CLINICAL PROTOCOLS in OBSTETRICS and GYNECOLOGY

JOHN E TURRENTINE CLINICAL PROTOCOLS in OBSTETRICS and GYNECOLOGY THIRD EDITION CLINICAL PROTOCOLS in OBSTETRICS AND GYNECOLOGY CLINICAL PROTOCOLS in OBSTETRICS AND GYNECOLOGY THIRD EDITION John E Turrentine MD DMin Clinical Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology Medical College of Georgia Director/Instructor Dalton State College of Surgical Technology University of Georgia USA © 2008 Informa UK Ltd First published in the United Kingdom in 2008 by Informa Healthcare, Telephone House, 69-77 Paul Street, London EC2A 4LQ. Informa Healthcare is a trading division of Informa UK Ltd. Registered Office: 37/41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH. Registered in England and Wales number 1072954. Tel: +44 (0)20 7017 5000 Fax: +44 (0)20 7017 6699 Website: www.informahealthcare.com All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 0LP. Although every effort has been made to ensure that all owners of copyright material have been acknowledged in this publication, we would be glad to acknowledge in subsequent reprints or editions any omissions brought to our attention. Although every effort has been made to ensure that drug doses and other information are presented accurately in this publication, the ultimate responsibility rests with the prescribing physician. Neither the publishers nor the authors can be held responsible for errors or for any consequences arising from the use of information ciontained herein. For detailed prescribing information or instructions on the use of any product or procedure discussed herein, please consult the prescribing information or instructional material issued by the manufacturer. A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Data available on application ISBN-10: 0 415 43996 5 ISBN-13: 978 0 415 43996 1 Distributed in North and South America by Taylor & Francis 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW, (Suite 300) Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA Within Continental USA Tel: 1 (800) 272 7737; Fax: 1 (800) 374 3401 Outside Continental USA Tel: (561) 994 0555; Fax: (561) 361 6018 Email: orders@crcpress.com Distributed in the rest of the world by Thomson Publishing Services Cheriton House North Way Andover, Hampshire SP10 5BE, UK Tel: +44 (0)1264 332424 Email: tps.tandfsalesorder@thomson.com Composition by Exeter Premedia Services Pvt. Ltd., Chennai, India Printed and bound in India by Replika Press Pvt Ltd Contents Foreword Sidney L Sellers vii About the author viii Introduction ix Notice to readers x Obstetrics and gynecology A–Z 1 Appendix 411 List of abbreviations 427 v Foreword What a pleasure it would have been in ‘my day’ to have this type of book to utilize before taking the Boards. Also, there were many times during my practice when I needed a fast refresher on symptoms presented that were not commonplace for my practice. Regardless of the length or the volume of any one doctor’s practice, there are always questions that demand confirmation on one’s memory of those details. This book can easily fulfill each of those needs. This is an excellent compilation of the up-to-date knowledge on almost any topic within Obstetrics and Gynecology. It could be used for studying for medical school exams and written and oral boards, for research on subjects that do not occur in a particular practice very often, and for a complete and very user-friendly resource for any Obstetric and Gynecology library. It would be particularly valuable within a residency program for rapid access to details of a certain diagnosis. The book is organized in a simple, yet in-depth way to find the pertinent information desired – topic, subjects within that topic – symptoms, diagnosis, treatments – and then the details and statistics. Looking up a topic is as logical and easy as using a dictionary. During the time that John and I practiced together, he was well-trained in surgery and fully knowledgeable and enthusiastic about specifics and diagnostic details in the Obstetrics and Gynecologic field, always researching the most up-to-date study results and protocols. He taught medical field students at Dalton State College and did excellent, in-depth presentations for various pharmaceutical companies. His expertise in diagnosing, surgery, research and teaching provided an ideal basis for creating this excellent resource for Obstetrics and Gynecology students, residents and physicians. It is a pleasure watching John use these talents to benefit others who follow in the field. Sidney L Sellers MD Obstetrics and Gynecology Dalton, GA, USA Practiced 1957 – 2006 at the Emory School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA vii About the Author Dr John E Turrentine is a Clinical Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology for the Medical College of Georgia and Director/Instructor for the Dalton State College of Surgical Technology. He is an avid lecturer and instructor for minimally invasive surgeries, especially in the area of total laparoscopic hysterectomy, female urinary incontinent and prolapse procedures, and most significantly is the innovator and expert on MIVH (minimally invasive vaginal hysterectomy). Having been in Ob/Gyn practice for over 25 years, Dr Turrentine teaches other physicians how to pass the ACOG Board Certifying Exams. Dr Turrentine received his Medical Doctorate from the Medical College of Georgia and is a Doctor of Ministry from the Trinity Theological Seminary. He is a Board Certified Diplomat and Fellow of the American Board of Obstetrics and Gynecology. He is an Ordained Minister through FCF (Faith Christian Fellowship). He has served on multiple boards, including chairmanship positions for the ACOG Satellite Symposium, Young Life, and the Appalachian Women’s Enrichment Center for the Pregnancy Crisis Centers throughout North Carolina, Tennessee, and North Georgia. He has been featured on MSNBC, PAX TV, MCG Alumni Magazine, and other TV, Newspaper, and Magazines. Dr Turrentine is recognized worldwide for his previous books, Clinical Protocols in Obstetrics and Gynecology (The TAN Book) 1st and 2nd editions, Surgical Transcriptions in Obstetrics and Gynecology and Surgical Transcriptions and Pearls in Obstetrics and Gynecology. Dr Turrentine’s primary love is his family. His family includes a supportive wife, a son in medical school, another son in pre-law, a daughter studying for a horticultural degree, and another daughter still at home. His other interests include teaching history, ethics, philosophy, swimming, running, and hiking. He holds a private pilot certificate, including seaplane rating, and is a current SSI and PADI Master Diver and Divemaster. viii Introduction This book is the most up-to-date Ob/Gyn textbook compiled to help anyone both pass the ACOG Written or Oral Board Examinations and also use as a reference while practicing Ob/Gyn. It is in simple alphabetical order so it is easy to find solutions to everyday problems. Every effort was made to list the main topics on the left-hand side of the page. The “meat” of the matter or subject has been listed in the middle, including etiologies, symptoms, diagnoses, and treatment modes. To the far right, whenever possible, answers to percentages or minutia have been listed, so this book makes an excellent study guide. The same and sometimes improved flow charts and pictures are included that made the TAN book a best-selling medical textbook. These all make for a quick reference and study guide. If you know this book, you WILL pass your certification exam. You will also practice excellent Ob/Gyn. ix Notice to readers Our knowledge in clinical sciences is constantly changing. As new information becomes available, changes in treatment and in the use of drugs become necessary. The author and publisher of this volume have taken care to make certain that the doses of drugs and schedules of treatment are correct and compatible with the standards generally accepted at the time of publication. The reader is advised to consult carefully the instruction and information material included in the package insert of each drug or therapeutic agent before administration. This advice is especially important when using new or infrequently used drugs. x 1 ABORTIONS ABDOMINAL PREGNANCY Incidence is: Signs: amenorrhea, abdominal pain, poor response to oxytocin 1/7000 ABDOMINAL SACRAL COLPOPEXY See also Prolapse (POP) Success rate Have these available in OR – sterile thumbtacks and/or bone wax Complications – hemorrhage, enterocele, mesh erosion Identify ureter, especially on right Retract rectosigmoid colon laterally Vascular plexus – on sacral periosteum BLEEDS RETROPERITONEALIZE FASCIA LATA (or Mersilene, Marlex, etc.) Use ‘straight-in’ sacral colpopexy kit with ‘Y’ sling graft by American Medical (1 800 253-4267) To see how this procedure is done, refer to Turrentine J. Surgical Transcriptions and Pearls of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2nd edn. London: Informa Healthcare, 2006. 90% ABDOMINAL WALL Layers Skin Subcutaneous fat Camper’s fascia (superficial fascia) Scarpa’s fascia (deep fascia) Anterior rectus sheath (fascial muscle cover) Preperitoneal fat Peritoneum ABORTIONS Therapeutic Mifepristone (RU486) approved in the USA for voluntary termination of IUP of up to 7 weeks (49 days from LMP) Method Day 1 Counseling, especially about 5% failure rate and possible need for surgical intervention. Malformations if continued pregnancy after failure. Patient to sign PATIENT AGREEMENT and/or CONSENT. Know or review contraindications. Then, 600 mg (three tablets of 200 mg each) given as single oral dose. This administration should be witnessed and done while in office. Day 3 Misoprostol 400 µg (two tablets of 200 µg each) given as single oral dose (unless abortion has occurred and been documented by exam and ultrasound). Patient usually given something for cramping Day 14 Post-treatment follow-up (persistent or enlarging sac requires surgery for removal) Medical abortion (if RU486 not available) Misoprostol 800 µg If uncertain about location give misoprostol 5 days after Mtx 1 mg/kg Ectopic Mtx alone IUP Cytotec (misoprostol 800 µg) alone or Cytotec 800 µg then mifepristone 600 mg (RU486) 36–48 h later or as described above Misoprostol 400 µg every 6 h for ≤ 48 h appears to be an effective regimen for second-trimester pregnancy termination, resulting in a shortened delivery time. (Dickinson JE, Evans SF. Optimization of intravaginal misoprostol dosing schedules in second-trimester pregnancy termination. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;186:470–4) Surgical abortion (discouraged if < 6 weeks – increased risk of incomplete evacuation, ectopic) Difficulty with cannula? Use laminaria, Cytotec or rotation of tip of dilator Labs – Rh p.r.n., Hct, pregnancy test, STD?, Paps Anesthesia (1) Give Lortab® 5 or Percocet® 5 AND Xanax® 0.5 mg p.o. 30 min prior (2) Give Valium® 10 mg with lidocaine 20 mg IV through butterfly and Nubain® 10 mg IV just prior to start of procedure 2 ABORTIONS Paracervical 7, 9, 11, 1, 3, 5 o’clock or simply inject 6 cc of 1% lidocaine at 5 and 7 o’clock Local increases postabortal fever General increases death, perforation, bleeding and aspiration Diprivan® is all that is usually needed if patient desires sleep Selection of cannula #8 for 8 weeks; straight for decreased pain, curved for ante- or retroflexed uterus Postop meds RhoGAM < 12 weeks; MICRhoGAM (50 µg) > 12 weeks full dose Doxycycline 100 mg p.o. b.i.d. for a few days postoperatively Methergine® not needed unless > 10 weeks’ gestation NSAIDs for postop discomfort Types of abortion Threatened abortion Bleeding, os closed Inevitable abortion Bleeding, os open, no POC passed Incomplete abortion Bleeding, os open, some POC visualized Complete abortion Bleeding, os closed, all POC extruded Missed abortion No viable fetus, no bleeding, no symptoms Surgical evacuation of the uterus via D&C is not obligatory for first-trimester missed abortion (Wood SL, Brain PH. Medical management of missed abortion: a randomized clinical trial. Obstet Gynecol 2002;99:563–6) Therapeutic abortion Elective termination Septic abortion Any SAB or TAB with intrauterine infection Usually due to clostridial sepsis Presents with tachycardia and FEVER Hematuria and shock develop rapidly Dxn; H&P, cultures by endobiopsy or evacuation +++gm + rods on Gm stain. Check serum pregnancy test Rx: (1) High dose ab – PCN (2) Empty uterus – first-trimester vacuum second-trimester D&E with US or use PGE (3) Laparotomy p.r.n. (4) Hysterectomy with BSO (if hemolysis or systemic) (5) Hyperbaric oxygenation p.r.n. (6) Supportive care – ICU – cardiovascular support to restore B/P treat ARDS (ventilation if O2 < 90%) Spontaneous abortion Clinically recognized 10–15% Lost in first or early second trimester 15–20% Lost prior to menses 50–75% Likelihood of fetomaternal hemorrhage after spontaneous abortion 3–4% Percent of spontaneous first-trimester abortions that show chromosomal abnormalities 50–70% Percent of spontaneous second-trimester abortions that show chromosomal abnormalities 30% Percent of stillbirths that show chromosomal abnormalities 3% Autosomal trisomy is detected in abnormal abortuses 50–60% Trisomy 16 is most common of autosomal trisomies Turner’s (XO) is most common single entity detected 20–25% Polyploid (usually triploid) 44% Most likely cause of spontaneous abortions is embryonic aneuploidy if prior to 6th week Most likely cause of spontaneous abortions is lupus anticoagulant syndrome if after 11th week Rate of pregnancy loss after detecting a live embryo in the first trimester is < 5% Risk of subsequent pregnancy ending in a spontaneous or spontaneous recurrent abortion: No previous abortion 10.7% One previous abortion 15.9% 3 ABORTIONS Two previous abortions 25.1% Three previous abortions 45% Four previous abortions 54.3% Overall 11.3% What % of elective abortions are second-trimester abortions? 10% What is the appropriate vacuum for evacuating an incomplete abortion in the first trimester? 40 mmHg To undertake an elective abortion at 10 menstrual weeks’ gestation, correct cannula size is 8 mm What period of time does one have to give RhoGAM immunoglobulin (RHIG) prophylaxis if not given within 72 h of delivery or abortion? 28 days Incidence of vaginal bleeding in first trimester 20% Risk of miscarriage in patient with first-trimester bleeding 1/2 to 2/3 FHR per US – incidence of spontaneous abortion with first-trimester bleeding is only 10% US with no FHR is indicative of fetal demise if sac is > 1.2 cm Risk of combined IUP and ectopic is 1/8000–1/30 000 RhoGAM < 12 weeks’ gestation MICRhoGAM® (50 µg) > 12 weeks’ gestation Full dose RhoGAM® Most likely organisms to cause postabortal endometritis are Neisseria gonorrheae, Chlamydia and Streptococcus Treat endometritis with doxycycline, ofloxacin and/or ceftriaxone Habitual abortions Causes Diagnosis Treatment Immunologic APTT, lupus, VDRL, antiphos abs Heparin, ASA, prednisone Microbiologic Cervical and endometrial Tetracycline, emycin cultures Endocrinologic Endo Bx, TSH, prolactin, midcycle progesterone, BBT charting Clomid®, progesterone, thyroid, bromocriptine Genetics Karyotype Genetic counseling, donor insemination, IVF Anatomic HSG, laparoscopy, hysteroscopy Septum, cerclage, lyse synechia, myomectomy, metroplasty, tuboplasty, IVF Metabolic As indicated As indicated Environmental Tobacco, EtOH abuse Eliminate consumption or exposure Common genetic causes of RPW (recurrent pregnancy wastage) Aneuploidy Chromosomal translocation – most common structural abnormality CPM (confined placental mosaics) Carriers of factors Leiden – increased risk of venous thromboembolism 1–2% Anatomic anomalies of RPW Unicornuate uterus – rate of spontaneous pregnancy loss is Uterine didelphys – rate of spontaneous pregnancy loss is Bicornuate uterus – rate of spontaneous pregnancy loss is Septate uterus – rate of spontaneous pregnancy loss is Resection of the septum results in the successful delivery rate of Asherman’s syndrome – pregnancy rates of untreated is Hysteroscopic resection of Asherman’s – rate of conception is 51% 40% 30% 65% 86% 45% 84% 4 ABORTIONS Endocrine factors of RPW Luteal phase defect Uncontrolled diabetes Thyroid disease Hyperprolactinemia Hyperandrogenemia Immunologic factors of RPW Autoimmunity Antiphospholipid antibodies – implicated in Increased platelets 10–16% aggregation, decreased endogenous anticoagulant activity, increased thrombosis and vasoconstriction resulting from immunoglobin binding to both platelet and endothelial membrane phospholipid. Screen patients with RPW by drawing – APTT, kaolin clotting time, lupus anticoagulant and cardiolipin ab. Treat with heparin and low-dose aspirin… pregnancy achieved in 70% Alloimmunity Refers to all causes of pregnancy loss related to an abnormal maternal immune response to antigens on placental or fetal tissues. Suggested that couples with RPW have sharing of HLA (human leukocyte antigens), a condition that would not allow the mother to make blocking antibodies. Treatment – IV immune globulin ?? > 16 weeks – 5.5% Partial birth abortion May be the best or most appropriate procedure to save the life or preserve the health of the patient Must have ALL four elements in sequence: (1) Deliberate dilatation of cervix, usually > sequence of days (2) Instrumental conversion of fetus to footling breech (3) Breech extraction of body except the head, AND (4) Partial evacuation of the intracranial contents of a living fetus to effect vaginal delivery of a dead but otherwise intact fetus Incomplete and/or recurrent abortion < 12 weeks H&H, WBC, Group & Rh Fibrinogen and platelets D&E D/c 6–8 h postop if stable with minimal bleeding F/u 2 weeks 13–28 weeks Offer watchful expectancy at least x 3 weeks (> 4 weeks 25–40% DIC) or PGE2; (D&E okay if experienced) CBC, fibrinogen, platelets, Group & Rh Type & screen NPO night before Repeat PGE2 q. 4 h D5½ NS Demerol® 25 mg IV q. 3 h p.r.n. Phenergan® 25 mg IV q. 4 h or Zofran 8 mg subling p.r.n. nausea 6 h postop – H&H, fibrinogen level If USS – d/c x 24 h – RTO in 2 weeks > 28 weeks CBC w/ platelets, Group and Rh, fibrinogen, Type & cross 2 units; D5½ Pitocin® or Cytotec or with PGE2 prior to Pitocin US q. h Stillbirth protocol (photos, opportunity to view and hold) Request autopsy Hct & fibrinogen If USS – d/c x 24 h – RTO x 2 weeks 5 ABORTIONS Recurrent pregnancy loss – sample form Name Normal Genetic Karyotype partners Genetics on POC Anatomic Hysterosalpingography Laparoscopy Hysteroscopy Endocrinologic Basal body temperature Endometrial biopsy Mid-luteal progesterone TSH Prolactin Immunologic Lupus anticoagulant ANA Anticardiolipin antibodies VDRL APTT APA APLA (antiphospholipids) Infectious Mycoplasma hominis Ureaplasma urealyticum Toxoplasma gondii Listeria Chlamydia GBBS Titers for: HSV CMV Toxoplasmosis Metabolic Panel I Toxins Nicotine Drugs EtOH This form may be used in the patient’s chart Significant results 6 ABRUPTIONS ABRUPTIONS Separation of normally implanted placenta, usually after 20 weeks, initiated by bleeding into decidua basalis. Incidence of occurrence is Fatal to fetus Etiology (@1%) or 1/120 1/420 Caused by increased B/P Other causes (cigarettes, cocaine, trauma, short cords, rapid decompression of uterus) Mortality rate increases by how much with each cigarette ppd? Trauma abruption evolves within Usually asymptomatic for 4–6 h then symptoms Cocaine use increases abruption rate by Consider physical abuse, which is prevalent during pregnancy Hypertensive disorders and history of prior abruptions Symptoms Management PAINFUL VAGINAL BLEEDING. Fetal distress, abdominal pain, increased uterine tenderness. Darker blood with rigid, sudden, severe sharp pain @ abdomen. ‘Tearing or burning’ Vaginal bleeding most common presenting sign Uterine tenderness or back pain (second most common) Tachysystole Uterine hypertonus 50% 50% 40% 24 h > 24 h 10% @ 8% 78–84% 62–66% 17% 17% Oxygen and crystalloids. C-SECTION if severe Watch for DIC. Obtain FSP every 4 h, replace with FFP or cryo if fibrinogen < 100 mg per 100 ml. Replace platelets if < 50 000 Risk of recurrence of abruptio placentae is 5–16% Recurrence risk of abruptio placentae rises to what % after two previous abruptions? 25% • DIC occurs during abruption what % of time? 10% Blood clotting time is > 8 min Most sensitive lab is FDP Delivery is ultimate treatment, blood products seldom needed, DIC persists @ how many hours? 12 C-section with DIC – replace clotting factors if *platelets < 30 000 or *fibrinogen < 100 To correct fibrinogen, give cryoprecipitate – how many bags? 15–20 Platelets – one bag increases platelets @ 10 000 Prevent hypovolemia (maternal death – ischemic damage to kidneys. Sheehan’s syndrome – anterior pituitary necrosis) 7 ABRUPTIONS Abruptio placentae – summary Diagnosis (1) (2) Clinical symptoms Fetal tachycardia/IUFD Virchow’s triad uterine pain – focal or generalized increased tone vaginal bleeding (85%) – 15% concealed Imaging (ultrasound) Helpful in concealed abruption – sonolucent retroplacental area Locate placenta (i.e. r/o previa) Management (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Large bore IV (16 or 18 gauge) – crystalloid – (LR, D5NS) – can be used for blood transfusion Type and cross–match 2–4 units PRBC Labs: CBC w/ platelets; coagulation profile (fibrinogen, PT, PTT, fibrinogen split products); repeat q. 2–3 h Continuous EFM, tocometer Measure serial FH (especially concealed abruption) Consider central venous access (especially when impending or actual shock suspected) Strict I&Os (UOP > 30 cc/h) Determine extent of fetal–maternal hemorrhage (i.e. Kleihauer–Bettke) Rh neg mother – additional RhoGAM (vial > 30 ml) If stable, spec exam Plan (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Delivery (when possible) – low threshold for Cesarean section (fetal/maternal indication) – if rapid vaginal delivery expected, attempt (or fetus dead) Expectant management – patient/fetus stable – no coagulopathy Correct coagulopathy – PRBC – FFP – cryo precipitate – platelets Correct hypovolemia/restore adequate circulation – rapid infusion crystalloid/cross-matched blood (O neg in emergency) – maintain Hct > 30% Avoid incision or episiotomy if possible – careful hemostasis intrapartum/intra op Postpartum – monitor resolution of coagulopathy – correct anemia, fluid/electrolyte imbalance – monitor incision/episiotomy site (r/o hematoma) – strict I&Os 8 Abruptio placentae DIAGNOSIS: Vaginal bleeding (85%) Uterine pain/tenderness Increased uterine tone Fetal heart rate abnormalities Ultrasound (retroplacenta/clot, r/o previa) INITIAL MANAGEMENT: Large bore IV Type & cross-match several units PRBC Labs: CBC/platelets; fibrinogen; PT/PTT; fibrin split products; Kleihauer?Bettke; (Rh neg mother) Continuous fetal monitoring, tocometer Serial fundal heights +/- Central venous access Foley catheter (maintain UOP > 30 cc/h) Speculum exam, if stable PLAN ACCORDING TO SEVERITY Grade I (mild) Antepartum hemorrhage of uncertain cause diagnosed respectively Expectant management Grade III (severe) Fetus dead Grade II (intermediate) Classified features Fetus alive IIIA No coagulopathy Stable mother/fetus No coagulopathy Delivery (unless SVD imminent ? C-section) Attempt vaginal delivery IIIB Coagulopathy Correct coagulopathy Amniotomy ABRUPTIONS Expectant management Maternal/fetal compromise Blunt abdominal trauma Continuous EFM/tocometer for 4 h Serial CBC q. 4 h No abnormality, D&C Change status, admit 9 ADAPTATIONS IN PREGNANCY ACCRETA Absence of Nitabuch’s layer with invasion of placenta into or through placenta Management options (1) If diagnosis is made prior to delivery – have 4 units PRBCs and anesthesiologist at delivery (2) Hysterectomy – if preservation of uterus not important and/or bleeding is excessive (3) Oversew defect and treat with Pitocin and an antibiotic (4) Resection and uterine repair (5) Leave placenta in situ with curettage and cut umbilical cord as short as possible with placenta previa Incidence Tocolytics (6) Bilateral uterine artery ligation (7) (8) (9) (10) Internal iliac artery ligation Pack lower uterine segment × 12 h Methotrexate – no consensus Hysterectomy Accreta, increta and percreta Accreta, increta, percreta Incidence of accreta in patients who have had previous C-section and previa Incidence of accreta in patients who have had two previous C-sections and previa Incidence of accreta in patients who have had multiple previous C-sections What % of pts with placenta previa/accreta will have to have Cesarean hysterectomy 1 : 7000 78%, 17%, 5% 25% 50% 60–65% 66% MgSO4 is agent of choice if placenta previa associated with accreta. Not β-mimetics due to associated tachycardia and decreased blood pressure ACUTE TUBULAR NECROSIS Acute blood loss is most common cause of renal failure in Ob U/A – shows renal tubule