to the constraints of the task.Although
previous research has revealed many factors that are relevant to elite performance acquisition
in many sports, little research has investigated the underlying mechanisms responsible for
expertise in sport (Shea andPaull, 1996).
With specific reference to cycling, the psychological nature and demands of the sport are
not well known. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the psychological
cognitions and actions of elite cyclists through semi-structured interviews. Essentially, the
aim was to determine what elite cyclists think immediately prior to and during a competitive
race.The mapping of this information can be utilized in the development of less experienced
cyclists by accelerating skill acquisition within the sport.
METHOD
Participants
Participants werefivecyclists from the British national and junior cycling squads (see
Table 1); this participant size was not chosen prior to data collection, but was limited by
participant access; however, data saturation was achieved. Each had completed a minimum of
ten years deliberate practice as recommended by Ericsson and colleagues (1993).
As this was the first investigation of its type to explore the psychological components of
cycling, the rationale for choosing elite athletes was to obtain data that could be extrapolated
across elite cycling and further be applied to more novice cyclists.Also, expert, experienced
cyclists would be able to more accurately describe and recount detail. The aimwas to employ
purpose sampling for more informationrich cases of study (Lincoln andGuba, 1985).
Table 1. Participants’ Demographics
Cyclist Name
Age
Gender
Specialty
Years Experience
Jason
Heather
Brian
Liam
Asa
24
20
22
20
23
M
F
M
M
M
Road Racing
Time Trials
Time Trials
Road Racing
Road Racing
12
10
11
10
12
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Timothy Baghurst
Procedures
Following university IRB approval, cyclists were contacted to request an interview. As
cyclists 1 and 5 were known to the researcher, they were initially contacted via phone.Both
agreed to be interviewed and times were arranged.For the remaining three cyclists, their
coach was contacted via phone and with his assistance interviews were arranged while they
attended a training camp.
Each participant was asked to sign a consent form before being interviewed. All
interviews lasted between 40 and 50 minutes and were conducted within a two month period
either face-to-face (n = 4) or via phone (n = 1).The phone interview was necessary due to the
location of the athlete at the time of interview which is a limitation, as the interviewer did not
have the opportunity to pilot a phone interview. A micro cassette recorder was used to record
all interviews in their entirety. All interviews were transcribed verbatim using a Sanyo memoscriber.Transcripts were sent to the respective athletes for confirmation and for the allowance
of possible follow-up questions and elaboration of statements/context by the athletes. No
adjustments were made by the athletes.
Interview Guide
The interview guide (Patton, 1990) was designed to allow for open-ended questions with
elaboration probes.This guide was designed from a pilot study undertaken with one male 23
year old semi-professional cyclist (Category 1-2; 1 is elite, 5 is beginner).During the pilot
interview, the cyclist was asked to re-tell a recent race in as much detail as possible from
which further elaboration probes were made.From this interview a general interview guide
was developed which included elaboration probes that could be employed in a generic sense
such as: “You mentioned … Can you tell me in a little more detail what happened?”Further
questions were organically derived whereby analysis of an interview allowed for the
development of new questions and the next step of the data collection process. However, the
overall structure of all interviews was based on the athlete describing a recent race in
chronological order from several hours before it began to several hours after it finished.
The open-ended questions were designed to acquire as much information as possible.For
example, the typical request that the researcher asked the cyclist at the beginning of the
interview followed in this format:
I would like you to go back to a recent race and tell me in as much detail as you can
everything that happened in the race.Maybe start a couple of hours before on the way to
the race and just tell me as much as you can about what happened, what you thought
about etcetera, etcetera.Okay?
Thus, the aim was to employ open-ended questions to generate an overall picture which
would allow for further probing.For example, one cyclist mentioned his father several times
in his description of the race.Noting this allowed for further questioning.“Okay, something
that you mentioned several times was your dad.How much does he influence what you do?”