cells and red cell casts Urine Na+ Urine to plasma ratio Acute cortical necrosis is an end-stage condition following 2–3 weeks of renal failure > 40 mg/l < 3 to 1 ADAPTATIONS IN PREGNANCY Uterus Hypertrophy and dilatation 70 g → 1100 g 10 ml → 5 l Putrescine polyamines that increase @ 13–14 weeks’ gestation Diamine oxidase activity increases @ 13–14 weeks’ gestation 1000-fold increase Catecholamines decrease in placental perfusion (epinephrine and norepinephrine) Nitric oxide (EDRF) potent vasodilator (97% umbilical vein, 7% umbilical artery) Cervix 12 × decreased mechanical strength Hegar’s sign – softening of the neck of the cervix Vagina Increased thickness of mucosa, loosening of connective tissue, hypertrophy of vaginal muscle, small intermediate cells (navicular cells) and vesicular nuclei without cytoplasm. Increased lactic acid from glycogen 3.5–6 Ovaries and fallopian tubes (1) Relaxin − (A + B chains) H1 + H2 on chromosome 7 (a) Concentration – maternal serum = (b) amniotic fluid = (c) Separation of symphysis Chadwick sign – violet color of vagina (hyperemia) (2) 1000 mg/l 9 mg/l Luteoma – large acidophilic cells of solid tumor Female virilized but usually placenta protects by converting to estrogens 10 ADAPTATIONS IN PREGNANCY (3) Hyperreactio luteinalis – as above but cystic not solid Usually bilateral and very increased levels of Fallopian tubes – mucosa is flattened hCG Abdominal wall and skin Striae gravidarum – separation of skin with scarring Diastasis recti – separation of rectus muscle Chloasma – mask of pregnancy (β-endorphins and α-MSH produced in pituitary) increased Angioma (vascular spiders) 2/3 white and 10% black Palmar erythema 2/3 white and 1/3 black Hyperestrogenemia of pregnancy Urinary system Kidney increases in size, GFR increases by RPF increases, glucosuria, amino acids and water soluble vitamins are increasingly lost. Hydronephrosis and hydroureter common due to compression on left by sigmoid and dextrorotation of the uterus on the right along with right ovarian complex. Progesterone influences the enlarged ureter too Gastrointestinal tract Motilin decreases. Pyrosis (heartburn) increases. Epulis (focal swelling of the gums), prolonged gastric-emptying time. Increased hemorrhoids Liver and gallbladder Increased alkaline phosphatase (× 2). Leucine amino peptidase increases. Plasma albumin decreases. Cholinesterase decreases Gallbladder is sluggish → increased incidence of stones Eyes Corneal sensitivity decreases (increasing thickness) Intraocular pressure decreases (increased PIH) Findings = Krukenberg spindles Endocrine Pituitary enlarges GH increases from 10 to 28 weeks’ gestation. Peaks at 14–15 weeks Prolactin increases x 10 (amniotic prolactin source = decidua) TRH and serotonin increases prolactin PIF (dopamine) inhibits prolactin Prolactin peaks at (fetal plasma) 35 weeks’ gestation (amniotic fluid) 20–26 weeks’ gestation β-lipotropin → α-lipotropin and β-endorphin (increases) Thyroid gland Increases 50% Decreases TBG Parathyroid decreases then increases T4 DHEA-S T3 Cortisol Free T4 increases then decreases Androstenedione Testosterone Free cortisol No change in TRH and DOC variable Metabolic changes Daily caloric intake of a pregnant women is increased by 300–400 kcal over that of a non-pregnant female Water retention 6.5 liters 3.5 liters associated with fetus, placenta and amniotic fluid 3 liters associated with increased maternal blood volume Protein – active nitrogen use only 25% Carbohydrate – HPL stimulates synthesis and secretion of insulin in the islet cells. Progesterone increases basal insulin concentration. Estradiol → hyperinsulinism Fat metabolism – LDL peaks at 36 weeks. HDL peaks at 25 weeks. Progesterone acts as lipostat in hypothalamus to reset Minerals – Fe+ requirements increase Ca+ and Mg+ decrease Cu increases then decreases Acid–base – hyperventilation → respiratory alkalosis. Oxygen curve shifts to left. Bohr effect → stimulates increase of 2,3 diphospho-glycerate in maternal RBCs → O2 curve back to right → O2 to fetus Electrolytes – Na+ and K+ decrease. GFR increases. Progesterone counteracts Na+ and K+ effects of aldosterone 11 ADD-BACK THERAPY Hematologic changes (1) Blood volume increases by 40–45% More plasma than RBCs. Nevertheless, volume of circulatory RBCs increase @ 33% (@450 ml). Reticulocyte count increases > 20 weeks (2) Atrial natriuretic peptides (ANP) – increase renal blood flow and GFR decreases renin secretion → decreases basal release of aldosterone from zona glomerulus (3) Brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) – more potent than ANP as vasodilator. Secreted in large amounts by human amnion cells Hemoglobin and hematocrit decreases White blood cells count decreases. However, human antibodies decrease, therefore WBCs increase Blood loss: vaginal delivery 500–600 ml C-section 1000 ml Increased Decreased Fibrinogen (50%) Factors 11 and 13 Sed rate Platelets (moderate) Factors 7, 8, 9, 10 Free protein S Factor 2 (slightly) Plasmin Plasminogen No change in total protein S, C and antithrombin III Iron metabolism (1) Fe+ needed to increase 450 ml RBCs in normal pregnancy 500 (2) Total Fe+ antepartum needed 1000 (3) Amount of Fe+ excreted every day in absence of bleeding 0.5–1 (4) Fe+ content of normal fetus 300 (5) Amount Fe+ in 1 ml normal RBC 1.1 (6) Total Fe+ requirements 750–800 Placenta and fetus 300 Increased RBCs 500 (7) Amount of Fe+ needed to meet normal demands of fetus AND increase maternal volume 800 (8) Amount of Fe+ lost in menses 25 (9) Fe+ in 325 mg tablet = 65 element Fe+ 10–20% absorbed, therefore 7–12 mg absorbed daily Cardiovascular changes Increased Decreased Resting pulse (17%) Arterial pressure Stroke volume Vascular resistance Cardiac output (43%) Systemic (–21%) Renin Pulmonary (–34%) mg mg mg mg mg mg mg mg mg mg Angiotensin II Aldosterone Systolic murmur is noted in what % of pregnant patients? Diastolic (soft) murmur is noted transiently in what %? Continuous murmur arise in breast vasculature in what %? Respiratory changes 90% 20% 10% See Respiratory changes ADD-BACK THERAPY Premarin every day or MPA daily on days 1–14 This can be started @ 3 months after the start of GnRH analogs Affords symptomatic relief and prevents bone loss NOT TO BE STARTED at same time – efficacy to decrease fibroid is impaired 12 ADENOCARCINOMA ADENOCARCINOMA Uterus Most common gyn cancer – 4th most common cancer in females Endometrioid adenocarcinoma (65%) = most frequent histology OCPs and smoking decrease risk. Tamoxifen increases thickness, polyps and risk of cancer Black females have increased aggressive histological types (clear cell) Treatment Stage I, grade I = TAHBSO with cytology Deep > 1/3 or grades 2 + 3 = add pelvic + periaortic node dissection If deep invasion, grade 3, + nodes, extension to cervix, + surgical margins or extrauterine disease = add radiation Cervix 10% of cervical cancer Occult lesions Multifocal/skip lesions More aggressive than squamous cell carcinoma (90%, begins in T-zone, not multifocal, keratin pearls) ADENOMYOSIS Definition Endometrial glands and stoma invading myometrium by one of the following: Low-power field High-power field Depth of 1 2 3 mm ADHESIONS Preventative measures BEST – gentle handling of tissues, minimize number and extent of incisions, strive for absolute hemostasis, and use small, nonreactive suture Antibiotics – Cephalosporins and tetracyclines (lavage). Some evidence may be of benefit Heparin – Controversial Crystalloid solutions – Normal saline or Ringer’s lactate. Unproven. Some animal studies suggest there is an increased adhesion formation Steroids – Dexamethasone. Possibly decreases inflammatory response, but unproven Polysaccharide polymer – Dextran 70 (Hyskon) Controversial. 200 ml placed in posterior cul-de-sac or around surfaces. Risks are abdominal bloating, anaphylaxis, liver function abnormalities, wound separation, or rare DIC Barrier agents Absorbables (require hemostasis) INTERCEDE (oxidized regenerated cellulose) 2 x more effective as microsurgery alone SEPRAFILM (Hyaluronate–carboxymethylcellulose) Non-absorbables GORTEX (expanded polytetrafluoroethylene) – must be removed PRECLUDE (polytetrafluoroethylene). Particularly useful for patients undergoing myomectomy SHELHIGH NO-REACT (pericardial patch) Fluid SEPRACOAT (hyaluronic acid-coat) Limited data on efficacy in myomectomies INTERGEL™ (dilute solution of hyaluronic acid). Decreases extent + severity of de novo adhesions when applied over the serosal surfaces. Withdrawn from market for reports of postoperative pain and complications Myomectomy Hysterectomy Posterior uterus 94% Fundal/anterior 56% Bowel obstructions 1.6% ADULT RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME 13 ADNEXAL MASS IN PREGNANCY Incidence 0.5–2.2% Most common is leiomyoma Most common in first trimester is corpus luteum Most common neoplastic lesion is benign cystic teratoma or cystadenomas Second most common malignancy in pregnancy is ovarian 1/7500 Common adnexal tumors found during pregnancy: Corpus luteum Benign neoplasm Benign cystic teratoma 27% Benign cystadenoma 33% Uterine leiomyoma 1.5% Malignancy (10% of adnexal tumors that persist during pregnancy) Diagnosis US (MRI if equivocal) The serum CA-125 level is typically elevated during the 1st trimester, but may be useful for assessment later in pregnancy Treatment Surgery 16–20 weeks is ideal During the first and second trimesters, laparoscopy is as safe as laparotomy. However, in general, if malignancy is suspected, a vertical incision is preferred Risks Fetal loss, PTD and infection < 5 cm @50% Some ovarian cancers may present acutely, such as a rapidly growing germ-cell tumor or a ruptured and hemorrhaging granulosa-cell tumor ADOLESCENT DEPRESSION Third leading cause of death Male > female Drug ingestion most frequent method Firearms – most common method of completed suicide among young Symptoms Depressed mood Diminished interest or pleasure Decreased ability to concentrate or think May present with symptoms of hyperactivity May present with symptoms of repeated accidents or injuries Risk factors for adolescent suicide Presence of mental disorder Family history of suicide Gay or lesbian youth Very high-achieving adolescents ADULT RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME Moderate to severe hypoxemia Diffuse alveolar infiltrates in absence of pulmonary infection Etiology: diffuse alveolar injury Diagnosis: pulmonary artery catheter Treatment: treat underlying cause ARDS – risk associated with sepsis, mortality = SIRS @ 50% Systemic inflammatory response syndrome Diagnosis: B/P systolic < 60 mmHg Urine output < 30 ml/h Treatment: O2, circulatory volume Check CBC, lytes, ABG, BUN, creatinine, U/A, PT, PTT, fibrinogen, CXR Vasopressor treatment Start antibiotics Abscess? If detected – drain SIRS = 25–50% mortality 14 AGCUS Physiology of ARDS Increased airway pressure with ‘stiff lungs’ Increased capillary permeability Ventilation–perfusion mismatching Decreased lung compliance Decreased pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (hydrostatic) Decreased residual capacity Arterial pO2 < 50–60 despite O2 concentration of > 60% AGCUS Rate Atypical glandular cells of undetermined significance Management 0.2–0.5% Colposcopy with biopsy and ECC Conization if suspect preinvasive or invasive adenocarcinoma In any woman with AGCUS, do a colposcopy, endocervical evaluation, directed biopsy, and pelvic exam If endometrial cells are suspected or if risk factors are present → do endometrial biopsy, D&C or hysteroscopy (always if > 35 years old) If no abnormalities are noted on D&C, suspect extrauterine sites such as ovary, fallopian tube, GI tract and breast Knowledge of glandular disease of the cervix remains far behind its squamous counterpart Conditions known to mimic ACIS on Pap smears: lower uterine segment sampling, tubal metaplasia, polyps and endometriosis Conservative management of ACIS (adenocarcinoma in situ of the cervix) The distance from the closest ACIS lesion to the endocervical margin should be > 10 mm FIGO stage IA1 disease best describes microinvasive adenoma of cervix There have been no published reports of lymph node metastases in IA1 AGCUS report on a ThinPrep® specimen indicates a significant risk for invasive cancer or other serious pathology What chance does a woman have of invasive cancer somewhere if she has a report of AGCUS? 10% • Practitioners generally under manage patients with atypical glandular cells of undetermined significance and over manage patients with atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance. (Smith-McCune K, Mancuso V, Constant T, et al. Management of women with atypical Papinicolaou tests of undetermined significance by board-certified gynecologists: discrepancies with published guidelines. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;185:551–6) AGE AND ASSOCIATED INFERTILITY > 34 > 40 > 45 11% 33% 87% ALCOHOL Diet Distilled whiskey 1–1½ oz Beer (regular) 12 oz Beer (light) 12 oz Wine (dry) 4 oz Screening methods Cut Annoyed Guilty Eye opener 100 150 100 90 calories calories calories calories Tolerance Annoyed Cut Eye opener 15 ALTERNATIVE MEDICINES ALLERGIC REACTION First-line therapy Urticaria, bronchospasm Respiratory distress, systolic > 80 Laryngeal edema, respiratory failure epinephrine 1 : 1000 SC 0.5 cc Epi 1 : 1000 SC or IM 0.5 cc Epi 1 : 10000 IV Benadryl® 25–75 mg p.o. q. 6 h x 3–5 days Second-line therapy prednisone 40–60 mg p.o. q. daily x 3–5 days ALOPECIA Types Treatment Kerion – any fungus (esp M. canis) severe inflammatory reaction Trichotillomania – act of removing one’s own hair by manipulation Alopecia areata – rapid asymptomatic loss of hair Telogen effluvium – associated with weight loss, stress Anovulation with PCO – most common cause hyperandrogenism demonstrated in 40% Approved dosage of finasteride 1 mg/day may not be enough for male androgenetic alopecia. In one Italian study (Iorizzo M, Vincenzi C, Voudouris S, Piraccini BM, Tosti A. Finasteride treatment of female pattern hair loss. Arch Dermatol 2006; 142: 298–302) 2.5 mg/day was well tolerated ALPHA-FETOPROTEIN Fetal AFP – produced sequentially by fetal yolk sac, GI tract and liver Reaches peak concentration at end of first trimester. Abrupt decrease in AFP production at 30 weeks MSAFP – continues to increase with fetal levels that decrease Mechanism of transfer – 2/3 transplacental, 1/3 amniotic 5-ALPHA-REDUCTASE DEFICIENCY This enzyme is needed to convert testosterone to dihydrotestosterone, which is required for the development of penis and scrotum These children are usually raised as females, some even father children. There are normal male levels of testosterone and estrogen but no breast development ALTERNATIVE MEDICINES Approximately half women in the USA and Canada use alternative medicines Women use this % botanicals for menopausal symptoms St John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum) Valerian Ginkgo biloba Echinacea Garlic Depressive disorders (major depressions cannot be treated) Classes of phytoestrogens Isoflavones Lignans Coumestans Soy Lentils, legumes, garbonzo beans Flaxseed Cereals and fruits Red clover Bean sprouts, sunflower seeds Sleep disorders Circulatory disorders URIs Hypercholesterolemia 10–15% 16 ALZHEIMER'S ALZHEIMER’S Risks Age FMH Genetics APP Head trauma Female chromosomes 1, 14, 21 chromosome 19 Protective Estrogen Increased educational level Anti-inflammatory Antioxidant use Diagnosis Mini cognitive tests ‘Clock test’ – have patient attempt to draw a picture of the face of a clock. The times will usually be very unusual Others include the ‘two word test’ where a patient is told two to three words at beginning of brief conversation then asked to recall them The ‘backward count test’ is another test in which patients are requested to count backward or backward by sevens, etc. These patients are very skilled at turning the situation around and not answering some of these tests Treatment Cholinergics Tacrine q.i.d. – increases liver enzymes Zoloft – increases serotonin Aricept® (donepezil HCl) 5 mg/day × 1 month then 10 mg/day × 2–3 months orally at night. This inhibits acetylcholinesterase, which is one of the enzymes that cause the breakdown of cholinesterase Reminyl® 16 and 24 mg daily taken as 8 mg or 12 mg tablets b.i.d. with a full meal. This inhibits acetylcholinesterase and nicotinic receptors Exelon® 1.5, 3, 4.5 and 6 mg dosages to be taken b.i.d. beginning with smaller dosages and titrating up. This drug inhibits both acetylcholinesterase and butylcholinesterase Use one of these then reassess changes in behavior, cognition after a few months of therapy Estrogen should be used to PREVENT rather than treat Alzheimer’s AMBIGUOUS GENITALIA Fusion of labial folds and absence of palpable testes. Incidence is 1/5000–1/15 000 Determinants of sex rearing is fertility potential of phallus/responsiveness increased in Alaskan Yupik Eskimo Delay sex assignment until diagnosis (‘not developed yet’) Technically – construction of female genitalia is easier. Reassignment of sex can be made up to 18 months Diagnosis H&P MRI – uterus + cervix? ovaries? undescended testes? urethra, vagina Labs – karyotype, lytes, 17-OHP, androgens (testosterone, DHEA), 11-deoxycortisol, 11-deoxycorticosterone Three types Salt-wasting – 66% with virilizing adrenal hyperplasia Symptoms: failure to thrive, apathy, vomiting, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, acidosis Non-saltwasting (virilizing) Late-onset – seen after adolescence, menstrual irregularities, infertility Most common cause is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (female pseudohermaphroditism or congenital virilizing adrenal hyperplasia). NEED RAPID DIAGNOSIS TO SAVE INFANT 7 days If left untreated – progressive virilization, metabolic disorders (salt-wasting, increased B/P, hypoglycemic) MOST FREQUENT CAUSE OF ENDOCRINE NEONATAL DEATH AND SEX AMBIGUITY (1) Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (a) 21-Hydroxylase deficiency (most common CAH) 90% Increased serum (50–400-fold) 17-OHP AMBIGUOUS GENITALIA 17 Located on chromosome 6 Most common autosomal recessive trait Rx with glucocorticoids Prenatal Rx: dexamethasone (if karyotypes OK – stop) Newborn Rx: cortisol 12–18 mg/m2 Abnormal 17-OHP @ 48 h after birth is 3500–40 000 ng/dl (50–400 x) (b) 11β-Hydroxylase deficiency 5–8% Increased serum 17-OHP and increased 11-deoxycorticosterone Hypertensive in what % of cases? 66% Form of non-salt-wasting CAH Located on chromosome 8 Karyotype for A + B are 46XX (c) 3β-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency Rare Increased 17-OHP but can be normal Karyotype is 46XY (2 Male pseudohermaphroditism – rare enzyme disorders 5α-reductase deficiency 46XY (3) True hermaphroditism (4) Gonadal dysgenesis #3 and 4 have normal androgens and 17-OHP Laparotomy, gonadal biopsy or gonadectomy needed to confirm Laparoscopy INADEQUATE because gonads are possibly small and hidden in inguinal canal 18 AMBIGUOUS GENITALIA Ambiguous genitalia – Summary Definition Anatomic modification of the external genitalia making specific determination of gender difficult Evaluation The prime diagnosis, until ruled out, is congenital adrenal hyperplasia, because this is the only condition that is life-threatening Differential diagnosis (four categories) (1) (2) (3) (4) Female pseudohermaphroditism Male psuedohermaphroditism True hermaphroditism Gonadal dysgenesis Diagnostic work-up (1) (2) (3) (4) History and physical Are gonads palpable? (Most important part of the exam) Phallus length and diameter? Position of the urethral meatus? Degree of labioscrotal fold fusion? Is there a vagina, vaginal pouch or urogenital sinus? Pelvic ultrasound or MRI Blood for karyotype analysis, serum electrolytes androgens (androstenedione, testosterone, DHEA, DHEAS), 17-OHP, 11-deoxycorticosterone and 11-deoxycortisol In selected cases – laparotomy, gonadal biopsy and/or gonadectomy (laparoscopic evaluation is inadequate) Laboratory findings (1) (2) (3) Female pseudohermaphroditism (genetic females with excess androgen) in the absence of maternal androgen excess – three forms of congenital virilizing adrenal hyperplasia: (a) 21-Hydroxylase deficiency – elevated serum 17-OHP This is the most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (90%), the most frequent cause of sexual ambiguity and the most frequent endocrine cause of neonatal death (b) 11β-hydroxylase deficiency – elevated serum 11-deoxycorticosterone and 11-deoxycortisol (c) 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency – elevated 17-hydroxypregnenolone and dehydroepiandrosterone Male pseudohermaphroditism – the result of rare enzyme disorders True hermaphrodite or gonadal dysgenesis – normal androgens, normal 17-OHP Laparotomy, gonadal biopsy and/or gonadectomy is needed to confirm the diagnosis Treatment It is better to delay sex assignment, than to reverse it at a later date. Tell the parents that the genitals are unfinished, rather than abnormal The sex assignment depends on whether the phallus can develop into a functional penis. The construction of female genitalia is technically easier If reassignment of sex is necessary, it can usually be made safely up to 18 months of age 19 AMENORRHEA AMENORRHEA Mean age of menarche is how old? Definition Causes 12.8 years Absence of menstruation for 3 or more months in female with past menses or absence of menarche by age of 16 years in female who has never menstruated No period by what age in the absence of secondary sex characteristics? No period by what age regardless of presence of secondary sex characteristics? Causes include anatomic, ovarian failure or endocrine imbalance 14 16 (1) Central hypothalamic–pituitary deficiency in gonadotropic production No breast development due to decreased production of E2 Normal external and internal genitals. Draw FSH Ovarian failure if FSH increased and over 40 mIU/ml Central defect (hypothalamic–pituitary) if decreased FSH GnRH stimulation – LH (increased) indicates hypothalamic such as isolated gonadotropin deficiency LH with no change indicates pituitary such as pituitary adenoma (2) Androgen insensitivity (46XY) Breasts are present (aromatization of androgens to estrogens) Absence of Müllerian structures (no uterus, cervix, tube, upper vagina) Testosterone and LH elevated. Draw serum testosterone Incomplete androgen insensitivity (46XY) (testicular feminization) Usually associated with ambiguous genitalia, minimal breast development and minimal pubic hair – Müllerian agenesis (46XX) (Mayer–Rokitansky–Kuster–Hauser syndrome) Breasts are present Absence of Müllerian structures Mild – incomplete fusion of Müllerian cyst with urogenital sinus vaginal transverse septum Complete – no uterus, cervix, fallopian tube or upper vagina Testosterone level normal. Pubic hair usually normal Check IVP as incidence of coexisting renal anomaly is 50% Vertebral anomalies, cardiac and congenital anomalies increased Vertebral anomalies are usually increased @ 12% M-R-K-H is the second most common cause of amenorrhea (3) Gonadal dysgenesis (45XO, 46XX or 46XY) Usually due to random chromosomal disorder Can be due to deletion of all or part of an X chromosome Sometimes a genetic defect, rarely 17α-hydroxylate deficiency DO NOT DEVELOP OVARIES – instead gonadal streaks Most common cause of primary amenorrhea 50% – Turner’s (45XO). Resulting from abnormal karyotype No breasts, shield chest, web neck, short stature Coarctation of aorta or bicuspid aortic valve Increased risk of renal anomalies especially horseshoe kidneys – Swyer (46XY). Gonadal failure in early fetal development Absence of both testosterone and MIF No breasts (deficiency in estrogen) External and internal genitalia Remove any gonad if there is the presence of Y chromosome after the age of 18 due to increased incidence of malignancy by 25% (4) Differential; Pregnancy, iatrogenic, ovarian failure, autoimmune disease, PCO, hyperprolactinemia, chronic disease, anovulation, menopause, Asherman syndrome, radiation/chemotherapy, anorexia/stress, tumor – pituitary/hypothalamic, developmental/genetic Pearls Asherman syndrome may result from pregnancy endometritis Testicular feminization is characterized by breast development, decreased pubic and axillary hair and blind or absent vagina What two labs should be obtained in evaluation of hirsutism and virilization? Testosterone DHEA-S 20 AMENORRHEA Kallmann syndrome is associated with primary amenorrhea, anosmia and color blindness Increased secretion of what can cause increased production of prolactin levels? TRH Prolactin levels should be drawn in relaxed fasting state Prolactin levels are increased by sleep and food ingestion Visual-field and extensive pituitary function testing are indicated whenever a pituitary neoplasm is 10 mm LH/FSH ratio aid in diagnosis of PCO if ratio > 2.5 McIndoe procedure = vaginoplasty for adolescents who have no vagina Frank procedure = use of vaginal dilator or increase in size using dilator Hypoestrogenic females have to ingest increased amounts of calcium to achieve a + calcium balance Exercise-induced amenorrhea is hypothalamic. FSH level is normal to low Concern is osteoporosis – give estrogen Amenorrhea – Summary Definition (in absence of pregnancy) (1) No menses by age 14 in absence of secondary sexual characteristics or (2) No menses by age 16 regardless of presence of secondary sexual characteristics or (3) Three normal cycle intervals without menses or 6 months of amenorrhea in previously menstruating women Compartmentalization of evaluation Compartment Compartment Compartment Compartment I: II: III: IV: Outflow tract/endometrium Ovary Anterior pituitary CNS (hypothalamus) Evaluation History & physical R/o pregnancy Therapeutic/laboratory investigation TSH – r/o hypothyroidism Prolactin – If greater than 100 mg/ml, MRI Progestin challenge (progesterone in oil 200 mg IM or medroxyprogesterone acetate 10 mg p.o. q.d. x 5 days) If + withdrawal bleed, diagnostic of anovulation If – withdrawal bleed, investigate Compartment I Compartment I Estrogen/progestin cycle (1.25 mg conjugated estrogen q.d. x 21 days plus medroxyprogesterone acetate 10 mg q.d. for the last 5 days Negative (–) withdrawal bleed – defect in endometrium or outflow tract Positive (+) withdrawal bleed – investigate compartments II and IV Compartments II, III and IV FSH/LH assay – At least 2 weeks after estrogen/progestin Low/normal – MRI Hypothalamic amenorrhea High Ovarian failure 21 AMENORRHEA TSH prolactin progestin challenge Elevated TSH Elevated prolactin (>100) Withdrawal bleed MRI Prolactin TSH No withdrawal bleed Hypothyroid Anovulation Estrogen/ progestin cycle WNL No withdrawal bleed Withdrawal bleed Endometrium/ outflow tract defect FSH/LH assay Low/normal MRI Hypothalamic amenorrhea High Ovarian failure 22 AMENORRHEA NO MENSES BY AGE 14 YEARS, AND NO SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS NO MENSES BY AGE 16 YEARS, WITH SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS Patient type Breasts absent; uterus present Breasts present; uterus absent Presumptions Distinguishing tests Lack of breasts indicates estrogen is not being produced by the gonads because of hypothalamic–pituitary failure, lack of ovarian follicles or lack of two active X chromosomes FSH level identifies if estrogen lack is caused by ovarian failure (high FSH)* or hypothalamic–pituitary failure (low FSH) Presence of uterus indicates Y chromosome is not present • Hypothalamic failure (LH rises) Presence of breasts indicates estrogen was or is being produced by the gonads Testosterone level suggests if the patient is: • 46XX with Müllerian agenesis (female levels) Absence of uterus indicates either of the following: • 46XY with androgen insensitivity (male levels) • Karyotyping confirms genetic sex is male with lack of androgen receptors. The gonads should be removed to prevent malignant transformation Müllerian agenesis is present in an otherwise normal female (Mayer–Rokitansky) • The patient has a Y chromosome (androgen insensitivity) Breasts absent; uterus absent Lack of breasts indicates estrogen is not being produced by the gonads because of gonadal agenesis, agonadism or rare gonadal enzyme deficiencies Absence of uterus indicates the patient has a Y chromosome with testes that produced MIF at one time GnRH stimulation identifies whether the hypothalamus or pituitary has failed: • Pituitary failure (lack of LH response) Karyotyping of 46XY, an elevated gonadotropin level and a testosterone level in the female range confirms gonadal agenesis of agonadism Gonadal biopsy is needed to diagnose rare enzyme deficiencies Presence of female external genitalia indicates no testes were present to produce testosterone when the external genitalia formed Breasts present; uterus present Presence of breasts indicates estrogen was or is being produced by the gonads These patients should be worked up with β-hCG, TSH level, prolactin level, progesterone challenge test Presence of uterus indicates Y chromosome is not present *High FSH: 99.00%, ovarian failure; 0.99%, 17-hydroxylase deficiency (46XX); 0.01%, oat cell CA of lung 23 AMNIOINFUSION AMNIOCENTESIS Definition Amniocentesis is prenatal diagnostic testing of the amniotic fluid Genetic amniocentesis Gestation of 16–18 weeks is the optimal time for genetic amniocentesis for the following indications: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Maternal age of 35 or older at EDC Parental translocation carriers prior infant Family history of neural tube defect Paternal age of 55 years or older Mother known to be carrier of X-linked disorder History of habitual abortion Risk for prenatally diagnosable biochemical/genetic disorder Maternal serum fetoprotein abnormal Non-genetic amniocentesis During the second and third half of pregnancy for the following indications: (1) Fetal lung maturity (2) Rh iso-immunization (3) Meconium (4) Postdatism (5) Amnionitis – for Gram stain and culture Procedure (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Genetic counseling and informed patient consent must precede amniocentesis The amniocentesis is to be performed by a physician The amniocentesis is performed under aseptic technique. Select the site for transabdominal insertion of spinal needle (22 or 20 gauge) by ultrasonographic determination of placenta site, fetal position and the presence of a suitable pool of amniotic fluid. Avoid the placenta and fetus. All amniocentesis procedures are to be performed under sonographic guidance. The tap should be done, if possible, at midline to avoid major vessels When an inadequate specimen is retrieved or the fluid is very bloody, a second needle insertion may be necessary. More than two needle insertions should be avoided. The first few drops of fluid should be discarded in order to minimize the risk of contamination by maternal cells in the needle pathway In case of twins, one sac should be tapped, the fluid collected and 0.5 cc violet gentian should be inside the same sac. A second needle and another site should be used for the second tap. Clear fluid should be obtained Patients are released after a brief period of observation and ultrasound documentation of fetal viability Instructions should be given to patient about resting for the remainder of the day and notify in case of fever, contractions or bleeding AMNIOINFUSION Bolus 800 ml At rate of 10–15 ml/min Until non-reassuring FHR abates then + 250 ml Repeat if fluid loss, positional change, patient has Valsalva or FHR decreases again Continuous method: loading dose of 10 ml/min x 1 h Then maintenance dose per infusion pump at 3 ml/min 24 AMNIONITIS AMNIONITIS Definition Amnionitis is a clinically defined infectious disease process involving the intrauterine contents during pregnancy. Synonymous terms include chorioamnionitis (‘chorio’), intra-amniotic infection and amniotic fluid infection For the most part, amnionitis is a bacterially mediated event, although other types of pathogens – such as mycoplasmas and viruses–have been implicated as causative agents Pathogenesis The most common route for infection involves the passage of micro-organisms from the lower genital tract in an ascending fashion. In a majority of cases, this follows either spontaneous or artificial rupture of the fetal membranes A less common route for transmission involves the hematogenous spread of a maternally derived organism via transplacental passage. The exact mechanism by which this occurs has yet to be clearly defined Organisms such as Group B streptococci and Escherichia coli are overly represented in amnionitis cases, in particular those associated with bacteremia. Organisms such as Gardnerella vaginalis, Fusobacterium and Bacteroides bivius are not uncommonly seen in this disease process Diagnosis Criteria for the diagnosis of amnionitis include fever, maternal tachycardia, fetal tachycardia, uterine tenderness, foul-smelling amniotic fluid and maternal leukocytosis. From a practical standpoint, fever is the primary clinical feature needed to establish the diagnosis of amnionitis The only laboratory studies that help support the diagnosis of amnionitis involve sampling of the amniotic fluid. Although culture is the gold standard for confirming the diagnosis, it is not particularly useful in the acute setting. A positive Gram stain (defined as the identification of any bacteria in an uncentrifuged amniotic fluid sample using high-power magnification) correlates relatively well with subsequent culture positivity Therapy When clinical amnionitis is diagnosed, basic goals of therapy are: (1) To initiate the labor and delivery process regardless of the gestational age (2) To attempt identification of the pathogens involved in the infectious disease process (3) To initiate empiric antibiotic therapy (4) To carefully monitor uterine and fetal heart rate activity Given the mixed polymicrobial infectious disease process, broad-spectrum parenteral antimicrobial therapy is indicated. This typically includes: (a) Ampicillin, 1–2 g every 6 h (b) Gentamicin given in loading and maintenance doses according to the patient’s weight and (c) Clindamycin 900 mg every 8 h (or metronidazole) In patients with mild to moderate infections use of any of the monotherapies seems appropriate (especially second- and third-generation cephalosporins and penicillins) Unless delivery is imminent, it is recommended that antibiotic therapy be initiated during the intrapartum interval. Although this may hamper the neonate’s evaluation with regard to sepsis, data clearly indicate an improvement in maternal and neonatal outcome when therapy is initiated early To reduce puerperal morbidity, the vaginal route is clearly preferable for the mother. For the fetus, vaginal delivery is preferred only if it is expeditious and atraumatic Patients with amnionitis usually have a prompt clinical response to delivery and antibiotics therapy. Assuming the patient has a rapid response to initial therapy, it would seem appropriate to discontinue antibiotics after the patient has been afebrile for 24 h, has return of bowel function and does not demonstrate unusual uterine tenderness. If fever persists after delivery, the patient should be evaluated for other foci of infection or for associated noninfectious complications, such as septic pelvic thrombophlebitis 25 AMNIONITIS Diagnosis and management of amnionitis Intra-amniotic infection Early diagnosis: Soft signs Maternal fever Maternal & fetal tachycardia Hard signs Uterine tenderness Foul fluid Labs Negative diagnosis/ observe WBC and differentiated amniotic fluid studies Gram stain & cultures Positive diagnosis Delivery imminent Delivery not imminent Start antibiotics Withhold antibiotics Monitor Permit vaginal delivery No distress Good progress Poor progress Fetal distress Vaginal delivery C-section 26 AMNIOTIC EMBOLISM Pearls Incidence at term Increased infant mortality in term infants Incidence at preterm Increased infant mortality in preterm infants 1–5% 1–4% 25% 15% Etiology Ascending infection (bacteroides, E. coli, anaerobic streptococcus, GBBS) Increased risk – low SE status, young, nulliparous, multiple exams, extended duration of labor and ROM Differential diagnosis – URI, bronchitis, pneumonia, pyelonephritis, appendicitis Diagnosis Maternal fever, maternal + fetal tachycardia, uterine tenderness, purulent amniotic fluid Be cautious about elevated WBC or elevated concentration of C-reactive protein Amniocentesis, Gram stain, BPP Blood cultures are positive 5–10% (one source 28%) Amniotic fluid glucose ≤ 10–15% Amniotic fluid interleukin ≥ 7.9 ng/ml Amniotic fluid leukocyte esterase ≥ 1 + reaction Maternal WBC elevated with leukocytes ≥ 15 000 Dysfunctional labor Patients who require Pitocin Patients who require C-section FHR abnormalities observed (tachycardia + decreased variability) Treatment Benefits of early treatment Decreased frequency of neonatal bacteremia Decreased duration of maternal fever and hospitalization (1) Ampicillin 2 g q. 6 h with gentamicin 1.5 mg/kg q. 8 h (2) Penicillin 5 million units q. 6 h with gentamicin 1.5 mg/kg q. 8 h (3) If C-section, add clindamycin 900 mg q. 8 h or Flagyl® 500 mg q. 8 h No oral antibiotics needed but continue antibiotic therapy until patient is afebrile without symptoms for how many hours? (May give oral antibiotic therapy for documented staph or following vaginal delivery with rapid defervescence of symptoms) Definitely treat + culture or PPROM 75% 34–40% 75% 24 h AMNIOTIC EMBOLISM Incidence Comprises what % of maternal deaths? Maternal mortality is Maternasl neurological deficit is If intrapartum, fetal mortality rate is 1/20 000 10% or 5th leading cause of death. Ranges from 26 to 90% 24% 61% Diagnosis Acute hypoxia, hypotension or cardiac arrest, coagulopathy Clinical presentation similar to anaphylaxis and septic shock Treatment Expedient diagnosis and treatment. CVP, intubation, treatment of DIC AMNIOTIC EMBOLISM Amniotic fluid embolism – Summary Sudden signs (1) (2) (3) (4) Agitation Dyspnea Anxiety Respiratory arrest During labor, delivery or postpartum Differential diagnosis (1) (2) (3) (4) Acute pulmonary edema Pulmonary emboli from the peripheral venous circulation Cardiac arrhythmias (MI) Uterine rupture or anesthesia complications can mimic During resuscitative efforts – obtain blood from the pulmonary artery via central lines. Look for fetal squames (Attwood stain) and mucin (Giemsa stain). This will confirm the diagnosis in patients who survive Management (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Endotracheal intubation ABGs (monitor for blood gases to maintain O2 flow rates) CPR p.r.n. Digoxin or dopamine (in second phase of disorder for left ventricular failure) Swan–Ganz (triple-lumen pulmonary artery) catheter (Obtain special stains during placement) ICU (if patient survives – meticulous attention to cardiac and renal function and fluid balance) Pay attention to blood loss (PTT, plts, FDP, fibrinogen) FFP and/or plts for D/C 27 28 AMNIOTIC EMBOLISM Amniotic fluid embolism Rapid infusion of amniotic fluid with particulate matter (meconium) into maternal circulation Immediate and sharp increase in pulmonary artery pressure and pulmonary vascular resistance This disordered ventilation – perfusion causes systemic hypoxia Systemic hypoxia Then Left ventricular failure Thromboplastin-rich amniotic fluid triggers the intrinsic clotting system with rapid defibrination and hemorrhage (DIC), which aggravates an already complex cardiovascular picture 29 ANEMIA ANATOMY Important points of anatomy to remember: Arterial and venous supply (1) External iliac artery → inferior epigastric artery (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Branches of hypogastric Ovarian veins Right ovarian vein drains into inferior vena cava Left ovarian vein drains into left renal vein Appendiceal artery → ileocolic branch of the superior mesentery artery Uterine vein → internal iliac veins Abdominal aorta → ovarian arteries Inferior epigastric → injury can occur with Maylard incision Gastroepiploic arteries → ligate during omentectomy Collateral circulation after hypogastric ligation is via→ lateral and medial circumferential femoral arteries and middle sacral arteries Posterior division Anterior division Iliolumbar Internal iliac (hypogastric) Lateral sacral Obturator Superior gluteal Umbilical → superior vesical Uterine → vaginal Middle rectal → inferior rectal Inferior gluteal Internal pudendal Blood supply to vagina Upper 1/3 → cervicovaginal branch of uterine Middle 1/3 → inferior vesical arteries Lower 1/3 → middle rectal and internal pudendal Blood supply to perineum Internal pudendal artery → Inferior rectal and posterior labial Blood supply to uterus Anterior branch of hypogastric → uterine artery Uterine vein → internal iliac vein Lymphatics Lymphatics of upper vagina drain to iliacs and obturators Lymphatics of middle vagina drain to internal iliacs Lymphatics of lower 1/3 of vagina drains to inguinal (femoral) nodes Lymphatics of the uterus Lower uterine segment and cervix drain to iliacs and hypogastrics Upper segment and corpus drain to internal iliacs, hypogastrics, ovarian and periaortics (Endometrial cancer → mets to inguinal nodes → round ligament) Lymphatics of the ovaries Drain to pericaval and periaortics ANEMIA Anemia is a common medical problem in women, more frequently than in men, due to blood loss from menstruation and childbirth and as a result of certain problems that occur more often in women, such as collagen vascular disease. Finding the precise etiology is necessary to appropriately manage the anemia Symptoms Fatigue, tachycardia, palpitations, and dyspnea on exertion. History taking should include a detailed menstrual calendar that records frequency, duration of flow, and the presence or absence of clots. GI symptoms like heartburn or dark tarry stools should also be noted Diagnosis Confirming the diagnosis is essentially the first step. Measure hemoglobin and hematocrit in venous blood with a CBC and classify the anemia according to the diminished production or increased destruction of red blood cells. An alternative approach is to measure MCV and categorize the anemia into microcytic, normocytic, or macrocytic subtypes. Iron deficiency anemia, thalassemias, and anemia of chronic disease are associated with low MCV (<80 fl), while pernicious anemia is associated with a high MCV (>100 fl). Differential Iron deficiency anemia – most common anemia found in women. Serum ferritin is diagnostic if found to be low 30 ANEMIA Treatment Oral iron supplements (ferrous gluconate better tolerated than ferrous sulfate; sometimes recommended to take with citrus juice for vitamin C on an empty stomach for better absorption. Although this oral therapy may take 8–9 months to restore iron, IV iron is recommended only for patients refractory to oral iron therapy) Hypochromic microcytic anemia (MCV < 80 fl) (1) Iron (Fe+ ) deficiency anemia (most common) Decreased iron Causes: (a) Dietary deficiency (uncommon in U.S.) (b) Decreased iron absorption (pernicious anemia, gastric surgery, or removal of terminal ileum) (c) Pregnancy (d) Lactation (e) Blood loss (GI loss, menstruation) (f ) Iron sequestration (pulmonary hemosiderosis) Symptoms: fatigue Treatment: elemental Fe+ 200 mg daily (2) Anemia of chronic disease (especially in elderly women) (3) Sideroblastic anemia (a) Congenital (b) Lead (c) Alcohol (d) Drugs (4) Copper deficiency (5) Zinc poisoning (rare) (6) Thalassemias α-Thalassemia either asymptomatic or clinically silent. Trait will show mild microcytic anemia. Hgb H disease will show intraerythrocytic inclusions and hydrops fetalis will show Bart’s B4Hgb precipitations Thalassemia major and minor (a) β-Thalassemia major (Cooley anemia) Increased Hgb A2, hypochromic microcytosis. Females who survive are usually sterile (80% of untreated children die in first 5 years of life.) Treatments are repeated transfusions, splenectomy, and iron chelation with deferoxamine. Therapies under investigation are bone marrow transplant and gene therapy (b) β-Thalassemia minor Hgb A2 > 3.5%, Hgb F > 2%. Hypochromic microcytosis Anemia is mild Treatment: Fe+ 60 mg and folic acid 1 mg daily. Constant monitoring and transfusion as needed (c) Spherocytosis Hemolysis and corresponding anemia dependent upon intact spleen Normocytic anemia (normal MCV, 80 →100 fl) (1) Acute blood loss (most common) (2) Early iron deficiency anemia (3) Anemia of chronic disease (infection, HIV, inflammation, malignancy) (4) Bone marrow suppression (bone marrow invasion, acquired pure red cell aplasia, aplastic anemia/myelofibrosis) (5) Autoimmune hemolytic anemia (erythroblastosis fetalis, transfusion reaction, collagen vascular disease, hemolytic uremic syndrome/ thrombocytopenic purpura) (6) Chronic renal disease (decreased erythropoietin) (7) Endocrine disorder (hypothyroidism or hypopituitarism) (8) Spherocytosis (hereditary anomaly of the red cell membrane) (9) Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria Megaloblastic anemia (macrocytic anemia: MCV > 100 fl) (1) Folic acid deficiency – pernicious anemia of pregnancy, macrocytosis, increased MCV, hypersegmentation of neutrophils. Incidence is increased with ethanol ingestion (ETHANOL ABUSE) Symptoms: nausea, vomiting and anorexia Treatment: (1) Folic acid 1 mg daily (2) Vitamin B12 IM 1000 mg weekly for 4 weeks then monthly for life. Oral supplements of B12 can be used after the first month of injections, if absorption is not a problem 31 ANOREXIA NERVOSA (2) Vitamin B12 deficiency – rare Takes years to deplete vitamin B12 Incidence increased with gastric resection, Crohn’s disease Symptoms: neurological (posterior lateral column) (3) Myelodysplastic syndromes (4) Acute myeloid leukemia (5) Reticulocytosis Hemolytic anemia, response to blood loss, or response to appropriate therapy (6) Drug-induced anemia (7) Liver disease/severe hypothyroidism ANESTHESIA Predisposition to difficult intubation (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) Full dentition (protuberant teeth) Breast enlargement Abnormal neck (enlarged thyroid, arthritis or neck facial edema) Receding mandible (or small mandible) Protruding maxillary incisors Marked obesity Asthma (or serious medical or Ob conditions) History of problems with anesthetics Thick tongue Pregnancy DO NOT (1) Use depolarizing muscle relaxants prior to administering non-polarizing agents for muscle relaxation (2) Extubate in upright position % of patients who report awareness during general ob anesthesia Anesthesia criteria 20% Feasible to administer epidural earlier; however, some studies support postponing epidural until cervix is 4–5 cm. One could use some Sublimaze® (fentanyl) or other narcotic until the initiation of active labor. Use terms as ‘reasonable’, ‘apparently slow labor’ ANGIOTENSIN-CONVERTING ENZYME INHIBITORS (ACE INHIBITORS) Cause Oligohydramnios Fetal and neonatal death Renal failure Fetal hypocalvaria ANOREXIA NERVOSA Refusal to maintain body weight at or above minimal normal weight for age and height Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat Denial of body weight or shape for self-evaluation Amenorrhea (at least three cycles) Symptoms Dry skin Yellow palms Hypothermia Bradycardia Hypotension Labs Increased cortisol Decreased T3 and T4 Treatment Force feed Psychotherapy HRT (prevent osteoporosis) < 85% 32 ANOVULATION (CHRONIC) ANOVULATION (CHRONIC) Labs (With no evidence of hyperandrogenism) FSH, TSH, DHEA-S, prolactin, endogenous estrogens Serum progesterone levels compatible with presumptive ovulation = 3–5 ng/ml ANTIBIOTICS If allergic to PCN or cephalosporins, give: clindamycin, doxycycline or metronidazole Bacterial endocarditis prophylaxis Ampicillin 2 g IV or IM plus gentamicin 1.5 mg/kg @ 30 min prior to procedure then amoxicillin 1.5 g p.o. 6 h after initial dose or repeat ampicillin/ gentamicin IV/IM dose If allergic to PCN – give vancomycin 1 g IV slowly over 1 h prior to surgery with gentamicin then repeat 8 h later Categories Most antibiotics are category B Gentamicin and fluoroquinolones are category C Nitrofurantoin is category B Sulfonamides are category B and D (avoid at term) Tetracyclines and streptomycin are category D Pearl Give second dose of antibiotic if (1) Blood loss > 1500 ml (ab concentration is decreased) (2) Procedure > 3 h (renal excretion will decrease effective ab) Scrubs also decrease bacterial concentration for 30–120 min ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME False + RPR (STS) + test for lupus anticoagulant + test for anticardiolipin (IgG and IgM) One or more of the following: Arterial or venous thrombosis Connective tissue disease Autoimmune thrombocytopenia Unexplained pregnancy loss beyond first trimester SLE is usually not associated with thrombotic events or second-trimester losses but + test for syphilis can be present CAPS – Catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome (Asherson’s syndrome) Tissue necrosis of the extremities is a hallmark of CAPS. Figure 1 Tissue necrosis of the extremities is a hallmark of CAPS (catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome, Asherson’s syndrome) 75% 90% 90% 33 APPENDECTOMY Labs Lupus anticoagulant and anticardiolipin antibodies Indications to test Unexplained fetal death or stillborn Recurrent pregnancy loss (3 or > sp abs or ? second- or third-trimester fetal death Severe PIH < 34 weeks Severe fetal growth restriction or evidence of uteroplacental insufficiency Medical: non-traumatic thrombosis, stroke or TIA. Autoimmune thrombocytopenia, SLE, hemolytic anemia. False-positive serology for syphilis Diagnostic Medium to high + anticardiolipin antibodies of IgG isotype Treatment Heparin 15 000–20 000 U unfractionated