The Psychological Components Ofelite Cycling
5
Data Reliability and Analysis
Critics of qualitative data collection questionits credibility and trustworthiness (Jackson,
1996).Trustworthiness, according to Lincoln and Guba (1985), is when the researcher must
demonstrate to him or herself as well as the audience that the findings of the study are worth
consideration.They suggest that the terms credibility, transferability, dependability and
conformability are the equivalent of the terms, internal validity, external validity, reliability,
and objectivity.Credibility comes from those who took part in the study agreeing to what has
been found.Transferability is only proven or disproved based on the results of future
studies.However, it is the responsibility of the researcher to provide sufficient information
about the conditions and context in which the study took place to allow the reader to make an
informed choice as to whether the information provided is relevant to his or her
situation.While it is not possible to replicate any one study exactly, dependability assesses
whether the enquiry was conducted appropriately and in a methodologically sound
manner.Finally, conformability examines the extent to which the data and its subsequent
interpretations have been influenced by the researcher.Essentially, the goal is to demonstrate
that the conclusions from the data are derived from the data (Jackson).
In order to increase the quality and trustworthiness of the research (Lincoln andGuba,
1985; Patton, 1990) three strategies were used in the present study comprising of, (1) the use
of stringent techniques for gathering and analysing data while observing the issues of
reliability, triangulation and validity, (2) the credibility of the researcher, and (3) an
appreciation of qualitative methods and holistic thinking.Each of the three strategies is
discussed and includes the procedures employed in this investigation to enhance
trustworthiness in the present study.
For the first strategy (1), several techniques were employed including a reflexive journal,
negative case analysis, triangulation, and an audit checkto ensure credibility, transferability,
dependability, and confirmability of the data. A reflexive journal is aimed at maintaining
stringent techniques, credibility, and qualitative methods by ensuring that the investigator
keeps a diary in which he or she records information concerning self and method (Lincoln
andGuba, 1985).In this way, decisions regarding method and analysis and the reasons behind
each decision can be recorded. As recommended by Lincoln and Guba, the primary
researcher kept a journal that consisted of three parts. Part one contained a daily schedule
detailing logistics, part two contained personal reflection and insight, and part three contained
a methodological log where methodological decisions and their rationale were recorded.
Negative case analysis can be used as a means of testing for alternative paradigms
(Jackson, 1996).This form of analysis involves searching for anything that does not conform
to the conclusions and patterns already discovered.Kidder (1981) suggests that negative case
analysis is to qualitative research as statistical analysis is to quantitative research. While true
negative analysis involves the revision of a hypothesis until all known cases are considered
and outliers eliminated (Lincoln andGuba, 1985), there is a fear of eliminating what could be
important and potentially interesting data.Thus, this study employed the use of negative case
analysis, but did not eliminate outliers.
Triangulation is often employed as a credibility check (Jackson, 1996) and can occur
through employing a variety of data sources, employing multiple methods to study a single
problem, using multiple perspectives to interpret each piece of data, and employing more than
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Timothy Baghurst
one researcher (Patton, 1990). Triangulation occurred in the present study through the use of
multiple methods of analysis and the employment of more than one researcher.
The purpose of an audit check is to obtain an outside perspective of the dependability and
credibility of the study (Lincoln andGuba, 1895). In this particular case, 30 participant
quotations (25% of the total number) were given to an independent expert in qualitative
research methods, experienced in research, and who also possessed a background in
endurance sports. These quotations had already been assigned to one of five concepts
identified by the primary researcher. The independent expert was asked to match each
quotation to one of the five possible category concepts to determine interrater reliability.
Analysis using Cohen’s kappa between the primary researcher and the expert resulted in a
score of .91.
The credibility of the researcher is the second strategy (2) used to enhance that the quality
and trustworthiness of the research.As the researcher is essentially the instrument of the
qualitative research, a qualitative study should include information concerning the researcher
(Patton, 1990).All personnel who have been involved in the data collection and evaluation of
the research should be recorded within the study.The primary method of ensuring that this
took place was the inclusion of a reflexive journal.
In addressing the third strategy (3), the researcher must consider the individual/topic
under study as a complex system that is more than the sum of its parts (Patton, 1990).Caution
must also be taken to ensure that the researcher is aware of the questions what and why to the
extent that they are able to explain to other researchers the study’s value both from a holistic
perspective as well as a more detailed view.In the present study, the researcher attempted to
maintain a holistic approach to the data, but was aware that specific topics may need a more
reductionistic approach. The purpose of including Patton’s interpretive research paradigm
was to provide support for the methods of investigation that were used in this study.
The primary researcher transcribed all interviews, which allowed for a general
familiarisation of the transcribed interviews and verbal inflections of the participants’
responses. An awareness of verbal inflections assisted in determining whether a comment was
intended as sarcasm, for example. Following confirmation from each athlete, interviews were
fully coded and managed using QSR NUD*IST computer software.This reduces thechance of
information loss and produces an audit trail thereby increasing validity (Pigeon,
1996).Initially, the primary researcher printed out each statement and aligned similar
participant statements together.From this alignment, five core concepts emerged. The
direction and influence of each concept with each other was ascertained from statements
made by the participants that linked the concepts to each other.This provided an overall map
of the psychological components of participants’ competitive experiences with supporting
statements.
RESULTS
The premise of this study was to develop an understanding of the psychological
components of elite cycling.This task was undertaken through the use of semi-structured
interviews to develop an overall analysis of expert thinking.The analysis revealed a number of
concepts pertaining to the psychological perspectives of cyclists.The properties of each
The Psychological Components Ofelite Cycling
7
concept and their links to other concepts are explained in terms of their influence on one
another and the direction of that influence (Figure 1).
Figure 1.The psychological perspectives of cyclists immediately prior to and during a
race.
Prominence was determined by a combination of the number of participants who
referenced the concept in addition to how frequently that concept was referenced. Pathways
refer to the direction of influence shown, but not the importance of the link.Each concept is
explained and then supported by athlete quotes.Unless otherwise stated, all cyclists provided
evidence for the concept.
Training
Training, within the area of cycling is seen to be paramount.Its central placement within
the map indicates its prominence within the cyclists’ thinking.For example, Heather
mentioned how she would, “... be doing my absolute best and I've done everything possible to
get the best out of me so if I hadn't have prepared then it would be a shadow of what I can
actually do…” (Heather).“The more you train, the more confident you are going into a
race.Therefore, I take training as being very, very important,” said Brian.
Nutrition
Both training and race performance can be affected by nutrition, as nutrition is important
prior to and during a race (pathway 1). It requires both timing and planning.Nutrition can also
play a key role post performance, as often races are strung over a period of days resulting in
the necessity to be at the same physiological level on each day.
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Timothy Baghurst
I might reflect on my course, what it's like, how it will suit me, where to attack, what to
do, where to speed, where to eat, where to drink so that you're not going to put yourself at a
disadvantage because if you want to feed, you can't just feed anywhere on the course.If you're
hungry and you like eat and then like, ten seconds later you're going up a big climb or
something like that then you're not going to be able to breathe properly and you're still going
to be chewing food and it's just kind of schoolboy errors that you're trying to avoid by having
a good preparation. (Asa)
… if you do a race and you don't eat the right food afterwards and you just eat tons and
tons of lettuce and tomatoes and that, that won't give you enough energy for the next day
and you will be knackered (extremely tired).After say half an hour you'll be off the
back.You just need to get the carbohydrates straight in there… (Liam)
Logistical Preparation
Logistical preparation can influence event success (pathway 2).This includes ensuring
that the cyclist arrives at the event in plenty of time, the bike is set up, drinks are made, race
numbers collected, and the body is properly warmed up and ready to go. Brian described his
pre service checks. “I went and checked my bike get it clean, pump the tires up then got my
kit together and then I got everything all ready…”Heather explained how not arriving on time
effected her warm up. “We turned up late so I didn't get a proper warm up.I had to do that on
the turbo…I did that to warm up which I never do.”
Race Details
Both training and nutrition can influence race details (pathways 3 and 4).If either training
or nutrition is not optimal, a race is unlikely to be successful, and may not be completed or
even attempted.In addition, other details such as environmental conditions need to be
considered.
You have to know where to go, where the wind is coming from. That's very important as
well because it's best to attack into a headwind because no one else wants to chase you
into a headwind so if you feel strong, go there and by the time you've got to a tail wind,
you've got a gap and then they've lost heart or whatever so weather conditions definitely.
(Jason)
Automaticity
Also linked to training comes an automaticity that enables all parts of the body to
function in a rhythmic fashion (pathway 5).The whole body working together is how Liam
described it. “You're just thinking... you're just thinking and doing stuff all at the same time
so your brain's working as well as your body so really the whole of you is working at the
same time.”
The Psychological Components Ofelite Cycling
9
Positive yet Realistic Approach
The training that a cyclist has done is likely to affect his or her outlook and it enables the
athlete to approach the race with a realistic outlook (pathway 6).A positive approach is also
necessary; without the training, a positive approach is unlikely to be realistic.