t.i.d. Low dose ASA, calcium carbonate 1500 mg, vitamin D and exercise. Close OB care AORTIC STENOSIS Most commonly a result of rheumatic heart disease AVOID decrease cardiac output (angina, MI, syncope and SD). Increased heart rate. Decrease in intravascular volume. PULMONARY ARTERY CATHETER INDICATED (18 mmHg) APGAR SCORE Sign 0 Points 1 Point 2 Points Heart rate Absent < 100 > 100 Respiratory effort Absent Slow, irregular Good, crying Muscle tone Limp Some flexion Active motion Reflex irritability No response Grimace Cough or sneeze Color Blue–white Body pink, extremities blue Completely pink Acronym: APGAR = activity, pulse, grimace, appearance, respirations APPENDECTOMY Diagnosis Helical CT is an accurate, non-invasive technique for the diagnosis of acute appendicitis in pregnancy. However, the misdiagnosis of appendicitis has not changed following the introduction of CT, ultrasound and laparoscopy. The frequency of appendiceal perforation has also not decreased with the introduction of these technologies (Flum DR, Morris A, Koepsell T, Dellinger EP. Has misdiagnosis of appendicitis decreased over time? A population-based analysis. J Am Med Assoc 2001;286:1748–53) Pregnancy Rupture of the appendix occurs 2–3 times more often in pregnancy because of delayed diagnosis. Treatment in pregnancy 1st Trimester – laparoscopic appendectomy IV antibiotics if there is any perforation, peritonitis, or abscess formation Tocolysis is unnecessary in uncomplicated appendicitis, but may be indicated if the patient goes into labor after surgery 3rd Trimester – if there is perforation or peritonitis, a C-section is indicated Incidental/non-emergent indications Contraindications (1) (2) (3) (4) Female Female Female Female 10–30 years of age with exploratory surgery for unexplained pain with exploratory surgery for RLQ pain who is mentally handicapped (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Female with Crohn’s disease Female with inaccessible appendix Presence of grafts or material Prior history of radiation Unstable medical condition 34 ARREST OF DILATATION ARREST OF DILATATION Criteria for arrest disorder (1) Latent phase complete (2) Uterine contractions without contractions at 4 cm 200 MV units for 2 h Evaluate 3 Ps (1) Powers – 3–5 contractions in a 10-min window (2) Passenger – fetal weight, position and attitude (3) Passage – bony pelvis (OP with narrow pelvis best delivered without rotation) See also Protraction disorder ARTHRITIS Chronic arthritis Rheumatoid Insidious onset over weeks to months. Small joints of hand (usually NOT distal). Wrists, elbows, shoulders. MORNING STIFFNESS + rheumatoid factor Osteoarthritis Common in females over what age? 55 years Distal interphalangeal joints of hands. Weight-bearing joints (HIPS + KNEES). NOT associated with morning stiffness. No lab abnormalities with joint fluid non-inflammatory Acute polyarticular Systemic lupus erythematosus Butterfly rash, photosensitivity, fever, fatigue and arthritis Acute monoarticular Disseminated gonococcal infection Young sexually active female. Most common cause of septic arthritis in the USA. Associated with pustular or papular dermatitis. KNEE, elbow, ankle, small joints Gout Precipitates attack: trauma, surgery, EtOH abuse, medical illness What lab level is elevated in prevalence? Serum uric acid What can be found in the synovial fluid? Urate crystals ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION CUMULATIVE PREGNANCY RATE After six cycles AID 40–50% What % of Paps? HGSIL or invasion 5% 15–20% ASCUS What causes ASCUS? Changes usually due to HPV-koilocytosis (perinuclear halo seen) Which viral protein of HPV disables p53? Diagnosis Colpo with ECC and biopsy When should LEEP or cone be carried out? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) E6 + E7 Biopsy does not explain abnormal cells? ECC has CIN Microinvasion is seen on biopsy Abnormal cytology with no visible colposcopic lesion Atypical epithelial extension to endocervical canal LGSIL and HGSIL = not reason to cone. Histologic reasons needed to cone Remember adenoca = ECC if bleeding or unexplained ASCUS with repeat Pap q. 3–6 months. Repair process due to trauma or to infection is a usual cause ASCUS can be associated with atrophy in elderly patient – treat with estrogen therapy then repeat Pap Staging of cervical cancer Examination and palpation (cervix, vagina, parametrium, side walls) Examination of supraclavicular nodes and upper abdomen CXR, IVP, cysto, flexible sigmoidoscopy or BE. NO CT, MRI or lymphangiogram 35 ASTHMA ASHERMAN’S SYNDROME Associated with Curettage after term pregnancy Therapeutic and spontaneous abortion Myomectomy Habitual abortion Hypomenorrhea Diagnosis Filling defects on HSG ASHERSON’S SYNDROME Associated with A rapidly progressive variant of the antiphospholipid syndrome CAPS → catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome 60% of the time, something triggers it Most common trigger is infection (22%). Trauma is 14% Clinical manifestations Vary widely ASSAULT Assault occurs in this % % % % of of of of the victim’s home victim’s home more than once ALL females who have had an attempted or actual assault assaults that are DATE RAPE 50% 50% 44% 25–85% Estimated % of rapes that are unreported in the USA 90% Percent of all US couples who will experience one incident of violence 40% What % of sexual assault victims report to ER within 72 h? 15–20% If > 72 h, forensic evidence not collected but remainder of exam is the same This % of victims will have somatic complaints 80% H istory (mens, Ob, contraception, date of last sex) I nformed consent (seek support person) D ocument (timing, nature, weapons, substances, information) F orensic (evidence of clothes, blood type for DNA, saliva, hair, fingernails) E mergency contraception A ntibiotics L ab (GC, Chlamydia, Trich) Work-up of sexual assault victim (1) Culture for GC and chlamydia. Culture and wet mount for BV, Trich and candidiasis. Serum for serology analysis if test positive (2) Pregnancy prevention Ovral® two tabs 12 h apart (3) Prophylaxis Hepatitis B vaccine, ceftriaxone 125 mg IM, doxycycline 100 mg b.i.d. x 7 days, metronidazole 2 g p.o. (no consensus @ HIV prophylaxis) (4) Follow-up 2 weeks – cultures for GC and chlamydia – not needed if treated 12 weeks – Serology T. pallidum, exam for infection Hep B virus – not needed if vaccine given 6 months – HIV (repeat test at 6 months) ASTHMA Tidal volume = air going in and out. This increases Minute ventilation = how much air is going in and out in 1 min (RR x TV) increases There is a decrease in pCO2 in pregnancy. Severe if CO2 is In pregnancy, there is a decrease in pCO2 to average of There is an average increase in pO2 to average of Forced expiratory volume (FEV1) and peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) are both 40% 50% 36 mmHg 30 mmHg 106 mmHg unchanged 36 ATELECTASIS Management Determine first whether the asthma is mild, moderate or severe and also try to eliminate the exacerbating factor. For instance, in pregnancy, often times the patient has esophageal reflux that can be the precipitating factor. If so, Zantac® 150 mg p.o. b.i.d. can be given If there is severe distress or there is poor response to outpatient treatment: Do H&P, PEF or FEV1, oxygen saturation, and fetal assessment with continuous electronic fetal monitoring and/or biophysical profile Treatment The author’s choices for outpatient management of asthma during pregnancy are (1) Leukotriene modifiers montelukast (Singulair® )10 mg p.o. q. day or zafirlukast (Accolate) and (2) Budesonide (category B Rhinocort or Pulmicort®) two puffs b.i.d. (dry cortisol powder inhaler) or (3) Short-acting β2 agonist metered-dose inhaler; 2–4 puffs every 20 minutes, up to 3 times. (4) Oral corticosteroid: 40–60 mg/day for 3–10 days. (5) Ipratropium metered-dose inhaler; 4–8 puffs as needed. More detailed treatment Mild – terbutaline (category B), albuterol (category C) Moderate – beclomethasone (category C) cromolyn (category B) useful in exercise-induced asthma Severe – theophylline (category C) decreased clearance so decrease dose. Aim for serum levels of 8–12 µg/ml Nebulized albuterol: 2.5–5.0 mg every 20 minutes for 3 doses, then 2.5–10 mg every 1–4 hours as needed Nebulized ipratropium: 0.5 mg every 30 minutes for 3 doses, then every 2–4 hours as needed Oxygen Systemic corticosteroid: 120–180 mg/day in 3–4 divided doses for 48 hours, then 60–80 mg/day until PEF = 70% Consider intravenous aminophylline: 6 mg/kg loading dose, 0.5 mg/kg per hour initial maintenance; keep theophylline level between 8 and 12 ug/ml Consider 0.25 mg subcutaneous terbutaline or magnesium sulfate if no response to therapy See also Respiratory disorders ATELECTASIS Most common cause of postop fever Fever, tachypnea and tachycardia develop within first 72 h after surgery Exam demonstrates: (1) Decreased breath sounds (2) Moist inspiratory rales (3) Increased productive cough (4) Increased WBCs (5) Patchy infiltrate on CXR Usually resolves by 3rd–5th postop day AUGMENTATION OF LABOR Pitocin 1 mU/min IV then increase by 1 mU/min IV PGE2 Dinoprostone (FDA approved) Prepidil® gel Cervidil® tampon PGE1 Misoprostol (not FDA approved but used for > 10 years) Cytotec® Prostin® suppositories Dilatories Laminaria Amniotomy q. 30 min q. 8 h @12–15 h prior to induction 25 µg q. 3 h 50 µg q. 6 h 2.5 µg 37 BARTHOLIN'S GLAND Pitocin Contractions 25–75 mmHg amplitude 95–395 MV units Hyperstim > five contractions in 10 min or contractions of normal duration within 1 min of each Treat hyperstim with terbutaline 0.25 mg IV or MgSO4 4 g in 10–20% dilution AZT Start in an HIV-infected patient if CD4 count is Prophylaxis for Pneumocystis carinii if CD4 count This CD4 lymphocyte count would necessitate AZT therapy in pregnancy Risk of perinatal transmission of HIV infection is approximately AZT therapy decreases risk of prenatal transmission by Prenatal care, AZT therapy, AND C-section reduce transmission rate of AIDS the most < 500/mm < 200/mm 100/mm 25–40% 66% BACK DOWN LIE Do low vertical incision BACK LABOR See Sterile water papules BACK UP LIE May do low transverse incision BACTERIAL VAGINITIS See also section on Vulvovaginosis. Associated with PTD (preterm delivery) Screen for BV in patients at high risk for PTL Treatment of choice is ORAL metronidazole (better than vaginal) Other treatments include Metrogel vaginal gel at night for 5 nights, Relagard at night for 5 nights, or clindamycin gel (Clindesse) once Treatment not to begin prior to first trimester Rescreening or re-treatment of persistent BV not clear. Routine screening NOT endorsed Twice weekly metronidazole can keep recurrent BV in check but one must be vigilant for candidiasis and consider suppressive therapy for it as well as BV BV recurs in up to 30% of women within 3 months, and greatly disrupts well-being. High-dose treatment (and possibly condoms) improve cure rate BARTHOLIN’S GLAND Obstruction of Bartholin’s duct with pain, tenderness and increase in size Abscess – GC, E. coli, Proteus, vaginal flora usually anaerobes Treatment Asymptomatic Symptomatic • None I&D Word catheter Marsupialization Excision Postmenopausal patient may present with malignancy so definitely excise Squamous cell, transitional cell and ADENOID CYSTIC carcinoma – wide local excision Local recurrences common Deeply invasive but no nodes are involved. Risk of excision in increased bleeding, scar formation, cellulitis, etc. 38 BASAL CELL CARCINOMA OF VULVA Figure 2 Treatment of Bartholin’s gland cyst with Word catheter BASAL CELL CARCINOMA OF VULVA What % of vulvar cancers? Usually of labia majora. ‘Rodent ulcers’ – central ulceration. Peripheral rolled edges Diagnosis Histology shows peripheral palisading of tumor cells Treatment Local excision with clear margins. If recurrence = wide local excision 2% BEHÇET’S DISEASE Autoimmune process (1) Ulcerative on anogenital area (2) Ulcer of buccal membrane (3) Eye involvement with neuro consequence BELL’S PALSY Occur in what % of pregnancy? Third trimester First and second trimester Postpartum 3 x more common in pregnancy 75% 15% 10% Isolated 7th facial cranial nerve palsy Symptoms (1) (2) (3) (4) Acute onset of pain in ear Right- or left-sided facial tightness and pain Inability to close eye Metallic taste in mouth Etiology Exposure to cold, hypercoagulability of pregnancy, hormone changes, fluid retention (mechanical compression or blood supply to nerve is compromised) Treatment Supportive Prognosis Good, usually spontaneously resolves, rapid BIOPHYSICAL PROFILE Gross body movements Rate (NST) Amniotic fluid Breathing movements Tone At At At At At least least least least least three discrete moves in 30 min two accelerations > 15 BPM of 15 s duration in 30 min one pocket measuring 2 cm in two perpendicular planes one episode > 30 s in 30 min one episode of active extension in 30-min period Intervene if 6 or < 39 BLEEDING BISHOP’S SCORE System to evaluate cervical induction Features 0 Points 1 Point 2 Points 3 Points Dilatation (cm) 0 1–2 3–4 5–6 Effacement (%) 0–30 40–50 60–70 80 –3 –2 –1, 0 +1, +2 Firm Medium Soft — Posterior Mid Anterior — Station Consistency Position Inducible if score is > 5 BLEEDING Amenorrhea Absent menstrual flow Menorrhagia Excessive bleeding at the time of menses > 90 days < 60 ml in 29% is normal However, 49% of women who complain of heavy periods have flow <80 ml and 27.7% who report normal flow lose > 80 ml of blood Metrorrhagia Bleeding occurring irregularly between menses Menometrorrhagia Prolongation of the menstrual flow associated with irregular intermenstrual bleeding Postmenopausal Bleeding that occurs when after the onset of menopause? Etiologies of bleeding DUB, pregnancy complications, organic pelvic lesions and extragenital problems (coagulopathies, endocrinopathies, iatrogenic) Prepubertal bleeding Bleeding prior to what age is abnormal? 9 years Cause = infection, foreign body, trauma, prolapse of urethra, neoplasm DES, OCPs, family history of dyscrasia? precocity? Ages 20–40, DUB (anovulatory bleeding) is responsible for < 20% Age > 40, DUB becomes common Perimenarchal bleeding (adolescence) What % of excessive abnormal uterine bleeding is due to coagulation defects? If hemoglobin is < 10 g/dl, risk of coagulopathy is Most common coagulopathy in adolescence is von Willebrand’s + ITP Less frequent coagulopathies are leukemia, sepsis, + hypersplenism Suspect coagulopathy if onset of heavy bleeding begins at menarche 1 year after 20% 45% Diagnosis (1) Use narrow blade speculum, one-finger digital exam or rectoabdominal exam p.r.n. and/or do ultrasound if suspect mass. Do Pap and cervical cultures if suspect sexual activity (2) Labs CBC, PT, PTT, bleeding time, platelet count Pregnancy test, TSH, prolactin level Treatment OCPs – Ethinylestradiol 30 µg and desogestrel 15 mg or Ovral (OCPs reduce mean menstrual blood loss from 60.2 ml to 36.5 ml after 3 months) Provera® 10 mg/day x 10 days or on cycle days 16–25, or for profuse bleed give Premarin® IV 25 mg q. 4 h up to three doses to stop active bleed. If hormone therapy fails to slow bleeding, do hysteroscopy to rule out polyps, submucous myomas or an A–V malformation Norethindrone 5 mg 3 times daily on cycle days 5–26 Femhrt (norethindrone acetate 1 mg, with ethinylestradiol 5 µg) – give twice-daily or in more extreme cases, 3 times daily NSAIDs – Naproxen 500 mg every 12 hours starting at onset of period. Relieves dysmenorrhea too IUD (progestin-releasing) – menstrual blood loss decreased 74–97% 6–12 months after insertion of the progestin-releasing intrauterine system 40 BLIGHTED OVUM Reproductive age bleeding OVULATORY BLEEDING (1) Midcycle bleeding: Premarin 1.25–2.5 mg 3 days prior to 2 days after ovulation (2) Premenstrual bleeding: Dxn with endometrial biopsy If trying to conceive If not trying to conceive Clomid OCPs ANOVULATORY BLEEDING Dxn with endometrial biopsy and ultrasound Treatment is same as #2 for ovulatory bleeding Postmenopausal bleeding See Postmenopausal bleeding Postcoital bleeding Occurs in up to 45% patients using OCPs (with increased vascularity and fragility of cervix, hyperplasia of glands and trauma) Cervical infection BV 10%, Trich 3% and yeast 2% Uncommon causes: T. pallidum, H. ducreyi, M. tuberculosis Increased frequency observed in midcycle and late in secretory phase of an ovulatory cycle Breakthrough bleeding Complications for women on OCPs (a) More likely to occur in smokers than non-smokers (b) Taking OCPs at same time each day minimizes BTB (c) Pelvic infections may also cause BTB. Evaluate p.r.n. Breakthrough bleeding 1. Reassure 2. Advise (a – c) 3. Wait 2 – 3 cycles with no change x 2 – 3 if just started First 1/2 of cycle days 1–9 (estrogen deficiency) Second 1/2 of cycle days 10–21 (progestin deficiency) Change to formulation with lower-dose* progestin Change to formulation with higher-dose* progestin * See contraceptive dosages BLIGHTED OVUM Ultrasound findings of a sac without fetal cardiac activity Dropping hCG levels Spontaneous abortions that are clinically recognized Pregnancies lost in first or early second trimester Pregnancies lost prior to missed menses Medical abortion Surgical > 1.2 cm 10–15% 15–20% 50–75% Misoprostol 800 µg or if uncertain about location of pregnancy give methotrexate 1 mg/kg IM then give misoprostol Paracervical at Labs Use cannula of correct size, if 8 weeks = Straight cannula Curved cannula – use for ante- or retroflexed uterus 5 days later 7, 9, 11, 1, 3, 5 Rh, Hct, preg test STDs? Paps? #8 less pain 41 BLOOD PRODUCTS Difficulty with stenotic cervix? Try Laminaria, Cytotec, rotation of tip of dilator Postop: give doxycycline, Methergine®, NSAIDs If Rh negative and < 12 weeks give MICRhoGAM > 12 weeks give full dose 50 µg 300 µg BLOOD PRODUCTS What % of blood products are administered to patients at or near the time of surgery? In Ob/Gyn, the transfusion rate has been reported between 0.16% and 8.6% with higher rate for 60% TAH Whole blood Advantageous during massive hemorrhage as it is cost effective + decreases infection risk. Disadvantage is that there is a decrease in number of platelets within hours of preparation followed by a rapid depletion of factors V and VIII within 1–14 days PRBCs Choice for hemorrhagic shock. O2 carrying capacity usually met with 7 g/dl Hgb or 21% Hct DO NOT GIVE if Hgb > 8 g/dl. 21–35 day shelf life. 4 to 1 ratio when blood loss is > 25% of blood volume For each unit of PRBCs transfused, the Hgb increases 1 g/dl The Hct increases by 2–3% Consider giving if < 10 g/dl in patient receiving radiation as response is better due to oxygen to tissue, resulting in free radical formation Clinical criteria to decide to transfuse should be: Tachycardia and dizziness Duration and cause of anemia Intravascular volume Extent of the operation or trauma Probability of additional blood loss Presence of coexisting conditions such as coronary artery disease, pulmonary insufficiency, cerebrovascular disease and peripheral vascular disease FFP Plasma, factors 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13 and 500 mg of fibrinogen in 200–250 ml bags Give in DIC. 4 to 1 ratio when blood loss is > 25% blood volume For every unit of FFP given, the clotting factor levels rise by Cryo Give if: Platelets hypofibrinogenemia (usually DIC) Von Willebrand’s disease (prefer factor VIII) or hemophilia A (prefer VIII:C) Usually needed when massive transfusions (> 10 U PRBCs in 24 h) are given or if pre-op platelet count < 50 000 (10–20 000 count usually @ with spontaneous bleeding). Give if < 20 000. 1 unit of platelets increases platelet count 5000–10 000 Give RhoGAM (300 µg) for every 3 units of platelets transfused (If Rh-negative woman given Rh-positive platelets) Crystalloids (RL or NS) 3% 80 U/ml of 8, 13, von Willebrand factor, 200–300 mg fibrinogen, fibronectin STAT resuscitation 3 to 1 rule (300 ml crystalloids per 100 ml blood/plasma volume lost) Stored blood has decreased pH but acidosis most likely associated with persistent shock Transfusion of large amounts of blood – alkalosis due to metabolism of citrate to bicarbonate After transfusion of 10 or > units of PRBCs, crossmatching no longer accurate 42 BLOOD PRODUCTS Large volume transfusion results in hypokalemia Check Ca+ levels frequently with transfusion of stored blood due to citrate in preservative (binds to Ca+) Do coagulation studies after 5–10 units of transfused blood Coagulation studies include PT, PTT, platelet count and fibrinogen level Give platelets and/or coagulation factors ONLY if evidence of deficiency No correlation with volume of blood given and abnormal coagulation Increased PT and PTT associated with ongoing hemorrhage – treat with 2 units FFP Component Major indications Action Not indicated for Special precautions Hazards* Rate of infusion Whole blood Symptomatic anemia with large volume deficit Restoration of oxygen-carrying capacity, restoration of blood volume Condition responsive to specific component Must be ABO-identical Labile coagulation factors deteriorate within 24 h after collection Infectious diseases, septic/toxic, allergic, febrile reactions, circulatory overload, GVHD For massive loss, as fast as patient can tolerate Red blood cells; red blood cells; (adenine–saline added) Symptomatic anemia Restoration of oxygen-carrying capacity Pharmacologically treatable anemia Coagulation deficiency Must be ABO-compatible Infectious diseases; septic/toxic, allergic, febrile reactions; GVHD As fast as patient can tolerate but less than 4 h Red blood cells, Symptomatic anemia, leukocytes reduced febrile reactions from leukocyte antibodies Restoration of oxygen-carrying capacity Pharmacologically treatable anemia Coagulation deficiency Must be ABO-compatible As fast as patient can Infectious diseases, tolerate but less septic/toxic, allergic than 4 h reactions (unless plasma also removed, e.g. by washing); GVHD Fresh frozen plasma Deficit of labile and stable plasma coagulation factors and TTP Source of labile and non-labile plasma factors Condition responsive to volume replacement Should be ABO-compatible Infectious diseases, allergic reactions; circulatory overload Less than 4 h Liquid plasma; plasma and thawed plasma Deficit of stable coagulation factors Source of non-labile factors Deficit of labile coagulation factors or volume replacement Should be ABO-compatible Infectious diseases allergic reactions Less than 4 h Cryoprecipitated AHF Hemophilia A‡ Provides factor VIII, fibrinogen, vWF, factor XIII Deficit of any plasma protein other than those enriched in cryoprecipitated AHF Frequent repeat doses may be necessary Infectious diseases; allergic reactions Less than 4 h von Willebrand’s disease‡ Hypofibrinogenemia Factor XIII deficiency Platelets; platelets, pheresis† Bleeding from thrombocytopenia or platelet function abnormality Improves hemostasis Plasma coagulation deficits and some conditions with rapid platelet destruction (e.g. ITP) Should not use some microaggregate filters (check manufacturer’s instructions) Infectious diseases; septic/toxic, allergic, febrile reactions; GVHD Less than 4 h Granulocytes, pheresis Neutropenia with infection Provides granulocytes Infection responsive to antibiotics Must be ABO-compatible, do not use depth-type microaggregate filters Infectious diseases; allergic reactions; febrile reactions; GVHD One unit over 2-4-h period – closely observe for reactions 43 *For all cellular components there is a risk the recipient may become alloimmunized † Red blood cells and platelets may be processed in a manner that yields leukocyte-reduced components for which the main indications are prevention of febrile, non-hemolytic transfusion and prevention of leukocyte alloimmunization Risks are the same as for standard components except for reduced risk of febrile reactions † When virus-inactivated concentrates are not available BLOOD PRODUCTS Summary chart of blood components 44 BLOOD TRANSFUSION RISKS BLOOD TRANSFUSION RISKS Approximately how many patients in the USA receive the wrong unit of blood each year? 1000 Immunologic risks (mild fever, chills, urticaria) 1/50–100 Hemolytic transfusion reactions 1/6000 Fatal hemolytic transfusion reactions 1/100 000 Hepatitis C 80–90% 1/3300 Hepatitis B 10% 1/50 000–1/200 000 CMV 3–5% Epstein–Barr virus 1–3% HIV < 1% 1/150 000–1/1 000 000 (1/676 000) Risk of a woman becoming infected with HIV after transfusion with a unit of allogenic blood 1/680 000 Risk of HIV infection after percutaneous exposure to HIV infected blood 0.3% Risk of developing AIDS after a needle-stick exposure from a known sero + patient is 1/250 Febrile non-hemolytic reactions (temp increase of 1°C during or after transfusion) 1/200 Urticarial reaction (wheezing, urticaria and pruritis with IgE and IgG abs reacting with donor antigen) 1/300 This reaction can be avoided with pre- and postmed antihistamines This is only type transfusion reaction