I thought I'd just drill it because I didn't have the legs for a sprint.You need to be really
sharp to have a sprint and I'm talking about flat out sprinting.I didn't have that so I
thought, 'I'll just use my strength and whatever I've got left', so I just drilled it to the front
and only a couple of lads came round so I was really pleased with that. (Jason)
In this race I had done a fair bit of work.Like every time there was a sprint off I'd be
catching up, bringing the group back together again apart from the leading group like, the
bunch gave up in the end on the front.They just sort of went, 'Ah they're going to win it so we
just might as well leave them.'They shouldn't have thought that.They should have thought,
'Ah close them down, get the places'. (Liam)
Imagery and Goal Setting
While employed by only four of the five cyclists, imagery and goal setting were
strategies employed as a means of improving performance while remaining realistic (pathway
7).Both imagery and goal setting were used before and during an event. Although these are
often considered separate psychological skills, there was some overlap in the participants’
responses. Thus, they were included in the same category. Heather gave an example of goal
setting. “But usually or fortunately I suppose, I'm usually able to catch my minute man. That's
always in my head that I have to catch at least two people” (Heather).
If there is a time trial and I want to do a certain time before it and I kind of go over the
course in my head and I come up with a schedule so at a certain point I have got to do it in a
certain time in order to achieve it.I go through the course and sort of think what gears I might
need for certain climbs, which way the wind will be coming from, corners, and ifthere's
village in it then if there is (sic) any cars parked on the side of the road.And if it's a road race
the same again; the terrain. (Brian)
Motivational Techniques
Motivational techniques employ some form of method to induce greater task
effort.Psyching up is a method much employed by the cyclists in this study, and sometimes
other cyclists within the race or a significant other can help induce this motivation.Heather
used a dislike for competition to serve as a motivator. “But then I remembered one girl that
was riding and I have a passionate dislike for her and I think, 'She isn't beating me!'So I just
pushed myself just to beat that girl.”
Although a significant other or any other individual may help to motivate a cyclist, the
motivation stemmed predominantly from within (pathway 8).While getting an extra push
from an external source may aid performance, internal motivation was seen as more stable
and significant, as it generates a hunger for success.
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Timothy Baghurst
… the psychological disappointment of not achieving what I want will last longer than
the pain that I'm in the moment.Because once I cross the line the pain stops, you throw up
a few times and go have a shower and then half an hour later I'm okay.But if I didn't do it
then I'd be going for weeks, 'Should have gone harder.'It's only an hour and when it
comes to it there's twenty four hours in a day. (Brian)
Use of Conversation
The influence of conversation and motivators was found to be bi-directional (pathway
9).Whether verbal or nonverbal, it appears to affect a cyclist’s motivation.Likewise, the
motivation of the cyclist may affect their use of conversation.If a cyclist is demotivated then
conversation is unlikely to be motivational.Specifically, nonmotivational conversation was
considered to be classed as chat or banter in contrast to motivational chat or tactical
conversation.Consider the comments of Jason concerning the difference between the two.
They chat because they're not doing that much and that really annoys me because it's like,
personally I don't think that you should ...If there's two or three people on a break, you know,
it's like shouting, 'Come on', you know, 'Really go for it, dig in there, we've got a gap', or
whatever.Everyone who's there to seriously race, they chat like that, you know.They sort of
say, 'We've got a gap, we've got ten seconds so let's work hard and get away from them', or
whatever, you know.It's more sort of motivational shouting and there's not much chat going
on to be honest.But it's good to get other people saying it because you know they mean
business as well.You know, they could be there just for the fun of it.
Experience
Experience also plays a large part in successful performance.Experience of both course
and competitor can be both a motivator and tactical advantage (pathways 11 and
13).However, it also allows for a greater self-confidence in a cyclist’s ability and thereby
influences his or her approach (pathway 10).Said Heather, “Because I'd won another
university championships a few weeks prior, I knew what to expect from the other
competitors.”