that can be resumed BODY MASS INDEX Calculated by dividing subject’s wt (kg) by ht (m2) Overweight if BMI Obese if BMI Obese patients may spontaneously ovulate if they lose as little as 10% of their body weight > 26 kg/m2 > 29 kg/m2 BOWEL PREP (1) Chilled Golytely p.o. (polyethylene glycol electrolyte solution) given the day prior to surgery at rate of 1 liter/h (no more than 4 liters of solution or > than 4 h) until rectal effluent is clear (2) Pre-op antibiotic: cefotetan 1 g, cefoxitin 2 g or ceftizoxime 1 g versus ampicillin/sulbactam 3 g IV (Unasyn®) (3) May choose to use magnesium citrate in place of Golytely 45 BREAST BREAST Types of nipple discharge Color Other names Most common cause Frequency % Caused by cancer Milky Galactorrhea Physiologic Breast-feeding Pregnancy Postpartum Prolactin excess Pituitary adenomas Unknown Multicolored Sticky, green yellow, serous Ductal ectasia Rare Purulent Infected Bacterial infection Clear Watery Ductal carcinoma 2.2% 33.3–45% Yellow Serous Fibrocystic disease 41.1% 5.9% Pink Serosanguinous Fibrocystic disease Ductal papillomas 31.8% 12.9% Bloody Sanguinous Fibrocystic disease Ductal papillomas 24.9% 27% Rare 46 BREAST Breast mass Diagnosis and treatment History: Family predisposition Gravidity Cyclic character of lesion(s) Physical exam: Determine character of mass, remainder of mammary tissue and axilla Palpable mass No palpable mass Under 30 years, reassure Mammogram screen remainder of ipsilateral and all of contralateral breast Over 30 years, consider baseline mammography Fine-needle biopsy Re-evaluate in 3–6 months Cyst fluid & cytology results Benign cyst disappears Benign residual mass No fluid; cytology results Malignant Benign Excisional biopsy Malignant Definitive Rx Excisional biopsy Definitive biopsy 47 BREAST Nipple discharge Unilateral Probable mass Cytology/mammogram Negative Bilateral Purulent serosanguinous Positive Cytology Multi-duct origin Single-duct origin Serum prolactin Ductogram Reassure Re-examine in 3–6 months Milky Serum prolactin Negative Purulent Normal Reassure Re-examine 3–6 months Treat with antibiotics Cytology Evaluate for cause Negative Negative Purulent Intraductal lesion identified Reassure Re-examine 3–6 months Excisional biopsy and/or definitive therapy Elevated (see next flow sheet) Rx with antibiotics 48 BREAST Nipple discharge Hyperprolactinemia Repeat serum assay to rule out physiologic causes of prolactin secretion HISTORY: (1) Persistent breast stimulation (2) (3) Estrogen intake Drugs (phenothiazines, reserpine, opiates, amphetamines, etc.) HISTORY POSITIVE HISTORY NEGATIVE Physical exam (look for): * Chestwall disease * Signs of hypothyroidism * Peripheral field defects Absence of suggestive signs Cease suspected activity and re-evaluate at 6 weeks Pursue positive signs Determine BUN, TSH Abnormal serum test Normal serum tests Evaluate pituitary anatomy via: * Radiology * MRI Treat hypothyroid state Seek cause of renal failure Consider hyperprolactinemia treatment requirements Pitutary adenoma Normal pituitary anatomy Medically induce euprolactinemia Surgical excision of tumor Medically induce euprolactinemia Periodic evaluation 49 BREAST Puerperal mastitis (three categories) (1) Milk stasis – incomplete breast emptying causing engorgement and pain (2) Non-infectious inflammation – arises when milk stasis is persistent and severe leading to edema, erythema, pain and tenderness (3) Acute mastitis – final step in progression of disease characterized by: edema, erythema, pain, myalgias, chills, fever, tenderness Predisposing factors (1) Failure to empty breast adequately, most common (2) Fissuring of nipples and bacterial inoculum from infant’s mouth/mother’s skin (3) Incorrect preparation/care of nipples (4) Improper positioning of infant for nursing (5) Lowered maternal immune defenses Diagnosis (acute puerperal mastitis) (1) Symptoms: malaise, myalgias, fever, chills, pain (2) Signs: edema, erythema, temp > 37.8°C (100°F), breast tenderness (3) Milk cultures (discard first 3 cc) (a) Milk stasis: < 106 leukocytes/cc; < 103 bacteria/cc (b) Non-infectious inflammation: > 106 leukocytes/cc, < 103 bacteria/cc (c) Infectious mastitis: > 106 leukocytes/cc, > 103 bacteria/cc Treatment (1) Adequate milk emptying (continued nursing, infection extraductal) (2) Moist heat (3) Adequate hydration (4) NSAIDs (ibuprofen, Naprosyn®, etc.) (5) Empiric antibiotics: (a) Dicloxacillin 500 mg p.o. q. 6 h (b) Ampicillin 500 mg p.o. q. 6 h (c) Erythromycin 500 mg p.o. q. 6 h (d) Cefalexin 500 mg p.o. q. 6 h Sequelae (1) Persistent infection/breast abscess (2) Increased risk if nursing discontinued (3) Once diagnosed: (a) Cease nursing on infected side (b) Initiate IV antibiotics – Ancef® 1 g IV q. 6–8 h or – ampicillin 1 g IV q. 6 h AND – clindamycin 900 mg IV q. 8 h or – metronidazole 500 mg IV q. 6 h OR – Unasyn® 1.5–3.0 g IV q. 6 h (4) Absence of favorable response within 48–72 h requires surgical I&D Non-puerperal mastitis Characterized as partial blockage of ducts by keratotic debris and squamous metaplasia Predisposing factors (1) Manipulation of breast (mammogram) (2) Oral stimulation (3) Adjacent cutaneous infection Diagnosis (1) Acute – pain, fever, edema, erythema, firm subareolar mass (2) Subacute – similar presentation with tender, fluctuant mass (3) Chronic – follows multiple, recurrent infections (sinus tracts, suppuration, fluctuant mass, pain and edema) Treatment (1) Acute – penicillinase-resistant penicillin plus metronidazole or broad-spectrum antibiotic (fluoroquinolone) (2) Subacute – surgical I&D, broad-spectrum antibiotics 50 BREAST ABSCESS BREAST ABSCESS Suspect if failure of mastitis to respond to initial treatment within 18–72 h and/or development of palpable mass Diagnosis Ultrasound and aspiration of exudate – culture and Gram stain Treatment I&D (under general) dependent area incision to follow circumareolar multiple with several incisions and dissect loculations leave open to heal by secondary intention frequent dressings with antibiotics TSS reported – breast disfigurement possible BREAST BIOPSY (OPEN) Required if: Bloody fluid on cyst aspiration Recurrence of cyst after three aspirations Bloody nipple discharge Nipple ulceration or persistent crusting Skin edema and erythema suspicious of inflammatory breast cancer BREAST CANCERS Established risk factors High > 4 Older age (65–69 vs 30–34) Strong FMH (premenopausal first-degree relative or bilateral) Country of birth (North America or Northern Europe) Personal history (in situ or invasive) Biopsy showing proliferative lesion with atypia Moderate 2–4 Ductal hyperplasia/sclerosing adenosis Atypical ductal hyperplasia/lobular hyperplasia Lobular carcinoma in situ Nulliparity or late age at first birth Upper class Obesity Primary relative with history of breast cancer (mother or sister) 17 x 9x 1.5–2 x 4–5 x 8–11 x 3x Low 1.1–1.9 Early menarche, late menopause, history of breast cancer in one breast, complex fibroadenoma 1.5–4 x Moderate EtOH intake Gail model risk factor for women > 35 Tamoxifen should be started if (D/C ERT or HRT x 3 months prior to starting tamoxifen) Tamoxifen, when given to women with increased breast cancer, decreased the rate of breast cancer by but increased the rate of endometrial cancer by Nolvadex (AstraZeneca’s original brand name Tamoxifen) has been discontinued due to the wide availability of generic tamoxifen after June 30, 2006 Key points > 1.67 49% 2x Leading cause of death in the USA for women at age 65 years or > is diseases of the heart (NOT breast cancer) Cumulative absolute risk of death due to coronary heart disease in a woman 50–94 is approximately 30% Cumulative absolute risk of death due to breast cancer in a woman who is 50–94 is approximately 3% Four essentials of good breast care: (1) Clinical breast exam (2) Screening mammogram (3) Diagnostic mammogram (when abnormalities are present) (4) Tissue diagnosis (if abnormality does not resolve by followup breast exam or imaging studies) Communication and documentation are other imperatives Recommendations for postmenopausal use of unopposed estrogen: (1) Assess mammographic density before and after initiation of ET. If density increases, stop therapy or reduce the dosage and repeat mammogram in 3–6 months 51 BREAST CANCERS (2) (3) Measure high-sensitivity serum estradiol in women at high risk. Values in excess of 10 pg/l may reflect an increased risk of breast cancer in untreated women – although no particular level of concern has been definitively identified Individualize dose and length of therapy according to age and indication. (Arbitrary restriction of estrogen therapy to 5 years is not biologically rational or clinically justifiable.) Breast cancer that develops in a woman using HT compared with breast cancer in a non-HT user is more likely to: be diagnosed earlier have a more favorable prognosis be more well-differentiated Progestogen effects on breast tissue include: promotion of the growth of lobules in the breast alveoli association with an increase in breast tumors in beagle dogs biphasic effect of stimulation then inhibition with long-term use Greatest relative risk for development of breast cancer with HT is when estrogen plus progesterone is used in a cyclic fashion Women receiving estrogen plus testosterone therapy had a 17.2% increased risk of breast cancer per year of use. There was a 2.5-fold increased risk of breast cancer in current users of estrogen plus testosterone therapies compared with women who never used postmenopausal hormone therapy. The risk of breast cancer associated with current use of estrogen plus testosterone therapy was significantly greater compared with estrogen-alone (P=0.007) therapy and marginally (P=0.11) greater than estrogen plus progesterone therapy (Tamimi RM, et al, Arch Intern Med 2006: 166: 1483–9) Key studies Multicenter Breast Cancer Prevention Trial Showed tamoxifen decreased breast cancer incidence to high-risk women by But increased rate of endometrial cancer by STAR study Head-to-head study between tamoxifen and raloxifene. Clinical trial results indicate that raloxifene has no effect on the risk of coronary heart disease and is equivalent to tamoxifen in reducing the risk of invasive breast cancer. Neither drug increases the risk of strokes. It is estimated that both these drugs reduce breast cancer by about 50% 49% 2x It should also be noted that there were no statistically significant differences in the tamoxifen and raloxifene except that there was a statistically significant difference in uterine hyperplasia both with and without atypia in women in the tamoxifen group compared with those in the raloxifene group. STAR P-2 Trial – Vogel VG, et al. JAMA 2006; 295:2727–41. RUTH study The known favorable impact of raloxifene on the cholesterol-lipid profile was not robust enough to prevent coronary events STARE study Theoretical study suggested by Sarah Berga, MD after the report by O’Meara ES, et al. in J Natl Cancer Inst 2001;93:754–61 showed that women with estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer who decided to take HRT had lower overall mortalities, decreased risk of dementia and lower risk of breast cancer recurrence. This study would include estrogens in a head-to- head study with the ‘antiestrogens’ (tamoxifen and raloxifene) % of American women who will develop breast cancer sometime in their lives 12% How much more likely is a US woman to die from cardiovascular disease than breast cancer? 14 x USC study Highest odds ratio risk of breast cancer was associated with CYCLIC HRT Nachtigall study Data showed overall incidence of breast cancer in HRT users vs non-users was Iowa Women’s Health study 0 vs 11.5% Found that breast cancer that did develop in HRT users was associated with favorable histological findings 52 BREAST CANCERS Stallard study Showed that non-users of HRT compared with HRT users were more likely to develop breast cancers that were ductal carcinoma in situ Lobular carcinoma is associated with a better prognosis than ductal carcinoma ATAC trial More than 9000 women in 380 sites in 23 countries were enrolled in the Arimidex, Tamoxifen, Alone or in Combination. Compared with Tamoxifen, anastrozole increased disease-free survival by 14% Other trials that favor aromatase Inhibitors over tamoxifen The BIG trial, ITA trial, IES trial, and MA-17 trial. These trials suggest that one might consider 5 years of AI alone or sequential therapy with 2 to 3 years of tamoxifen followed by an AI for 2–5 years. Also consider giving AIs for a minimum of 2½ years to women who finish 5 years of tamoxifen Based on Collaborative Group Meta-analytic data, attributable risk of dying from breast cancer in women who started ERT at age 50 is 0.67% For screening younger women at risk for breast cancer (especially premenopausal women with a hereditary risk of breast cancer), MRI may be a more accurate imaging technique than mammography (Stoutjesdijk MJ, Boetes C, Jager GJ, et al. MRI and mammography in women with a hereditary risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001;93:1095–102) % that can be explained by risk factors 30–50% Females with breast cancer who have no risk factors 80% Invasive breast cancers who can be eliminated by prophylactic mastectomy 90% BRCA1 BRCA1 BRCA2 BRCA2 BRCA2 lifetime lifetime lifetime lifetime lifetime risk risk risk risk risk of of of of of breast cancer is ovarian cancer is breast cancer is ovarian cancer is male breast cancer is 45–80% 50% 85% 16% 6% No consensus on association of HRT with increased risk of breast cancer with postmenopausal women. Progestin does NOT protect. +FMH of breast cancer does NOT increase risk in HRT users History of benign breast disease does NOT increase risk in HRT users No data to support an increased risk of breast cancer recurrence or reduction in survival rate after admission or readmission of HRT What % of women with breast cancer in pregnancy have positive lymph nodes? 50–80% Axillary lymph node dissection is not recommended for DCIS as < 1% of patients have axillary node involvement when no evidence of microinvasion is present LCIS has what amount of nodal involvement? None LCIS is premenopausal and findings on physical, mammo and nodes are Negative DCIS is pre- and postmenopausal, physical findings include mass, nipple discharge, mass or microcalcifications Mammographic signs Mammographic signs of malignancy > 5 clustered ductal microcalcifications Irregular stellate mass Subtle signs (interval change) Dilated duct or asymmetry (focal), get spot compression films < 40% Biopsy if palpable If non-palpable, get mammography-guided needle aspiration or core bx Ultrasound for evaluation of cystic nature Histology of fibroadenoma = benign ductal cells (staghorn) normal stroma ‘naked’ or ‘nude’ bipolar nuclei Tissue diagnosis is necessary for definitive diagnosis of invasion or to confirm in situ cancer 53 BREAST CANCERS Therapies Tamoxifen What % of ER+ tumors respond to tamoxifen? 50% What % of patients with metastatic breast cancer will have tumor regression in response to tamoxifen? 30% Tamoxifen’s metabolites include N-dimethyltamoxifen and 4-hydroxytamoxifen N-dimethyltamoxifen has half-life that is how much that of tamoxifen? 2x 4-Hydroxytamoxifen has a short half-life but has a binding affinity to the ER how much greater than estradiol? 20–30 x How long should a woman stay on tamoxifen once she is taking tamoxifen? 5 years Bisphonates appear to increase BMD – not inactivated by osteoclasts and appear to inhibit the adhesion of breast cancer cells to bone matrix Tamoxifen (Nolvadex®) is a non-steroidal with potent antiestrogenic properties – its ACTION is to compete with circulating estrogens by binding to estrogen receptors Metastatic breast cancer and adjuvant treatment of breast cancer (especially with NEG nodes and + ER) Prophylaxis = multiple primary relatives with breast cancer, osteoporosis or history of lobular CIS of breast BMD less with premenopausal women but increased with postmenopausal women Changes: decreases LDL and total cholesterol but no effect on HDL @ 5 years after therapy • Decreases cardiac events but slight increase in thromboembolic events. Use with caution in patients with history of stroke • Can cause endometrial changes, eye changes (cataracts) Doses: 10 mg and 20 mg Recommendations for follow-up of patients on tamoxifen: Annual gyn exam Endo biopsy if abnormal bleeding, bloody discharge or spotting Hysterectomy if atypical endometrial hyperplasia or cancer TVUS (sonohysterography p.r.n.) – if endometrial biopsy not diagnostic Megace® – endohyperplasia without atypia with follow-up endo bx Chemo is used more commonly in premenopausal women because they are more likely to develop ER-negative tumors compared to postmenopausal women in this ratio 50% vs 75% Some trials have shown, however, that tamoxifen is very active agent in premenopausal women with metastatic disease with an average overall response rate of 31% Amenorrhea occurs in what % of premenopausal patients on tamoxifen? 1/3 Other hormonal therapies Other hormonal agents used include aminoglutethimide (AG), anastrazole and progestins Anastrozole – selective aromatase inhibitor (1 mg/day) response 30% Megestrol acetate 160 mg/day Chemotherapy Chemotherapy is considered palliative. Standard regimens are: 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide Cyclophosphamide, methotrexate and 5-FU Radiation treatment decreases recurrence risk by Axillary dissection – modest improvement if any. Used for staging Chemotherapy – the higher the risk – the higher the gain Low risk reduce recurrence from High risk Biological therapies Trastuzumab (Herceptin) cuts the risk of recurrence in half. This works best in cancers that overexpress the protein ErbB-2 also and better known as→ FAC CMF 1/2 10–5% 50–25% 52% drop HER2/neu 54 BREAST CYSTS/LESIONS Stages < 2 cm > 2 cm or tumor with + lymph nodes Inflammatory, skin nodules or dimpling, locally advanced Metastatic to other areas from breasts I II III IV N Lymph nodes? Grade Estrogen receptor status, necrosis, cytology, calcification, coarse or fine Most common type of breast malignancy is infiltrating ductal carcinoma BREAST CYSTS/LESIONS (1) Breast lesion < 2 cm with typical appearance of fibroadenoma = expectant management (2) Simple cysts – fine-needle aspiration (3) Clinically or radiographically suspicious – excisional biopsy CANCER MOST COMMONLY FOUND IN UPPER OUTER QUADRANT Aspiration technique (1) Hold with two fingers (2) Aspirated with 20 or 22 gauge needle (3) If fluid is straw-colored, green-brown or green – reassure and follow-up in 2 weeks BREASTFEEDING Advantages Decreases infant otitis, diarrhea, bacterial meningitis and maternal breast cancer Disadvantages Mother needs to stay close, occasional mastitis, usually unfriendly work and societal environment. Four times more likely to have dyspareunia (Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;184:881–90) Patients leaving hospital breastfeeding 62% Goal of US Public Health to have patients leaving hospital 75% Contraindicated Lithium, methotrexate, Ergotrate©, bromocriptine, cocaine Mastitis Take antibiotics and continue to breastfeed BRCA1 Increases lifetime risk of breast cancer by Increases lifetime risk of ovarian cancer by 45–80% 45–50% BRCA2 Increases breast cancer risk by Increases ovarian cancer risk by Increases male breast cancer by Evaluation of women with BRCA1 and BRCA2: Monthly SBE to begin at 18–21 years old Annual or semi-annual exams to begin at 25 years old Annual mammography should begin at 25–35 years old BRCA1 should also have Ca-125 and TVUS semi-annually at age 25 Hysterectomy with BSO = ? insufficient evidence BRCA1 and BRCA2 = associated with breast ovarian cancer on chromosome 80% 16% 6% 17q 55 BRONCHITIS BREECH Incidence of cord prolapse Complete Single footling breech Frank breech (may be good candidate for vaginal delivery) Congenital anomalies increased from Risk of hyperextended head in a breech presentation Frequency of breech presentation at term In attempted vaginal delivery of breech-presenting fetuses, adequate progress of labor in multiparas = 4–7% 5–10% 25% 0.4% 2.4–6.3% 5% 3–4% 1.5 cm/h Risk factors Prematurity Congenital anomalies Fetal neuromuscular disorder External cephalic version (ECV) What proportion of ECVs lead to complications requiring stat delivery? 1–2% Risk factors for failure to ECV include: maternal obesity, frank breech presentation, primiparity Contraindications to ECV include: gestation < 36 weeks, multiple gestation, oligohydramnios C-section mothers with breech-presenting fetuses whose mothers have: contraindications to labor, inadequate X-ray pelvimetry findings, inadequate progress during labor Computed tomography pelvimetry A recommended diagnostic modality to determine whether a TOL is appropriate in breech-presenting fetuses Forceps (Pipers, Elliot or Simpson) Traction is not generally required or desirable. The goal of forceps assistance is to maintain flexion as long as possible during delivery of the aftercoming head • Criteria for breech Well-flexed head Frank breech Zatuchni–Andros score (scored by parity, gestational age, EFW, dilatation, station, previous breech) Mauriceau–Smellie–Veit maneuver Most useful in rotating aftercoming head to AP >5 BROMOCRIPTINE Pregnancy rate Hyperprolactinemia causes approximately what % of ovulation disturbance? Side-effects 80% 15% Nausea, nasal stuffiness, headache, orthostatic hypotension Decrease side-effects by gradual decreases in dosages Initial dose 1.25 mg/day p.o. then increase weekly in 1.25 mg increments What is it? Semisynthetic ergot alkaloid with dopamine receptors BRONCHITIS Affects what % of adults? Smoking is usually associated with what % of pts with chronic bronchitis? Often viral. If bacterial Hemophilus, Streptococcus, Moraxella Treatment of choice Cephalosporins Cefixime (Suprax®) 400 mg daily x 7–10 days Cefuroxime (Ceftin®) 250 mg b.i.d. x 7–10 days Loracarbef (Lorabid®) 400 mg b.i.d. x 7–10 days 25% 90% 56 BROW PRESENTATION BROW PRESENTATION Delivery CANNOT take place if brow persists Etiology Unstable Usually converts to face or OP Diagnosis Abdominal palpation or vaginal exam Prognosis Poor unless birth canal is huge Treatment If progressing without any distress and no unduly vigorous contractions – no interference is necessary BULIMIA Enlarged parotids, erosion of dental enamel, hypotension, arrhythmias See also Anorexia nervosa BURNS IN PREGNANCY Major burn defined as what % of surface area? Maternal mortality is 25% if surface area is Maternal mortality is 100% if surface area is Gestational age does not influence survival Stillbirth is 75% if burn is what % of surface area? Largest burn survived by mother AND fetus was Treatment is standard burn therapy with good prognosis for burn Consider delivery if burn is 10% 50% 80% 30% 58% < 30% > 50% CANAVAN DISEASE Developmental delay, macrocephaly, hypotonia and poor head control Most children with Canavan disease will die in first decade of life More prevalent among individuals of Eastern European Jewish (Ashkenazi) background Caused by deficiency of the enzyme aspartoacylase, which leads to increased excretion of its substrate N-acetylaspartic acid (NAA) CANCER Most common cancer is skin Most common gyn cancer is breast Most common cause of cancer deaths lung Most common cause of gyn cancer deaths is ovarian (according to Oncology Prolog 2000) 5% breast (according to Appleton and Lange) 15% What % of women will develop breast cancer in their lifetime? 1 in 8 What % of women will develop ovarian cancer in their lifetime? 