…they come up to talk to you and saying what training they've done and they're to make
out that they're better than everybody else.But I don't think I'm being bigheaded or
anything but I know I'm better than them. (Asa)
Mind Games
This experience also plays a key role in the mind games that go on prior to and during a
cycling race (pathway 12).These mind games can be self-imposed – only one cyclist
mentioned this – or are employed as means of psyching out another competitor.However,
psyching out another competitor is a two-way thing, as he or she is just as keen to be the one
to gain a psychological advantage.For example, Jason was aware of the mind games
occurring before an event. “I don't know, especially confident people who walk around and
The Psychological Components Ofelite Cycling
11
you're going, ‘Oh, how you doing?' and you know and I know they're thinking 'Ah' and I
know they're just checking you out to see what you've done…”
Because if they're breathing out their arse and they are in so much pain they can hardly
ride the bike anymore and you're just like, out of the saddle dancing on the pedals looking
like it's totally easy, but really underneath you are going through so much pain you wouldn't
believe then it's such a blow to them that, and it uplifts you so much because you can block
out the pain and you can win the race hopefully. (Asa)
Tactical Nous
Experience can also influence tactical nous (pathway 13).While seemingly very similar to
the Mind Games category, subtle differences exist that involve planning tactics before and
during the race, controlling the race, monitoring energy reserves, and being able to analyze
positions.The frequency of comments about this issue suggest its importance to the cyclist, as
races can be both won and lost through the monitoring of self and others.“If you're feeling
good then you'd be attacking and watching people come after you and then sitting up if
everyone came after you and like going back into the group again,” said Asa. Jason explained
how he could avoid taxing himself on a breakaway as much as others to conserve energy.
“But I wasn't going through all my turns.You sort of slide in and miss the odd turn to save
yourself a bit.”
Anxiety
Anxiety is something that all the cyclists reported as being important both prior to and
within a race.The causes of anxiety have a resultant effect that can be either negative or
positive.It is how the cyclist interprets the anxiety that appears to be vital.
Anxiety prior to a race is often apparent.All the cyclists mentioned how nervous they get
prior to a race. However, once the race begins nerves appear to dissipate.For example, Brian
described how nervous he could get before a race. “Sometimes I feel nervous before the start
of the race on the way there. I've done national time trial championships a few times and
before then I'm almost throwing up with nerves.”
Unfortunately, anxiety prior to the race can be costly, but strategies are devised to control
this anxiety by either avoiding it altogether or by using it in a motivational sense (pathway
20).Nervousness is particularly evident toward the end of a race, particularly if the cyclist is
in contention for a good finish.Again these nerves can be interpreted as either a positive or
negative thing.
Like, say if you're nervous it's gives you an adrenaline rush and like the blood's flowing
properly, flowing faster through your legs and your legs feel like weak but then like stronger
and it like, sort of energizes you and sort of like, '(vocal breathing) Surprised I'm here!I'm up
near the front.'It does make you go harder when you do feel a bit nervous.Like you think
about, 'Ah what if I come first?What if I do this, that and the other?'And it's like, you're
thinking about that and it makes you nervous.It's just one of those things that sort of gets you
hyper kind of thing. (Liam)
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Timothy Baghurst
Social Support
Social support refers to the influences of parents, family and coaches.Unfortunately, it is
seen by the cyclists as something that can influence anxiety in both a positive and negative
manner (pathway 15).While a parent or coach may provide psychologically what the cyclist
needs at that time, they are also capable of hindering the cyclist’s performance.
I do go quiet a lot before a race, particularly a big race, and my parents start butting in
and my mum's saying, oh like, if we're going round a course an hour before the race when I've
got there and before I get changed and my mom's like, 'You know you've got to watch out for
the pot hole here and the pot hole there and there's a bit of gravel on that bend.'And I tell her
to shut up because I don't need to be told how to ride a bike, because I know how to race.And
that's probably when I'm like handling my bike and everything so I don't need that, and that
annoys me sometimes. (Asa)
Concentration
Concentration is influenced by anxiety, training, and pain (pathways 16 and 17).It is seen
to play a major part in successful performance.Rather than success being drawn from
maintaining concentration throughout a race, it appears that success is drawn from being able
to avoid losing concentration less often than other competitors or at critical times in the
race.For example, Jason mentioned how easy it is to miss something. “Someone might go
shoot up a hill, 'I missed that just because I switched off for a minute.' But that's luck because
everyone switches off. I'm sure they do.”
The middle of the race is reported to be the most frequent time that lapses in
concentration occur.These lapses vary from thinking about family or work, to noticing things
completely unrelated to the race itself.