1 in 70 Endometrial cancer is the most common gyn cancer in women of 45 years of age The incidence of colon cancer increases with age Ovarian cancer is fourth leading cause of cancer death in women and according to the calculations from the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) risk is 1/58 Ovarian cancer risk factors Early menarche, late menopause, nulliparity or low parity, first term pregnancy after age 30 and frequent use of ovulation-inducing drugs Breast cancer risk factors Early menarche, late menopause, nulliparity and more than 30 years of age at first live birth Gail model Key risk factors to estimate individual risk for breast cancer include: present age, age at menarche, age at first live birth, number of first-degree relatives with breast cancer and number of previous breast biopsies 57 CANCER AND PREGNANCY Colon cancer Lifetime risk for men and women in the USA is Uterine cancer risk factors Obesity, chronic anovulation, diabetes and hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer 6% CANCER AND GENETICS Chromosome 17q associated with breast–ovarian cancer BRCA1 and BRCA2 Not associated with breast cancer Lynch I syndrome Increased risk of proximal colon cancer, stomach cancer, small bowel cancer, bile duct cancer and urinary tract cancers. Females at risk for endometrial and epithelial ovarian cancer Lynch II syndrome Rhabdomyosarcomas and osteosarcomas in children. Breast cancer and other tumors in mothers Germline mutation in p53 tumor suppressor gene on chromosome 17q Li–Fraumeni syndrome Ovarian cancer cases develop as a result of an inherited abnormality in BRCA1 and 2 gene products in approximately this % of patients 5–10% CANCER AND PREGNANCY Cervical (most common) 0.5% Ovarian 1/8000–1/14 000 Colorectal 1/13 000 Breast Lymphoma 1/6000 Leukemia 1/75 000 Melanoma 0.14–2.8 (per 1000 births) 6–12/100 000 CIN in pregnancy Study of 95 000 deliveries SIL 0.14% Cancer 0.7% In pregnancy, there is eversion of cervix, therefore T-Z easily visible Treatment = repeat colpo and Pap each trimester (according to Prolog Gyn Oncology and Surgery, 4th edn. Washington, DC: ACOG) Cervical cancer in pregnancy Most common cancer that occurs in pregnancy Treatment: IA1 simple hysterectomy >IA1 prior to 20 weeks do radical hyst with fetus in situ After 20 weeks do hysterotomy for evacuation of fetus then radical hyst with pelvic lymphadenectomy Ovarian cancer in pregnancy Second most frequent gyn malignancy complicating pregnancy Usually epithelial or germ cell Characteristics on ultrasound > 8 cm internal complexities septations excrescences papillations ascites CA-125 levels – usually falsely elevated in first trimester Normally < 35 during second and third trimesters AFP levels – normally elevated in pregnancies (100 x increase with an endodermal sinus tumor) LDH and β-hCG – normally elevated in pregnancies, not useful markers Chemo for germ cell tumors – bleomycin, etoposide, cisplatin, vinblastine Chemo for epithelial tumors – cyclophosphamide and platinum compounds Colorectal cancer in pregnancy Third most common cancer in pregnancy and females in general Tends to be more aggressive in pregnancy Delay in diagnosis is common secondary to the pregnancy Young patients may have a genetic predisposition AVOID barium enema (0.82–1.14 cGy) in pregnancy 58 CANCER DEATHS Breast cancer in pregnancy Diagnosis: Ultrasound sensitivity is 93% Mammography has a false-negative rate in pregnancy of 25% Treatment: Treat malignancy and allow pregnancy to proceed. Stage I + II – modified radical mastectomy with radiation exp to fetus. Lumpectomy with postpartum radiation if diagnosis is in third trimester. Stage III + IV – 5-year survival rate is only 10% Advise: Postpone pregnancy for 2 years after initial diagnosis (the majority of recurrences occur within the first 2 years after dxn) Lymphoma in pregnancy Initial presentation is PAINLESS Supradiaphragmatic lymphadenopathy History: Weight loss > 10% in 6-month prior to diagnosis. Unexplained fever > 38°C. Drenching night sweats Treatment: IA + IIA – radiation Rx (delay until after delivery) IB, IIB, III and IV – chemo and radiation Leukemia in pregnancy Extremely challenging and difficult. Most common cause of death is hemorrhage and infection AML (acute myelogenous leukemia) – treat with cytarabine ALL (acute lymphoblastic leukemia) – treat with vincristine and prednisone ALL is associated with PTB, IUGR and stillbirths Malignant melanoma in pregnancy Treatment: stage I + II – wide local excision Stage III – surgical excision (25–50% cure) Metastasis: (a) Isolated limb perfusion (with melphalan, interferon or TNF) (b) Regional or systemic chemotherapy (c) Radical therapy (d) Intralesional immunotherapy (e) Electropuration Thyroid cancer in pregnancy Diagnosis: Aspiration Consider biopsy for (1) Cyst > 4 cm (2) Complex cystic/solid component (3) Recurrences after three aspirations Treatment: (depends on histology) (1) Most are well differentiated with good prognosis. Surgical resection is primary therapy – can delay until postpartum. AVOID 131-iodine – causes fetal hypothyroidism + cretinism (2) Medullary. Stat total thyroidectomy (3) Anaplastic – most aggressive CANCER DEATHS Accounts for what % of deaths in women? Lung/bronchus Breasts Colon/rectum Pancreas Ovary CARDIOVASCULAR DEATHS ARE MUCH MORE COMMON THAN CANCER IN WOMEN 25% 16% 11% 6% 5% CARDIAC Proportion of normal cardiac output that is generated by closed chest compressions during CPR Normal cardiac ejection fraction is Target heart rates Non-pregnant Pregnant 30% 66% (220 – age) x 0.6–0.8 (220 – age) x 0.7 Clinical factors independently associated with perioperative cardiac complications History Age > 70 years MI in previous 6 months Points 5 10 59 CARDIAC Physical exam S3 gallop or JVD Important valvular aortic stenosis Electrocardiogram Rhythm other than sinus or PACs on last preoperative ECG > 5 PVCs/min documented at any time before operation General status PaO2 < 60 or PaCO2 > 50 mmHg, K < 3.0 or HCO3 < 20 mEq/l, BUN > 50 or Cr > 3.0 mg/dl, abn SGOT, signs of chronic liver disease or patient bed-ridden from non-cardiac disease Site of operation Intraperitoneal, intrathoracic or aortic operation Emergency operation General 11 3 7 7 3 3 4 Heart disease is the single leading cause of death among women. It kills more women than all the gynecological cancers combined! What % of women die within 1 year of a recognized heart attack? 42% The reason more women die than men is that women are less likely than men to receive timely, lifesaving diagnosis and therapy (stress testing, caths, anticlot agents and even simple lipid analysis!). Women tend to be worked-up for gallbladder or GERD rather than possible MIs like men Women are generally older than men when they are diagnosed with CAD. This is probably because estrogen helps prevent plaque formation. Estrogen tends to elevate HDL and decrease LDL and triglycerides. This does not mean women do not have CAD, only that it is looked for at a much older age. If it was searched for, it could be found Diagnosis This should be the same as in men with the exception of the ‘ultrafast CT and EBT’ which do not detect calcification in women prior to age 40 at the same rate that they detect it in men (again, probably due to the level of estrogen). However, if she has increased risk factors, she should be screened more vigorously Lipid screening (total cholesterol, LDL, HDL and triglycerides) should be evaluated routinely after age 20. If there is strong family history of premature CAD then she should be considered for advanced lipid testing (genetics and photyping) at least once for a screen of known increased risk factors such as Lp(a), homocysteine, small dense LDL or a low HDL2B Lipid parameters (1) LDL-C < 100 mg/dl (2) HDL-C > 40 mg/dl (3) TG < 150 mg/dl Metabolic syndrome (syndrome X) (1) Insulin resistance (precedes type II diabetes in the majority of patients. Impaired insulin activity in the liver (2) Hyperlipidemia (3) Hypertension (4) Abdominal obesity In the metabolic syndrome, CHD risk approaches that of Type II DM Define those at risk: Male > 40 inch waist circumference Female > 35 inch waist circumference Triglycerides ≥ 150 mg/dl Male HDL-C < 40 mg/dl Female HDL-C < 50 mg/dl B/P 130/≥ 85 mmHg Glucose ≥ 110 mg/dl Cigarette smoking, family history of heart disease or increased B/P or on B/P medicine Metabolic syndrome increases in postmenopausal women Metabolic syndrome is listed in ICD-9 New 277.7 through 277.79 Deadly → insulin resistance increased TG, SDLDL, proinflammatory state and hypercoagulability Watch for multiple subtle risk factors 60 CARDIAC ANOMALIES Screening for hypertension: untreated hypertension, even high normal blood pressures, increases risk 2–3 x more in women than it does in men It is important for physicians to remember that when ordering stress testing, especially stress imaging (nuclear as well as echo) that these tests are more likely to be underread in women than in men, secondary to breast attenuation Ibuprofen antagonizes the cardioprotective platelet inhibition that is induced by aspirin CARDIAC ANOMALIES Most common at birth is VSD then PS then PDA MVP then ASD Right to left shunting 30–50% mortality rate Causes right ventricular failure Most common in adults is Eisenmenger syndrome Pulmonary embolism Most reliable symptom is Most reliable sign is Get CXR, ventilation–perfusion scan Treat with heparin, reverse if necessary with protamine sulfate Mortality rate is dyspnea tachypnea 30% CARDIAC DEFECTS Management of cardiac valve defects in gravidas Lesion Pathophysiology Maternal complications Key to therapy Endocarditis prophylaxis* Mitral stenosis Limited left ventricular filling Arrhythmia, pulmonary congestion Optimize preload; avoid hypotension and tachycardia Recommended Mitral insufficiency Atrial regurgitation Limited cardiac output, arrhythmia, pulmonary congestion Avoid hypotension and tachycardia Optional Aortic stenosis Obstructed left ventricular outflow Fixed cardiac output, compromised blood supply to coronary and cerebral arteries Maintain cardiac output; reduce afterload; avoid hypotension and tachycardia Recommended Aortic insufficiency Regurgitant cardiac output Limited cardiac output, congestive heart failure Avoid volume overload; reduce afterload Recommended 61 CARDIAC DEFECTS Management of structural cardiac defects in gravidas Lesion Pathophysiology Maternal complications Key to therapy Endocarditis prophylaxis* Atrial septal defect Bidirectional atrial flow Arrhythmia Avoid volume overload Recommended Ventricular septal defect Left-to-right shunt Right ventricular overload Avoid volume overload No Patent ductus arteriosus Left-to-right shunt Increased pulmonary flow Avoid volume overload Recommended Eisenmenger syndrome Pulmonary hypertension with bidirectional shunting Congestive heart failure, hypoxia, sudden death Recommended termination of pregnancy; supply continuous oxygen; avoid hypotension Recommended Tetralogy of Fallot Ventricular septal defect, overriding aorta, pulmonary stenosis and right-to-left shunt Congestive heart failure, hypoxia Maintain preload delivery with limited afterload reduction; provide oxygen Recommended Coarctation of the aorta Obstructed cardiac output Limited cardiac output, congestive heart failure, aortic dissection or rupture Reduce afterload; avoid volume overload Recommended Management of developmental cardiac valve defects in gravidas Lesion Pathophysiology Maternal complications Key to therapy Endocarditis prophylaxis* Idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic Obstructed outflow from left ventricle Fixed cardiac output, congestive heart failure Obstruction improves with volume expansion; avoid hypotension and tachycardia Recommended Marfan syndrome Aortic regurgitation with aneurysm formation at the aortic root Aortic dissection or rupture, marginal cardiac output, congestive heart failure secondary to regurgitation Maintain cardiac output; avoid volume overload; prescribe beta-blockers Recommended *Endocarditis prophylaxis: ampicillin 2 g IV, then 1 g q. 4–6 h while in labor; gentamicin 1.5 mg/kg IV then repeated 8 h later 62 CARDIAC DISEASE IN PREGNANCY CARDIAC DISEASE IN PREGNANCY New York Heart Association Classification Class I Class II Class III Class IV NYHA (continued) Asymptomatic Symptoms with greater than normal activity Symptoms with normal activity Symptoms at bed-rest Group I (ASD, VSD, PDA, pulmonic/tricuspid disease, corrected tetralogy of Fallot, porcine valve, mitral stenosis – NYHA Class I + II) Mortality < 1% Obstetric risk of CHF < 10% Group II (mitral stenosis with atrial fib, artificial valve, mitral stenosis –NYHA Class III + IV, aortic stenosis, coarctation of aorta –uncomplicated, uncorrected tetralogy of Fallot, Marfan syndrome with normal aorta and previous MI) Mortality Obstetric risk of CHF 5–15% 80% Group III (Eisenmenger syndrome, Marfan syndrome with aortic root involvement, coarctation of aorta – complicated with diam > 4 cm, pulmonary hypertension) Mortality 25–50% Obstetric risk of CHF 100% Mitral valve prolapse Most common congenital heart defect in young women Rarely affects maternal or fetal outcome Mitral stenosis Most common rheumatic valvular lesion seen in pregnancy 63 CARDIAC DISEASE IN PREGNANCY 10 years may lapse before the patient experiences symptoms of decreased cardiac output. Mild-to-moderate pulmonary congestion occurs at a pulmonary capillary wedge pressure of 18–25 mmHg Frank pulmonary edema appears at a wedge pressure of > 30 mmHg Great stress on cardiovascular system because of fixed cardiac output 20% of patients become symptomatic by 20 weeks’ gestation Affected patients should limit their physical activity If volume overload is present, they should be diuresed carefully Arrhythmias (especially atrial fibrillation) should be controlled. If mural thrombi are present, anticoagulation is required with heparin C-section should be performed ONLY for OB indications. Swan–Ganz should be used if significant heart disease exists. Labor in left lateral position and receive supplemental oxygen. Avoid hypotension if epidural is administered. Use verapamil or digoxin to slow ventricular contraction rate if an atrial arrhythmia is present Mitral regurgitation May occur in patients with a history of (1) Rheumatic fever (2) Endocarditis (3) Idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis or (4) Mitral valve prolapse (most common) Decrescendo murmur is detected but is usually diminished in gravid Usually tolerated but may present with LHF (fatigue and dyspnea) Atrial enlargement and fibrillation may develop – might need CVP Epidural anesthesia is recommended (pain may lead to increased B/P and afterload, causing pulmonary vascular congestion) Patients with history of RF require either 1.2 million units of penicillin G q. month or daily oral penicillin or erythromycin throughout pregnancy Aortic stenosis Rarely seen in pregnancy Result of late complication of rheumatic fever Usually not symptomatic until 5th or 6th decade of life Symptoms: Angina and syncope upon exertion. 50% mortality rate in 5 years after symptoms appear During pregnancy, mortality for patients may be as high as Sudden death from hypotension may occur Great care must be taken to prevent hypotension and tachycardia caused by blood loss, regional anesthesia or other medications Hydrate and place in left lateral position and use Swan–Ganz catheter Give antibiotic prophylaxis 17% Aortic regurgitation Late complication of RF that appears 10 years after acute episode. Seen with Marfan syndrome or congenital bifid aortic valves. Highpitched, blowing murmur. Complete childbearing prior to symptoms or if LHF – repair before Target heart rate to be maintained should be 80–100 beats/min Arrhythmias with cardiac disease Best left untreated – ablate if serious and life-threatening. Artificial pacing and electrical defibrillation should not affect fetus Ischemic heart disease Most occur during third trimester 67% If MI occurs before 24 weeks’ gestation, pregnancy should be ended. If delivery occurs within 2 weeks of acute event, the maternal mortality reaches 50% Management is same as non-pregnant (ICU, oxygen, analgesia). C-section only for obstetric indications. Epidural is safe Most common arrhythmia in pregnant female is PATs 64 CARDIAC DISEASE IN PREGNANCY Lethal dysrhythmia protocols Ventricular fibrillation Defibrillate at 200–300 J. Repeat if ineffective Intubate and ventilate with oxygen. Give epinephrine, 0.5–1.0 mg IV. Repeat every 5 min. Give sodium bicarbonate, 1 mEq/kg (75–100 mg). Repeat with half the dose every 10 min as needed Defibrillate at 360 J; repeat Give bretylium tosilate (Bretylol®), 5 mg/kg IV (350–500 mg) Defibrillate at 360 J; repeat Give bretylium, 10 mg/kg IV (750–1000 mg) Defibrillate at 360 J; repeat After the maximum dose of bretylium or as an alternative, one may give lidocaine hydrochloride (Xylocaine®) or procainamide hydrochloride (Pronestyl®) as an adjunct to defibrillation Give 1 mg/kg of lidocaine as an initial bolus and follow after 10 min by 0.5 mg/kg. This may be repeated until a total dose of 225 mg is reached and followed by maintenance infusion at 2–4 mg/min Give 100 mg of procainamide over 5 min, repeated every 5 min. Stop bolus dosage on noting hypotension, suppression of dysrhythmia, a 50% increase in width of the QRS complex or on reaching a total dose of 1 g Maintenance is 1–4 mg/min Asystole Intubate and ventilate with oxygen. Give epinephrine, 0.5–1.0 mg IV. Repeat every 5 min. Give sodium bicarbonate, 1 mEq/kg (75–100 mg). Repeat with half the dose every 10 min as needed Give atropine 1.0 mg IV Give calcium chloride 10% solution, 5 ml IV. Repeat every 10 min Give isoproterenol (Isuprel) infusion, 2–20 mg/min Arrange for pacemaker placement Electromechanical dissociation Intubate and ventilate with oxygen. Give epinephrine 0.5–1.0 mg IV. Repeat every 5 min. Give sodium bicarbonate, 1 mEq/kg (75–100 mEq). Repeat half the dose every 10 min as needed Give calcium chloride, 10% solution IV 5 ml. Repeat every 10 min Give isoproterenol infusion, 2–20 mg/min Consider hypovolemia, tension pneumothorax and cardiac tamponade as possible causes and treat appropriately 65 CARDIAC DISEASE IN PREGNANCY Congenital heart disease Incidence is 4–8/1000 Percentage of women with congenital heart disease who are pregnant who will deliver infants with same 50% L to R shunts usually corrected during childhood – if the defect has been corrected, the outcome is usually good. If not, pregnancy only slightly increases degree of shunting. If pulmonary hypertension has caused reversal of the shunt, the outcome of the pregnancy is dismal (A) Atrial septal defects Most common congenital heart lesions in adults. Usually exhibit pulmonary ejection murmur and a second heart sound that is split in both the inspiratory and expiratory phases. Usually well tolerated unless associated with pulmonary hypertension. (Atrial fib, pulmonary htn and HF usually do not arise until 5th decade.) For patients without complications, no special rx is necessary. Complicated patients need monitoring by both Ob and cardiologist. Prolonged bed-rest, invasive cardiac monitoring, treatment p.r.n. (B) Ventricular septal defects Usually close spontaneously or are corrected surgically in childhood. Rarely, uncorrected lesions lead to significant L to R shunts with PH. Epidural anesthesia and Swan–Ganz catheter are recommended. Fetal echo recommended. Incidence in offspring of VSDs is (C) Patent ductus arteriosus Usually tolerated well in pregnancy unless pulmonary hypertension Pregnancy is not recommended for patients with large patent ductus (D) Tetralogy of Fallot (1) R ventricular outflow tract obstruction (2) VSD (3) Overriding aorta R to L shunt and cyanosis. If uncorrected, pt rarely lives past childhood If pregnancy does occur, incidence of HF is Monitor patient for left heart failure. Monitor fetus for IUGR Counsel pt. Maternal cyanosis is associated with spontaneous abortion and preterm birth. Invasive cardiac monitoring is appropriate during labor. Use extreme caution with spinal or epidural anesthesia due to decreased B/P. Better choice of anesthesia includes systemic inhalation agents and local anesthetic (E) Coarctation of aorta Associated with other cardiac lesions as well as berry aneurysms. Characterized by a fixed cardiac output. Prevent hypotension. Newborn should be evaluated carefully as infants display cardiac lesions @ 2% (F) Ebstein’s anomaly Congenital malformation of the tricuspid valve in which the right ventricle must act as both an atrium and ventricle. Ideally, surgical correction should be performed prior to pregnancy 4% 40% Adult cardiac conditions that may worsen in pregnancy (A) Eisenmenger syndrome When L to R shunt causes pulmonary arterial obliteration and pulmonary hypertension, eventually causing a R to L shunt Maternal mortality rate 50% Fetal mortality rate (if cyanosis is present) of more than 50% IUGR exhibited in this % of fetuses 30% Advise termination of pregnancy If pregnancy is continued, monitor postpartum with Swan–Ganz Avoid hypovolemia Postpartum death most often occurs within 1 week after delivery (sometimes 4–6 weeks after delivery) (B) Marfan syndrome Autosomal dominant disorder of the fibrillin gene – characterized by weakness of the connective tissues. Genetic counseling recommended. If aortic root is < 4 cm, risk is similar to general population. If aortic root is > 4 cm, risk of complications is significantly increased. Hypertension to be avoided – manage with β-blockers (second trimester +>). Epidural anesthesia during labor is considered safe 66 CARDINAL MOVEMENTS OF LABOR (C) Idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis Autosomal dominant disorder. L ventricular outflow tract obstruction secondary to a hypertrophic interventricular septum. Genetic counseling is advised for affected patients Treatment in labor: (1) Inotropic agents should be avoided – may exacerbate the obstruction (2) Labor in left lateral decubitus position (3) Avoid/limit medications that decrease systemic vascular resistance (4) Monitor cardiac rhythm and treat tachycardia promptly (5) Second stage of labor should be curtailed by forceps or vacuum to avoid Valsalva’s maneuver CARDINAL MOVEMENTS OF LABOR Every Darn Fool In Egypt Eats Elephants Engagement, Descent, Flexion, Internal rotation, Extension, External rotation, Expulsion Cardiomyopathy (peripartum) Maternal mortality rate 50% Develops in the last month of pregnancy or first 6 months postpartum without any obvious etiology Most common onset is during how many months postpartum? 3 months Risk factors Multiparity, AMA, multiple gestations and pre-eclampsia or eclampsia, etc. Management Bed-rest, sodium restriction, diuretics, inotropics and/or anticoagulants. Heart transplant if disease advanced Labor Monitor during and for at least 24 h postpartum. Give hydralazine, furosemide and/or digoxin and dopamine if necessary. Supplemental oxygen Delivery Epidural for pain control, curtain second stage with forceps or vacuum. C-section for OB indications Incidence (Increased risk with obesity, AMA and increased B/P, anemia, infection too) 1/4000 Symptoms are that of CHF (dyspnea, orthopnea, cough, palpitations, chest and abdominal pains) Treatment is that for CHF (digitalis, diuretics, anticoagulate as increased incidence of pulmonary problems. Heart transplant for endstage heart failure). Future pregnancy if normal cardiac size and function, otherwise CONTRAINDICATED CARDIOMYOPATHY Cardiomyopathy is rare in patients who are at or near term, but it can be deadly. The prognosis for these women is really bad, with up to 85% dying by 5 years. Almost half of these deaths will occur within the first 6 months post partum Consider the possibility in any woman who is pregnant or who has recently delivered and complains of swelling and trouble breathing (1) Do a careful evaluation for cardiomyopathy in any pregnant patient who complains of shortness of breath, leg edema, or cardiac symptoms (2) When the diagnosis is peripartum cardiomyopathy, use diuretics to reduce cardiac preload, vasodilators to reduce cardiac afterload, and inotropic agents to improve cardiac contractility (3) Be cautious about diuresis in pregnant patients, though, because it decreases uterine perfusion (4) For a woman with cardiomyopathy, vaginal delivery is preferable to C/S, and counseling on avoiding future pregnancies is imperative because of the high risk of cardiac complications Diagnosis Classic: (1) Development of cardiac failure in last month of within 5 months postpartum 67 CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME (2) Absence of an identifiable cause for cardiac failure (3) Absence of recognizable heart disease before last month of pregnancy (4) Additional: Left ventricular systolic dysfunction demonstrated by classic echocardiographic criteria: ejection fraction < 45%, shortening fraction < 30%, left ventricular end-diastolic dimension > 2.7 cm/m2 Signs and symptoms Dyspnea, orthopnea, fatigue, edema, hypoxia. Fever uncommon Lab results CBC → normal Liver function tests→ may be elevated if right heart failure involved B-type natriuretic peptide→ elevated Troponin, creatine kinase → normal unless ischemia Creatinine → may be elevated EKG→ Nonspecific changes. May reveal atrial fibrillation Chest xray→ Cardiomegaly, pulmonary edema. Pleural effusions uncommon Echocardiogram → ejection fraction < 45% → shortening fraction < 30% → dialated left ventricle Treatment Hospitalize, oxygen, IV access, pulse oximetry, fluid restriction, low-sodium diet If still pregnant→obtain obstetric ultrasound, monitor fetal heart rate, give steroids for fetal lung maturity, once cardiac function is maximized – evaluate for delivery, minimize cardiac work during labor and delivery, use regional anesthesia to reduce preload and afterload, reserve C/S for usual indications, and start ACE inhibitor after delivery Initiate medical therapy (goal SBP < 110 mmHg), improved symptoms. Diuresis (i.e., furosemide) Afterload reduction; If pregnant→ Calcium channel blocker (e.g., amiodipine) or nitroglycerin (e.g., Isordil) or hydralazine If delivered→ ACE inhibitor (e.g., enalapril, captopril) Improve contractility with digoxin and/or dobutamine If symptoms persist→ low dose beta blocker (e.g., metoprolol) Anticoagulation for atrial fibrillation or intramural thrombus Consider anticoagulation prophylaxis if pregnant or recently postpartum without above indications: If pregnant→ Unfractionated heparin If delivered→ Low-molecular-weight heparin, unfractionated heparin, or warfarin Refractory pulmonary edema → add positive airway pressure May require intubation Counseling Women with a history of PPCM and evidence of incomplete left ventricular recovery should be counseled to avoid pregnancy CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME Diagnosis + Tinel’s sign – tap over carpal ligament produces tingling in fingers + Phalen’s test – wrist flexion causing pain, numbness or tingling within 60 s is + in 60% of patients Treatment Non-pregnant or pregnant: splinting, vitamin B6 100 mg daily, local steroid injection (1 ml or 40 mg) of Depo-Medrol with 1 ml of 1% lidocaine without epinephrine. Surgery only if necessary 68 CAPITAL TUNNEL SYNDROME Associated conditions and causes Traumarelated structural changes Anomalous anatomic structures Systemic diseases Hormonal changes Tumors/ neoplasms Distal radius fracture Rheumatoid conditions: arthritis, gout, cervical atrophy, intercarpal arteritis, tenosynovitis, bursitis, fibromyositis Pregnancy Lipoma Aberrant muscles (e.g. lumbrical, palmaris longus, palmaris profundus) Vibrating machinery Tuberculosis (and other mycobacterial infections) Lunate/ perilunate dislocations Diabetes mellitus Acromegaly Ganglion Median artery thrombosis Prolonged hammering Pyogenic infections Post-traumatic arthritis/ osteophytes Thyroid imbalance (especially hypothyroid) Menopause Multiple myeloma Enlarged persistent median artery Prolonged typing Leprosy Edema Amyloidosis Oral contraceptive use Vascular tumors Hypertrophy of palmaris longus muscle Hemorrhage/ hematoma` Hemophilia Systemic steroid use Burns Alcoholism/ cirrhosis Colles’ fracture Raynaud’s phenomenon, Paget’s disease, obesity, syphilis, acromegaly, Cushing’s disease, sarcoidosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, polymyositis, scleroderma, pernicious anemia, adiposita dolorosa, purpura simplex Arteriovenous fistulas (hemodialysis) Mechanical overuse Infections 69 CELLULITIS CELLULITIS Causes Most common cause is uterine infection Predisposed Affluent females with C-section Indigent females with C-section Vaginal delivery Vaginal delivery with increased risk Anaerobic etiology in C-section Risk factors (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Duration of labor Duration of ROM #1 + 2 most common Multiple cervical exams Internal fetal monitoring Lower socioeconomic status Colonization of lower genital tract (GBBS, BV, Chlamydia, Mycoplasma) (7) Abdominal twin delivery 3 x increased Microbiology Anaerobes Peptococcus Peptostreptococcus Aerobes Enterococcus Gram negative bacteria (E. coli, etc.) Group A, B, D Staphylococcus aureus Others Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma, Chlamydia 13% 27% 1–3% 6% 80% 45% 14% 9% 8% 80% cases of infection after C-section are anaerobic Pathogenesis Bacterial contamination from vaginal flora – metritis Diagnosis FEVER, uterine tenderness, purulent or foul-smelling lochia Labs – WBC usually 15 000–30 000/µl Blood culture most helpful Therapy Clindamycin–gentamicin is curative Others: cefoxitin, piperacillin, cefotetan Treat until afebrile for Further treatment on outpatient basis usually not necessary Preference: cefotetan 2 g or ampicillin/sulbactam 3 g or clindamycin 900 mg with gentamicin 2 mg/kg then 1–1.5 mg/kg or 5–7 mg/kg once daily Persistent fever Abscess? Resistant organisms? Wound infection? Infection at other sites? Septic thrombophlebitis? What % of metritis respond within 48–72 h to ab regimens? (1) Abscess – drain (2) Resistant organisms – switch antibiotics (3) Wound infection – I&D, debridement and antibiotic therapy (4) Infection at other sites (5) Septic thrombophlebitis – antibiotics with full heparinization Prophylaxis: Antibiotic to patients undergoing non-elective C-section. Use short course of 1–3 doses and initiate after cord clamping. Choices: ampicillin, cephalothin, cefazolin 85–95% 24–48 h q. 12 q. 6 q. 8 q. 8 h h h h 90% 70 CERCLAGE CERCLAGE Etiology of cervical incompetence Obscure. Risks are increased with cervical trauma or DES exposure Diagnosis Characterized by painless dilatation of the cervix in the second (or early third) trimester. May be associated with bulging membranes and eventually, rupture of membranes followed by expulsion of a premature fetus Evaluation Use vaginal ultrasound to see if there is cervical shortening < 2.5 cm Cervical length is usually > 3 cm. Increased preterm delivery history If cervix ≥ 3 cm, the risk of PTD is 5% If cervix is <2 cm, the risk of PTD is 77% If the cervix is <3 cm, the patient may benefit from steroids + transfer Amniocentesis? Gram stain for aerobic and anaerobic bacteria, mycoplasmas, WBC count + glucose. May not want cerclage or tocolysis One study (Sakai M, Shiozaki A, Takata M, et al. Evaluation of effectiveness of prophylactic cerclage of a short cervix according to interleukin-8 in cervical mucus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006: 194:14–19) suggests that doing a cerclage in a patient with a positive IL-8 could be harmful but does show that doing a cerclage in a patient with a negative IL-8 could be helpful Observational studies Health – patients with a short cervix undergoing cerclage had a 10 x reduction in the rate of preterm birth Two other studies did not find cerclage beneficial (Berghella V, Haas S, Chervonera I, et al. Patients with prior second-trimester loss: prophylactic cerclage or serial transvaginal sonograms? Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;187:747–51; Berghella V, Daly SF, Tolosa JE, et al. Prediction of preterm delivery with transvaginal ultrasonography of the cervix in patients with high-risk pregnancies: does cerclage prevent prematurity? Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;181:809–15; Hassan SS, Romero R, Maymon E, et al. Does cerclage prevent preterm delivery in patients with a short cervix? Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;184:1325–9) Doing a cerclage in the face of a positive cervical mucous IL-8 value resulted in the highest PTB rate before 37 weeks at 78%, and a much shorter procedure-to-delivery interval. (Sakai et al, Loc cit) Randomized studies (1) (2) (3) CIPRACT (Cervical Incompetence Prevention Randomized Cerclage Trial) enrolled patients only at risk for PTD + results similar (Althuis S, Dekker G, Hummel P, et al. Cervical Impotence Prevention Randomized Cerclage Trial (CIPRAT): effect of therapeutic cerclage with bed rest vs. bed rest only on cervical length. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2002;20:163–7) Rust Trial – no difference in cerclage and control group (Rust OA, Atlas RO, Jones KJ, et al. A randomized trial of cerclage versus no cerclage among patients with ultrasonographically detected second-trimester preterm dilatation of the internal os. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;183:830–5) Fetal Medicine Foundation of UK – no difference in patients with short cervix and no risk factors Bleeding Contractions Rupture of membranes Chorioamnionitis Dilatation > 4 cm Polyhydramnios Fetal anomaly Contraindications to cerclage (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Timing of cerclage Delay until about 14 weeks EGA (past SABs timing) Pre-op evaluation (1) Ultrasound (r/o major anomalies, confirm viability) (2) Screen for: GC, Chlamydia and Group B Streptococcus. (treat + cultures) (3) No coitus at least 1 week prior and 1 week after cerclage Types of cerclage McDonald – procedure of choice (1) Purse-string technique using 5 mm Merselene band (2) 4–5 ‘bites’ at level of internal os (encircle cervix) (3) Knot placed anteriorly (facilitates removal) 14–26 weeks 71 CERVICAL CANCER Shirodkar – more difficult (1) Used with previous McDonald failures (2) Submucosal placement (bladder mobilized cephalad) (3) More closely approaches level of internal os Modified Shirodkar Anterior to posterior bilaterally – tying posteriorly and burying the anterior knot at 12 o’clock Transabdominal – suture at internal os during laparotomy. Use for: (1) Traumatic cervix (2) Congenital shortening (3) Previous failed vaginal cerclage (4) Advanced cervical effacement Emergency procedures (1) Elevation of bulging membranes – overfill bladder with 1000 cc saline – Trendelenberg (with or without Foley displacement) – use sponge stick with condom cover (2) Saskatchewan procedure – sutures tied across external os (3) Wurm procedure – 2 to 10 to 8 to 4 and tie at 3 then 1 to 5 to 7 to 11 and tie at 12 These and other cerclage procedures are described in detail in Turrentine JE. Surgical Transcription in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1st and 2nd edns. Carnforth, UK: Parthenon Publishing, 1994. London: Informa Healthcare, 2006. Complications (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Fetal loss – rate is 2 4% Infection (this is decreased if done prior to 18 weeks’ gestation) Rupture of membranes Chorioamnionitis (has been documented as high as 60%) Preterm delivery (26%) Cervical lacerations (3–13%) Cervical dystocia secondary to scarring (5%) Management Infection – cut cerclage and induce Rupture of membranes – if @ 48 h after cerclage there is an increased risk of fetal or maternal infection if left in place. Release suture if delivery is imminent! Placement of an early cerclage does not result in improved outcomes over serial early transvaginal ultrasound of the cervix (Kelly S, Pollock M, Maas B, et al. Early transvaginal ultrasonography versus early cerclage in women with an unclear history of incompetent cervix. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;184:1097–9) CEREBRAL PALSY (1) Rate per births 1–2 per 1000 (2) No evidence that asphyxia causes CP (3) ALL of the following MUST be present to link CP with birth: (a) Umbilical artery pH < 7 (b) Apgar score 0–3 for > 5 min (c) Neonatal neurological sequelae (seizure, coma, hypotonia) (d) Multiple organ system dysfunction Cardiovascular, pulmonary, renal, hematologic, gastrointestinal Despite the above evidence that usually does not link CP with birth, most medical–legal cases of CP are settled out of court because of the fear of large jury awards (over what the doctor’s insurance covers) against the doctor even though the doctor is not to blame for the condition CERVICAL CANCER CIN statistics CIN I to cancer CIN II to cancer CIN III – Mean age 1% 15 28 years old 72 CERVICAL CANCER ASCUS – Approximately what % of Paps? Normal cervix to CIN III in years LEEP – Complication of bleeding from cervix Complication of stenosis of cervix Conization depth if cervix is 2 cm is CIS of cervix 5 4.5 years 5% 1% 20 mm See Oncology (Cervix) Facts about preinvasive cancer of the cervix: (1) Mean age of CIS to cancer 15 years (2) CIN in the USA 600 000 cases (3) HPV– potentially dangerous 16, 18, 31, 33, 35 (4) Frequency of Pap smears if patient has HIV is every 6 months (5) CIN I progresses to cancer 1% CIN II progresses to cancer 15% CIN III – mean age is 28 years old Transition time from normal Pap to CIN III is 4.5 years (6) ASCUS comprises which % of Pap smears? 5% (7) LEEP – complications include bleeding 5% of the time and stenosis of cervix 1% of the time For information on staging, nodes and treatment, see Oncology (cervix) Incidence 1/6 of all genital cancers; whites: 15/100 000; blacks: 34/100 000 Risk factors (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Prevention HPV vaccine is now available and although it will take decades to see cervical cancer rates drop, we will soon see fewer CIN 2/3 lesions once HPV 16/18 vaccination is routine. The quadrivalent vaccine also targets HPV types 6 and 11, which cause 90% of genital warts. Primary target for the vaccine will be children prior to sexual activity. Women who are already sexually active can also receive the vaccine. Merck has Gardasil Quadrivalent Vaccine providing 100% protection against persistent HPV 6, 11,16, 18 and HPV 16/18related CIN. Girls and women between ages 9 and 26 should be recommended for vaccination – ideally before the onset of sexual activity, but women who are already active should also be vaccinated because they may not have been exposed to all the HPV types that the vaccine protects. The vaccine is category B and therefore considered “safe” near the time of conception. GlaxoSmithKline expects to put Cervarix Bivalent HPV 16, 18 vaccine on the market sometime in 2007 Screening (1) Annual Paps to begin after first sexual activity and/or after age 18 (2) Test every 1–2 years until age 30. (Some recommend that after three normal Paps, screening can be every 2–3 years after age 30 as the squamous metaplasia area – the substrate for neoplasia – is diminished in most women in their 30s.) However, if an older woman’s sexual practices change, consider restarting more frequent screening (3) Consider discontinuing Pap tests after age 65–70 in wellscreened women with no history of significant dysplasia. Evidence does not support a specific age to stop screening. Again, restart screening if sexual practices change to more frequency (4) Consider discontinuing Pap testing in women whose uterus and cervix have been removed and who have no history of high-grade cervical dysplasia or cancer. (However, consider screening vaginal cuff and walls for vaginal dysplasia every 1 to 2 years.) Early age of coitus Multiple male sexual partners Smoking (smoking increases incidence by 3.5 times) HPV HIV 73 CERVICAL CANCER (5) Continue annual Pap testing in women with a history of cervical cancer in utero exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES), or who are immunocompromised (6) Screening will continue long after the advent of multivalent HPV vaccines to prevent the 30% of cancers linked to high-risk HPV types that are not in the vaccine, to protect the unvaccinated, and to protect the previously HPV-infected (7) HPV 16/18 testing may permit less aggressive management of women with other high-risk HPV infections. A single positive test for HPV 16/18 is twice as likely as an LSIL Pap to identify women at high risk for CIN 3+. Based on data obtained since the 2001 Consensus Conference, it now appears reasonable to incorporate knowledge of a woman’s HPV status in management of atypical glandular cell (AGC) cytological abnormalities. Current data clearly indicate that women with ASCUS who are HPV DNA-positive and women with LSIL have the same risk of having high-grade disease and should therefore be managed identically. When cytology is negative and HPV is positive, repeat both tests in 6–12 months Etiology E6 and E7 viral proteins produced by HPV disables p53 and Rb host Diagnosis (1) Biopsy (2) Colpo with biopsy (3) LOOP (LEEP) or cone if: (a) Bx does not explain abnl cells; (b) Atypical epithelium extends to endocervical canal; (c) Abnl cytology with no visible colposcopic lesion; (d) Microinvasion of bx; or (e) ECC demonstrates CIN Presentation (1) Abnormal vaginal bleeding (2) Discharge (3) Postcoital bleeding (4) Prolonged menses Advanced disease: (1) Pelvic and sciatic pain (2) Leg edema (3) Voiding difficulties Clinical staging (1) Physical (inspection and palpation of cervix, vagina, parametrium and pelvic side-walls. Check supraclavicular node region and upper abdominal region (2) CXR (not CT or MRI) (3) Colpo (4) Cystoscopy (5) IVP (6) Flexible sigmoidoscopy or proctoscopy and/or BE Stage patient while she is under anesthesia – stage cannot be changed. See staging under Oncology (Cervix) However – VERY IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER: Microinvasive cancer of cervix Stage IA – identified only microscopically (all stages over this are gross lesions even with superficial invasion) Maximum depth = 5.0 mm. No wider than 7.0 mm IA1 – stromal invasion to 3 mm. No wider than 7.0 mm IA2 – stromal invasion of 3–5 mm. No wider than 7.0 mm Vascular space involvement (either venous or lymphatic) does NOT alter staging See All Stages of Cervical Cancer in Clinical Protocols in Obstetrics and Gynecology (The TAN Book), Turrentine JE, Aviles M, Novak JS. Carnforth, UK: Parthenon Publishing, 2000:141 Treatment of early lesions Remember, Stage IA1 and sometimes IA2 – Conization if margins are free and no lymph-vascular space invasion then simple hysterectomy (lymphectomy not recommended as no metastasis). However, most IA2 (> 3 mm) are treated with radical hysterectomies with pelvic lymphadenectomies (3% node +) Treatment Surgery or radiation 74 CERVICAL RIPENING Radiation if > Stage I and IIA Controversial if Stage IB and Stage IIA Surgery for young patients (ovarian and vaginal function preserved) • Radical hysterectomy: remove uterus, upper 25% of vagina, uterosacral and uterovesical ligaments, bilateral parametrium and pelvic dissection of ureteral, obturator, hypogastric and ileac nodes Summary of treatment (1) CIN (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (a) LEEP; (b) CO2 laser; (c) Cryo; (d) Electrocautery (perform a–d when invasive cancer excluded and cone not indicated) Must see the entire abnl epithelium and endocx free of lesion and cytology, colposcopy and histology, all must correlate Follow-up with repeat Pap 6 months after treatment Stage IA Cx ca – hysterectomy (patients with lesions <3 mm which is stage IA1 then cone is okay) Stage IB, IB1, IIA – radical hyst with bilat pelvic lymph nodes or radiation Stage IIB, IIIA, IIIB, IVA – radiation treatment, some radiation potentiator hydroxyurea, multichemotherapy and surgery Recurrent – pelvic exenteration If can NOT handle radiation or surgery – chemo (cisplatin alone) Pregnant (a) Fetus not viable – treat as non-pregnant; (b) Second trimester – consider termination; (c) Later – consider survival of fetus versus risk to wait CERVICAL RIPENING • Use of transcervical Foley catheter for preinduction cervical ripening is both as safe and efficacious in the outpatient setting as it is in the inpatient setting (Sciscione AC, Muench M, Pollock M, et al. Transcervical Foley catheter for preinduction cervical ripening in an outpatient versus inpatient setting. Obstet Gynecol 2001;98:751–6) Cost differences Misoprostol (Cytotec) Tablet Dinoprostone (Prepidil) Gel Kit Dinoprostone (Cervidil) Vaginal Insert $0.36–1.20 for 100 µg tablet $65.00–75.00 $165.00 Sublingual misoprostol More effective than oral misoprostol for cervical ripening according to Shetty A, Danielian P, Templeton A. Sublingual misoprostol for the induction of labor at term. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;186:72–6 Buccal administration of misoprostol is an acceptable alternative, yielding rapid onset of action and avoiding repeated vaginal exams according to Carlan SJ, Blust D, O’Brien WF. Buccal versus intravaginal misoprostol administration for cervical ripening. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;186:229–33 Doses used in study: buccal route – q. 6 h × 6 doses, first two doses were 200 µg tablet then 300 µg for last four doses compared to vaginal route – q. 6 h × 6 doses, first two doses were 50 µg tablet increased to 100 µg tablet for the last four doses CERVICITIS Coinfection rate is as high as Treat both N. gonorrhoeae and C. trachomatis Treatments (1) Ceftriaxone 125 mg IM plus doxycycline 100 mg p.o. b.i.d. × 7 days (2) Ofloxacin 400 mg p.o. plus doxycycline 100 mg p.o. b.i.d. × 7 days or (3) Ceftriaxone 125 mg IM plus azithromycin 1 g orally 60% 75 CHEMOTHERAPY CERVIDIL Incidence of hyperstimulation 5% Hyperstimulation usually occurs after placement within 1.5–9.5 h ACOG recommends uterine monitoring continuously electronically for as long as device is in place and for 15 min after removal (ACOG Technical Bulletin No. 209, October 1998) Cervidil (Dinoprostone, 10 mg) is for hospital use only and should be opened only at the tear mark and never with scissors or a sharp object as it may compromise or cut the pouch that serves as the retrieval system for the polymeric slab. Make sure slab is obtained CHANCROID Symptoms and appearance Acute painful ulcer of vulva with ragged edges – solitary or multiple Cause Hemophilus ducreyi Diagnosis Gram stain shows classic streptobacillary chains – ‘school of fish’ Treatment TMP–SMX or erythromycin or Rocephin® CHANGES IN PREGNANCY See Adaptations in pregnancy CHEMOTHERAPY S phase (DNA synthesis) Alkylating agents Interact with DNA: Cyclophosphamide Chlorambucil, cyclophosphamide, melphalan Ifosfamide Hemorrhagic cystitis Leukemia Coma Antitumor antibiotics Directly attack DNA, producing breaks + interfering with DNA synthesis: Actinomycin D Doxorubicin Bleomycin Pulmonary fibrosis Antimetabolites Interference with DNA and RNA synthesis: 5-FU (radiation sensitizer) Methotrexate Cerebellar ataxia Increase bone marrow toxicity Platinum compounds Varied action (interfere with no single mode of action), sometimes bind to DNA: Cisplatin Renal toxicity, deafness Carboplatin N&V, myelosuppression Topoisomerase II inhibitors Inhibit the enzyme topoisomerase II and cause double-stranded DNA breaks Etoposide (VP-16): M phase (mitosis) Vinca alkaloids and taranes Specific reactions Most sensitive to radiation during this stage of cell kinetic cycle Arrest mitosis with toxic destruction of mitotic spindle: Vinblastine Increased bone marrow toxicity Vincristine Increased neurotoxicity Paclitaxel Arrhythmias (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Bone marrow toxicity Doxorubicin, vinblastine, methotrexate, carboplatin Pulmonary fibrosis Paclitaxel, bleomycin Alopecia Ifosfamide, 5-FU, doxorubicin, methotrexate Severe inflammatory/ulcerative reactions Doxorubicin, mitomycin C, actinomycin D Cardiotoxic 76 CHEMORADIATION Doxorubicin • Meticulous dental hygiene should be practiced during and after antineoplastic therapy to modify complications of oral stomatitis CHEMORADIATION New treatment for cervical cancer Examples of radiation sensitizers are 5-Fluorouracil Cisplatin Mitomycin C Hydroxyurea Benefits to administering chemotherapy concurrently with radiotherapy are: (1) Cell cycle synchronization (2) Decreased risk of cross-resistance (3) No delay in therapeutic modalities (4) Decreased oxygen-depleted fractions Disadvantages include (1) Unknown long-term complications (2) Potential for increased side-effects Types of chemoradiation (1) Neoadjuvant – chemo given for variable # of cycles prior to definitive treatment (2) Concurrent – chemo and radiation are administered simultaneously. Most effective in primary treatment for cervical cancer (3) Adjuvant – definitive treatment (radiation) is followed by chemo Chemoradiation has decreased risk of disease recurrence for patients with advanced-stage cervical cancer by approximately 30–50% CHLAMYDIA Frequently asymptomatic Rate of perinatal transmission Treatment is azithromycin p.o. 60–70% 1g Screening Do not use wooden shafts – preservatives are toxic to C. trachomatis. Sensitivity of ligase chain reaction assay from first-stream urine catch is approximately 95% Advantages of ligase chain reaction: (1) Improved sensitivity (2) Less resource intensive than pelvic so better for widespread use (3) More comfortable than pelvic thus increasing compliance + use (4) N. gonorrhoeae can be obtained from same urine specimen Classification of Chlamydia A, B, Ba and C D through K Blinding trachoma NGU, PID, cervicitis, epididymitis, proctitis and conjunctivitis LGV L1 through L3 Diagnosed by microimmunofluorescence Treated with doxycycline, tetracycline, sulfa or chloramphenicol CHOLECYSTITIS Increased risks Rapid weight loss OCPs Lipid-lowering medications Increase liver enzymes (AST + ALT) 2 x increase 33% Anatomy Gold standard Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography To test for stones in the common bile duct ERCP 77 CHOLESTEROL Cholangitis and acute pancreatitis can be life-threatening but what % of patients remain asymptomatic for years (but at any time can develop a crisis)? 