But you do often tend to find yourself wondering, you know, just losing concentration
maybe because you're fatigued just because it's two hours on the bike so your mind might
wander a bit so you've got to keep stuck in there and sort of, it's just a matter of focusing.Just
keep focusing when nothing much is happening or you're just going through the motions for a
while. (Jason)
Pain
Pain, according to the cyclists, is something that all must face if they are to succeed, but
can come in more than one form.Good pain refers to the pain that occurs when a cyclist is in
contention for a good finish.However, bad pain occurs more often when a high finish is
unlikely, or if physically the cyclist is unable to continue working at that same rate.This
appears to link quite heavily with fatigue and thereby can be influenced by training (pathway
18).
…there's sort of good pain as well.When you going fast and you know you've only got a
couple of miles to go and you're really going well but you legs are burning but you know
you're going to do well sometimes that drives you on.(Brian)
The Psychological Components Ofelite Cycling
13
If I'm unfit then I'll be grovelling so I'm more likely to think, 'I'm in absolute agony. Oh
no, I hope I... shall I quit? Shall I pull out on the next section?' And I go, 'No, no, no, no.'
And then I start thinking really bad things like, 'Oh remember when I got beaten by such
and such a person.', or, 'If they were here now they would be giving me a kicking.' But
when you're quite fit you kind of just click out of it and you just remember all the good
rides you've done and it doesn't hurt. (Asa)
Response to Pain
Responses to pain tend to surround methods of blocking it (pathway 19).For example,
Heather explained how she tried to ignore it. “Well, I learnt to just not think about it, just
think about what you're doing or instead of the pain which I did.”
While predominantly the case, sometimes pain can be thrived off, as Brian mentioned in
reference to good pain. The danger in responding to pain inappropriately, however, is that it
causes a loss of focus (pathway 21).
Well, that’s something you have to deal with in cycling all the time.Even in training you
might go through very bad phases where you feel very bad and you just have to bite the bullet
and get on with it.Keep your head down and ride through it. (Jason)
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to obtain an understanding of elite cycling taken from a
psychological perspective.This was accomplished by analyzing interview data of elite cyclists
to generate a description of expert psychological thinking in cycling.This research conducted
an analysis of the expert’s performance in an attempt to develop an account of the expert’s
processes and knowledge structures, step three of Ericsson and Smith’s (1991) strategy for
expertise research.
The findings of this research confirm and support much of the findings from previous
research into expertise in endurance sports.Although physiological training is understood to
be of clear importance in attained expertise in a sport, this study would suggest that
psychological variables such as tactical experience, perception of anxiety, and control of and
response to pain may also be tantamount in achieving expert or elite status.
Prior to performance, training is seen to be crucial to a successful race.This comes as no
surprise considering the physiological demands placed on cyclists, and deliberate practice is
necessary to develop the physiological body and cardiovascular body necessary for endurance
event success (O’Toole and Douglas, 1995).
There is evidence to suggest that training not only affects physiological relationships such
as pain tolerance and automaticity, but can also affect many psychological issues that arise
during a race.For example, Heather reported that a lack of training had an effect on her
outlook and her response to pain.
While deliberate practice may have only targeted physiological aspects of cycling, it is
apparent that psychological training is accrued as a by-product.Ericsson and colleagues
(1993) define expert performance as, “acquired characteristics resulting from extended
deliberate practice…” (p. 363). However, not only does this research support the claim for
14
Timothy Baghurst
deliberate practice, it also provides support for the notion that domain specific deliberate
practice can be influenced by other factors such as psychological skills training.In the present
research, all cyclists gave evidence for the necessity of deliberate physiological
practice.However, only Jason gave mention of any deliberate psychological practice.Thus,
this discussion aims to highlight some of the areas of the specific use of psychological
strategies that have occurred without the use of specific, psychological deliberate practice.
Anxiety is a factor that, if perceived as negative, can have catastrophic
consequences.However, when perceived as something positive, it is found to motivate and
reassure the cyclist of the race’s importance.This is in agreement with current psychological
understanding that anxiety, when perceived to be a positive attribute of an event, can enhance
motivation to the task (Hardy, Jones, and Gould, 1996).Research into facilitative and
debilitative anxietyhas found that elite athletes have a predisposition to interpret anxiety as
being facilitative (Jones and Swain, 1995).Hardyand colleagues state that, “the control of
stress and anxiety is a very salient factor in elite performers’ abilities to produce peak
performance at really important competitions” (p. 159).
Social support is another factor that must be controlled effectively if the performer is to
perform at his or her best.Rees, Hardy, and Freeman (2007) found that social support
increased performance in high level golfers. Furthermore, Buman, Omli, Giacobbi, and
Brewer (2008) reported that some marathon runners used another competitor as a means of
social support when they “hit the wall”. However, the present research reports social support
as being a double-edged sword.Parents, coaches, and significant others can be seen as a
calming influence in many situations, but sometimes they may be a negative
distraction.Although the participants in this study were younger than most participants in
other endurance based studies, this perception, regardless of the social support involved, can
have an adverse affect(Whitsett, Almvig, andShoda, 2010).Within endurance based sports,
coping with competitive stress and the expectations of others can be significant.For example,
Baltzell (1999) found that elite rowers who retold their least effective coping experiences
expressed high levels of worry regarding the expectations of others.Therefore, sport
psychologists, coaches, and parents should ensure that social support is perceived to be a
positive factor.Positive social support derived from a coach is particularly important for
adolescent athletes (Kristiansen and Roberts, 2010). This can be accomplished through
greater communication with the athlete and understanding that what the supporter may view
as helpful may be perceived by the athlete as detrimental.
The response to pain reported in this study also warrants further mention.Kress and
Statler (2007) reported that former Olympic cyclists had multiple strategies for coping with
pain and associated rather than dissociated the pain. Association is a cognitive strategy that
monitors the body’s sensations and pays attention to all its cues and signals (Morgan,
1980).This cognition allows the individual to alter their movement pattern according to how
they feel.Examples of body sensations include body awareness, racing strategy, and muscular
tension (Tammen, 1996).Dissociation, on the other hand, is a cognitive strategy that focuses
on external cues thus restricting the sensory input from the body (Morgan).As an example of
dissociation, one marathon runner in Morgan’s study stated that in order to dissociate, he
focused on the shadow of either himself or the runner in front so that he could leave his body
and join the shadow that experienced no pain.
Determining the most effective cognitive strategy for coping with pain has been mixed
(Masters and Ogles, 1998).In Morgan’s (1980) study, for example, marathon runners reported
The Psychological Components Ofelite Cycling
15
employing a dissociative form of coping in order to overcome ‘Heartbreak Hill’, a
particularly difficult section of the Boston marathon.Conversely, Stevinson and Biddle (1999)
found that those marathon runners who hit ‘the wall’ were more likely to have employed an
internal dissociation.
Contrary to the research of Kress and Statler (2007), the present research highlights
claims for the use of both association and dissociation as a means of coping and responding to
pain.Cyclists reported using pain as a positive factor but also as something which just had to
be dealt with. Thus, it is possible that an individual’s preferred attentional style may be an
indicator of which cognitive strategy is most effective (Baghurst, Thierry, and Holder,
2004).Future research may wish to highlight this area further by examining when and how
pain is dealt with, as the onset of pain and its subsequent psychological response could be
mediated by the pace of the exercise (Tammen, 1996).
Several methodological limitations of this study must be noted.First, the use of
retrospective data is somewhat controversial(Jackson, 1996; Davids, 2000).Results are based
on the understanding of the researcher and concepts may not have been developed due to the
nature of the study.However, as many safeguards as possible were employed to ensure that
the data retrieved and recorded were as accurate and unbiased as possible.Second, participant
numbers were small and the cyclists had not yet reached their competitive peaks; therefore,
generalisations must be considered with caution, but these findings should provide a wellgrounded platform for future research.Third, this study did not employ the traditional expertnovice paradigm (Ericsson and Smith, 1991) that has been the basis of most expertise
research.However, every attempt was made to ensure that while these limitations do exist,
results were obtained using strict guidelines set out by Lincoln and Guba (1985) and Patton
(1990).Such strategies included the inclusion of a reflexive journal, the triangulation of data,
and an audit check.In addition, every effort was made to ensure that the data was valid, was
obtained reliably, and retained its credibility in order to ensure that the conclusions drawn
from the data were derived from the data (Jackson).
To conclude, this research has investigated the psychological components of elite
cycling.The research highlights the importance of physiological training within cycling, but
also shows the apparent neglect of specific psychological training.This training is necessitated
by the number of psychological factors reported as being salient within the race
domain.Future research may wish to study the effects of a psychological training intervention
programin younger or novice athletes in order to determine whether performance can be
enhanced through consistent and systematic psychological skills training. With respect to
cycling, this training should be focused on anxiety, coping with pain, and social support.
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