8–15% CHOLESTEROL Facts 35% of heart attacks occur even when cholesterol levels are 150–200 mg/dl Triglyceride levels are dangerous when above 150 mg/dl Estrogen increases HDL, VLDL and triglycerides Progestins increase (Prolog 4th edn RepEndo + Infert. Washington, DC: ACOG) LDL Dietary fiber Dietary measures, such as addition of soluble fiber and substitution of soy protein for meat and dairy products, can help patients achieve lower cholesterol levels. (Each 1% reduction in serum cholesterol can reduce heart disease mortality by 2%.) Alternative Med Alert December 2001 Treatment outline See following protocols 78 CHOLESTEROL National Cholesterol Education Program – Guidelines and Goals for your Patients at Risk When diet and exercise are not enough to lower cholesterol, the NCEP recommends lowering LDL-cholesterol following the guidelines below. Using these levels and risk factors as guidelines, medications such as atorvastatin (Lipitor), fluvastatin, pravastatin, simvastatin or lovastatin may be started Without CHD fewer than 2 risk factors Without CHD 2 or more risk factors less than 160 mg/dl less than 130 mg/dl With CHD less than or equal to 100 mg/dl NCEP recommends lowering LDL-C further than these goals if possible NCEP recommends lowering LDL-C further than these goals if possible Identifying patients with CHD risk factors Family history of early CHD Any parent or sibling with CHD (younger than 55 years if male and younger than 65 years if female) Age Male ≥ 45 years; female ≥ 55 years or premature menopause without estrogen replacement therapy – Men in their forties are four times more likely to die from CHD than women of the same age. After menopause, the incidence of CHD increases progressively in women until ultimately as many women as men die of CHD Hypertension Blood pressure ≥ 140/90 mmHg or on antihypertensive medication – Because it is difficult to determine how long blood pressure has been controlled versus uncontrolled, even patients undergoing treatment are considered to be at risk Current smoker Smoking cessation is one of the most effective ways to reduce the risk of CHD and other atherosclerotic diseases Diabetes mellitus In men, diabetes triples the risk of CHD; in women, the increase in risk may be even greater Low HDL-cholesterol (<3.5 mg/dl) Evidence shows that for every 1-mg/dl decrease in HDL-C, the risk of CHD is increased by 2–3%. In the Framingham study, a 10-mg/dl decrease in HDL-C correlated to a 50% increase in coronary risk among women If HDL-C is ≥ 60 mg/dl, subtract one risk factor Indicated as an adjunct to diet to reduce elevated total cholesterol (TC), LDL-C, apoB and TG levels in patients with primary hypercholesterolemia (heterozygous familial and non-familial) and mixed dyslipidemia 79 CHOLESTEROL Primary prevention in adults without evidence of CHD: initial classification based on total cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol Repeat total cholesterol and HDL within 5 years or with physical exam Measure non-fasting total blood cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol. Assess other non-lipid CHD risk factors HDL ≥ 35 mg/dl Provide education on general population eating pattern, physical activity, and risk factor reduction Desirable blood cholesterol < 200 mg/dl HDL < 35 mg/dl Provide information on dietary modification, physical activity and risk factor reduction Borderline high blood cholesterol 200–239 mg/dl HDL ≥ 35 mg/dl and fewer than two risk factors HDL <35 mg/dl or two or more risk factors High blood cholesterol 240 mg/dl CHD risk factors Positive Age: Male ≥ 45 years Female 55 years or premature menopause without estrogen replacement therapy Family history of premature CHD Smoking Hypertension HDL-cholesterol <35 mg/dl Diabetes Negative HDL-cholesterol ≥ 60 mg/dl Re-evaluate patient in 1–2 years Repeat total and HDL-cholesterol measurement Reinforce nutrition and physical activity education Do lipoprotein analysis 80 CHOLESTEROL Primary prevention in adults without evidence of CHD: subsequent classification based on LDL-cholesterol Lipoprotein analysis fasting, 9–12 h (may follow a total cholesterol determination or may be done at the outset) Repeat total cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol measurement within 5 years Provide education on general population eating pattern, physical activity and risk factor reduction Desirable LDL-cholesterol < 130 mg/dl Provide information on the Step I Diet and physical activity Borderline high-risk LDL-cholesterol 130–159 mg/dl and with fewer than two risk factors Re-evaluate patient status annually, including risk factor reduction – Repeat lipoprotein analysis – Reinforce nutrition and physical activity education 130–150 mg/dl* and with two or more risk factors High-risk LDL-cholesterol 160 mg/dl* Do clinical evaluation (history, physical exam, and laboratory tests): – Evaluate for secondary causes (when indicated) – Evaluate for familial disorders (when indicated) Consider influences of age, sex, other CHD risk factors Initiate dietary therapy *On the basis of the average of two determinations. If the first two LDL-cholesterol tests differ by more than 30 mg/dl, a third test should be obtained within 1–8 weeks and the average value of three tests used 81 CHOLESTEROL Secondary prevention in adults with evidence of CHD: classification based on LDL-cholesterol Lipoprotein analysis* fasting, 9–12 h Average of two measurements 1–8 weeks apart** Individualize instruction on diet and physical activity level Optimal LDL-cholesterol ≤ 100 mg/dl Higher than optimal LDL-cholesterol >100 mg/dl Repeat lipoprotein analysis annually Do clinical evaluation (history, physical exam and laboratory tests) Evaluate for secondary causes (when indicated) Evaluate for familal disorder (when indicated) Consider influences of age, sex, and other CHD risk factors Initiate dietary therapy * Lipoprotein analysis should be performed when the patient is not in the recovery phase from an acute coronary medical event that would lower their usual LDL-cholesterol level ** If the first two LDL-cholesterol tests differ by more than 30 mg/dl, a third test should be obtained within 1–8 weeks and the average value of the three tests used 82 CHORANGIOSIS CHORANGIOSIS Poorly defined LPF 10 villi each with 10 or > vascular channels in Non-infarcted and non-ischemic zones of at least Different placental areas. Not congestion Not common Among 1350 placentas Ominous connotation Associated with high frequency in stillbirths and many perinatal circumstances that suggest long-standing hypoxia. More commonly observed in the placentas of babies who develop cerebral palsy 10 or > 3 5.5% CHORIOAMNIONITIS See Amnionitis CHORIONIC VILLUS SAMPLING (CVS) Can be performed (1) Transcervical, transabdominal or transvaginal (2) Relatively safe at 10–12 weeks’ gestation CANNOT be performed (1) < 10 weeks’ gestation (rather DO NOT perform prior to 10 weeks) (2) For diagnosis of NTD (neural tube defect) or fragile X Determines Chromosomal, enzymatic and DNA status of fetus Requires (1) Genetic counseling (2) Experienced operator (3) Experienced lab (in processing villi specimens and interpreting the results) Counsel patient about (1) Increased risk of transverse digital defects (2) Association with oromandibular-limb hypogenesis syndrome (3) Increase incidence of fetal losses more so than amnio Greatest risk Damage as result of placental bleeding is especially great < 9 weeks Transcervical CVS may increase the risk of pregnancy loss when the placenta is near the cervix. Limb reductions are secondary to hypovolemia and ischemia Oromandibular hypogenesis is associated with severe transverse limb reductions (1/200 000 live births) almost exclusively occur < 9 weeks (Ob Prolog 4th edn. Washington, DC: ACOG) CHRONIC PELVIC PAIN 1 in 300 What is the estimated incidence of CPP in women of reproductive age? 15% What is the definition of CPP? Pelvic pain that lasts longer than 6 months What is the chance that the cause of CPP is endometriosis once anatomic, GI, and genitourinary (PUF or IC) causes are ruled out? 80% Diagnosis (A) Have patients bring a written pattern of symptoms (B) Have patients prepare monthly symptom calendars, illness progression timelines, and temperature charts like ovulation and bring them to office (C) Encourage patients to be honest about their symptoms and to not feel shy about mentioning painful intercourse or problems with bowel movements or urination (D) Establish trust. It may be necessary to ask difficult questions about domestic violence, physical or sexual abuse, or psychological conditions that can be fueled by chronic pain (E) Ask about possible complaints of dysmenorrheal, dyspareunia, heavy or irregular bleeding, infertility, painful defecation or urination, lower back pain, or pain that radiates down one or both legs – particularly during 83 CHRONIC PELVIC PAIN (F) menstrual periods. (Endometriotic pain can be either cyclic or noncyclic) Differential diagnosis (1) Genitourinary – ruptured ovarian cyst, ectopic pregnancy, IC/ painful bladder syndrome, infarcted leiomyoma, symptomatic adenexal cysts, adenomyosis, primary dysmenorrheal, urethral syndrome, recurrent cystitis, urolithiasis (2) Gastrointestinal – appendicitis, IBS (irritable bowel syndrome), celiac disease, inflammatory bowel disease (3) Neurologic: central or peripheral sensitization (persistent pain following PID or infectious colitis), postoperative abdominal or vaginal wall neuromas, pudendal neuralgia, symptomatic intraabdominal adhesions (4) Musculoskeletal disorders: trigger points, pelvic floor pain syndromes, pelvic girdle dysfunction, symphyseal separation, sacroiliac joint dysfunction (5) Cognitive–psychological issues: somatization, catastrophizing and/or domestic violence (6) Immunologic: endometriosis, pelvic congestion syndrome Workup: If the patient has suffered CPP of at least 3–6 months’ duration, and has been unresponsive to a trial of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and/or oral contraceptives, a diagnosis of endometriosis should be suspected Physical: Thorough rectal examination and pelvic examination of the uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes, and cervix are essential. If possible, the exam should be performed during early menses when endometrial lesions are likely to be at their largest and most tender. During the rectal exam, test for focal tenderness at the uterosacral and cardinal ligaments and rectovaginal septum. Focal tenderness is associated with a 97% chance that a lesion exists in the area that will be visible during laparoscopy and a 66% chance that the lesion is related to endometriosis. Look for adnexal and uterine tenderness, retroflection of the uterus, limited uterine mobility, pelvic masses, and uterosacral ligaments that may be indurated or nodular. The rectovaginal examination should focus on uterosacral, cul-de-sac, and septal nodules. ∗ Carnett’s test – to differentiate abdominal wall pain from deeper visceral pain, have the patient lie in supine position with her legs flexed at the knees. Have her perform a modified abdominal crunch, engaging the rectus abdominis while coming 2–4 inches off the table. Comparison of pain with and without contraction of these muscles may help locate the source of the pain, as, with the muscles engaged, the viscera are shielded from an examiner’s hand. Women whose pain diminishes with the abdominal wall engaged during Carnett’s test are likely to have a visceral or intra-abdominal cause responsible for their pelvic pain Imaging studies: Pelvic ultrasound can detect ovarian endometriomas and, when performed transrectally, has been able to diagnose rectovaginal endometriosis. Neither ultrasound nor MRI can detect peritoneal endometrial implants (Takahashi K, Okada M, Okada S, et al. Studies on the detection of small endometrial implants by MRI using a fat saturation technique. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1996; 41: 203–6). If ultrasound shows any abnormality, a laparoscopy should be recommended Laparoscopy: While some patients may insist on laparoscopic confirmation, the procedure provides a relatively definitive diagnosis rate of 43–45%. (Winkel C. Evaluation and management of women with endometriosis. Obstet Gynecol 2003; 102: 397–408 and Walter AJ, Hentz JG, Magtibay PM, et al. Endometriosis: Correlation between histologic and visual findings at laparoscopy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 184:1407–13.) The patient should be informed that established practice today is to treat the condition empirically 84 CHRONIC PELVIC PAIN without surgical diagnostic confirmation due to its limitations. (American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists Commettee on Practice Bulletins–Gynecology. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 51: chronic pelvic pain. Obstet Gynecol 2004; 103:589–605). In addition, successful diagnosis is closely linked to surgical expertise. In one study (Howard FM. The role of laparoscopy in chronic pelvic pain; promises and pitfalls. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1993; 48:357–87) endometriosis was detected in only 28% of patients, whereas experienced laparoscopists found the condition in 70% of their cases. (Koninckx PR, Meuleman C, Demeyere S, et al. Suggestive evidence that pelvic endometriosis is a progressive disease, whereas deeply infliltrating endometriosis is associated with pelvic pain. Fertil Steril 1991; 55:759–65.) Treatment: A finding of no focal tenderness in a patient with CPP suggests that the disease is in its early stages and infertility is not yet an issue. In this case, it is appropriate to inform the patient that it is safe and effective to empirically treat her for endometriosis even in the absence of surgical confirmation. Hysterectomy is considered the only cure for endometriosis; however, it is clearly a last resort. Treatment generally progresses from simple pain relievers, to oral contraceptives, to medications that mimic pregnancy (GnRH agonists, i.e., Lupron, Zolodex, Synarel), continuous androgens (Danazol), or continuous progesterones (DMPA). Add-back therapy such as norethindrone acetate 5 mg daily can reduce the hypoestrogenic side effects of GnRH agonists. These treatments can also be used to inhibit recurrence following laparoscopic surgery to remove growths and lesions. Progestins are effective for a variety of pelvic pain syndromes, including pelvic congestion syndrome, and endometriosis-related pain. Short-acting agents like norethindrone can reduce severe menstrual pain. Many patients who do not respond to GnRH agonists have underlying neuromuscular dysfunction that responds to physical therapy or agents used for neurologic pain (tricyclic antidepressants such as nortryptiline or imipramine 10–25 mg at night increased every 4–7 days by same dose to 100–150 mg at night and antiepileptics such as gabapentin 100–300 mg at night tapered every 4–7 days up to 900–1200 mg t.i.d.). Be familiar with possible side effects of these drugs. Research suggests that IBS symptoms improve with either cognitive behavioral therapy or tricyclic antidepressants Perineal pain syndromes, classically described as pudendal neuralgia, may respond to physical manipulation and strengthening exercises designed to relieve tension on peripheral pelvic nerves Local areas of abdominal wall allodynia, particularly in an old abdominal incision scar, may respond dramatically to local anesthetic injections What percentage of chronic pain patients have sleep disorders? These sleep disorders stem from their chronic disease. Targeting this sleep deprivation may be critical to restoring a normal quality of life, and in turn, appropriate coping with a chronic pain condition 75% CHRONIC PELVIC PAIN Algorithm for management of chronic pelvic pain Chronic pelvic pain* Comprehensive history and physical Voiding symptoms No voiding symptoms Urinalysis/C&S, voiding diary Clinical working diagnosis, consider ultrasound, blood tests, Gl workup • Vulvar pain • Myofascial pain • IBS Consider medical therapy Are the symptoms improved? Potassium sensitivity test Presumed endometriosis Consider medical therapy • HRT† • NSAIDs • GnRH agonists Are the symptoms improved? No No Reassess for chronic pelvic pain or modify treatment Negative Positive Indeterminate Consider cystoscopy, urodynamics Reassess for CPP or modify treatment Key CPP chronic pelvic pain C&S culture and sensitivity GL gastrointestinal GnRH gonadotropin-releasing hormone HRT hotmone replacement therapy IBS irritable bowel syndrome IC interstitial cystitis NSALDS nonsteroidal anti -inflammatory drugs Laparoscopy Treat based on findings Reassess for CPP or modify treatment No Treat interstitial cystitis • Pentosan polysulfate • Antihistamine • Tricyclic antidepressant • Other Are the symptoms improved after 4–6 months? Are the symptoms improved? Yes No Continue or modify therapy Reassess for CPP or modify treatment * Characteristics may include voiding symptoms, menstrual flaring, dyspareunia, post-coital symptoms † Oral contraceptives and progestins Yes Continue or modify therapy 85 86 CIRCUMCISION CIRCUMCISION Types (male/infant) (1) Gomco (2) Mogen (3) Plasti-bell Pain control The Mogen clamp technique appears to be associated with less crying and grimacing than the use of the Gomco clamp and the same also seems to be true in comparing the sucrose pacifier with the water pacifier (Kaufman GE, Cimo S, Miller LW, Blass EM. An evaluation of the effects of sucrose on neonatal pain with two commonly used circumcision methods. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;186:564–8) Risk of cervical cancer The risk of cervical cancer appears diminished in a woman whose sexual partner has been circumcised (Castellsague X, Bosch FX, Munoz N, et al. Male circumcision, penile HPV infection and cervical cancer in female partners. N Engl J Med 2002;346:1105–12) Other risks Clinical studies also indicate a reduced risk in circumcised males of UTIs, penile cancer, penile inflammation, and transmission of some sexually transmitted infectious disease UTI rate (circumcised vs uncircumcised)= 1.9 vs 7.0 per 1000 boys Despite the increased risks in uncircumcised boys, vocal groups against circumcision complain of the risk of pain, bleeding, local infection and the possibility of long-term emotional harm along with the inability of the newborn to give consent Percent of circumcision in U.S. from 1997 to 2000 61% Research is being conducted to investigate whether or not circumcision reduces the ability of HIV-infected men to transmit the virus. It is thought that the procedure may reduce the incidence FGM Female genital mutilation is discouraged by WHO and other agencies. The highest known prevalence is in Africa. The harmful effects of FGM include hemorrhage, difficult labor/childbirth, genital tears, infections and scar/keloid formation Types to be familiar with Type 1 – partial or total excision of the clitoris Type 2 – excision of the clitoris and labia minora Type 3 – excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching/narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulation) Type 4 – the unclassified type and refers to any other mutilation performed on the external genitalia such as gishiri cut or piercing of any part of the external genitalia CIRCUMVALLATE PLACENTA Incidence 1–2% CLITOROMEGALY Normal clitoris of newborn often appears large, so examine in supine position with thighs flexed against abdomen Clitoral index Normal Clitoromegaly Possible causes CAH – 21-hydroxylase deficiency (an autosomal recessive trait) Has three forms: (1) Simple virilizing (2) Salt-wasting form (severe) (3) Non-classic or late-onset form (virilization) True hermaphroditism Teratogenic agents ingested during pregnancy Maternal androgen-secreting tumor Diagnosis Check for elevated urinary 17-ketosteroids, plasma DHEA, 17-OHP Treatment Treat salt-wasting form of CAH – corticosteroids, mineralocorticoids and NaCl ≤ 6 mm2 > 6 mm2 95% 87 COLON CANCER CLOMIPHENE Treats oligo-ovulation. How does it work? It is a SERM of the triphenylethylene group. It binds to estrogen receptors as a strong antiestrogen and increases LH because the brain receptors read there is too little estrogen. It is also non-steroidal, crosses all cell membranes and affects cervical mucus adversely. (Raloxifene is a cousin but in the benzathiophene family of SERMs) Clomid or Serophene is an estrogen-receptor antagonist Induces ovulation in what % of patients taking it? Pregnancy rate with Clomid is Incidence of twins with Clomid is DHEA-S levels should be drawn if no ovulation with Clomid dose of over Follicle diameter with Clomid treatment should be 20 70–80% 40% 5–10% 150 mg mm or > Side-effects Hot flushes, headaches and nausea, mood alterations, visual changes Works better (Clomid in combination) (1) If patient’s BMI is optimized (preferably <27 kg/m2) (2) If there is insulin resistance, combine with insulin sensitizers such as metformin 500 mg q. daily × 1 week, then b.i.d. × 1 week, then t.i.d. × 1 week or 850 mg b.i.d. for better compliance (3) If DHEA-S level is > 2 µg /ml, give dexamethasone 0.5 mg daily on cycle days 5 through 9 or days 3–7 (4) If DHEA-S level is < 2 µg /ml, consider 2 months of OC therapy followed by Clomid therapy COITAL CEPHALALGIA Types Headache that occurs during or soon after sexual intercourse Benign coital cephalalgia (1) Muscle contraction type (2) Vascular type (3) Low CSF pressure type Most are vascular types. Rule out subarachnoid hemorrhage and/or aneurysm with CT possible LP, arteriograms p.r.n. Treatment Propranolol 80 mg LA capsules Bellergal-SR Caution Decreased libido or depression 120 mg LA caps p.r.n. COLON CANCER Occurs in what % patients with no known risk Digital rectal exam on females should be performed after the age of 75% 50 Fecal occult blood testing after the age of 50 reduces colon cancer by 25% For 3 days prior to guaiac testing – avoid aspirin > 325 mg/day NSAIDs and vitamin C Red meat, poultry, fish, raw vegetables If test is + for blood then do Full colonoscopy or Barium enema with flexible sigmoidoscopy Sigmoidoscopy every 3–5 years after the age of 50 reduces colon cancer by 30% Percent of patients with colorectal cancer who will have relapse 50% Second cause of cancer death Most common symptom Bleeding Other symptoms: Early symptoms Change in bowel habits Constipation/diarrhea Mucus (sometimes mixed with blood) Tenesmus (ineffectual attempt to defecate often associated with painful spasms of anus) Late symptoms Low-back and rectal pain Dyspepsia Flatulent distention Borborygmi Palpable abdominal mass Weight loss or weakness 88 COLPOSCOPY COLPOSCOPY • GREEN FILTER and white light To rule out invasive cancer Always use both Biopsy Keratosis White epithelium prior to application of 3–5% acetic acid. HPV is most common cause. Other causes are keratinizing CIN or cancer, chronic trauma (diaphragms, tampons, pessaries), radiorx Aceto-white epithelium Turns white after application of 3–5% acetic acid. Dysplastic cells most affected (large nuclei with increase protein that coagulates) Punctation Dilated capillaries terminating on surface as dots – CIN Mosaicism Terminating capillaries around blocks of A–W epithelium (tile) – CIN Atypical vessels Often associated with invasive cancer. Usually postcoital bleeding CIN I regression 60–80% CIN III regression 30% White lesions with vessels on top indicate what until proven otherwise? CIS or microinvasion Do not forget to examine vulva and vagina along with the cervix during colposcopy!! CONDOMS Adolescent use rising Highest rates of GC and Chlamydia is in 15–19-year-old age group Condom use is not consistent Teens more likely to use condoms if use of condom discussed with clinician CONFIDENTIALITY Violation may be necessary if (1) (2) (3) (4) High probability of harm to third party Potential harm is a serious one Information can be used to prevent harm Greater good will result from breaking confidentiality than from maintaining it CONDYLOMA ACUMINATA Incubation Long 1–8 months Anatomic distribution Cervix Vulva Anus Vagina Predisposed Diabetes, pregnancy, local trauma, immunocompromised Causation HPV DNA virus, most common viral STD Highly contagious 25–65% > 70 subtypes 21 subtypes involved in genital infections #16 and #18 are associated with pre-malignant and malignant lesions #6 and #11 are associated with benign lesions Diagnosis Koilocyte is characteristic cell seen on Pap smear Koilocytosis is associated with atypia and dysplasia Perinuclear halo is diagnostic of koilocyte Colpo if koilocytosis is present Treatment < 2–3 cm > 2–3 cm Other subtypes 16, 18, 31, 35, 39, 45, 51, 53, 56, 58 70% 25% 20% 10% 85% TCA, condylox, podophyllin or Aldara Electrocautery, cryo or laser 89 CONTRACEPTION Figure 3 Human papillomavirus causing condyloma acuminata CONFINED PLACENTAL MOSAICISM (CPM) Found in this % of CVS specimens The suspected mechanism is that in CPM there is rampant growth of the placenta and the fetus increases the probability of random errors in cell replication 1–2% CONIZATION Indications (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Intraepithelial lesion or microinvasive cancer is present in ECC Cytology abnormality not consistent with tissue diagnosis Entire transformational zone is not visible Microinvasive cancer is diagnosed by directed biopsy Cytologic or biopsy evidence of premalignant or malignant glandular epithelium is detected (6) No lesion is visible colposcopically CONTRACEPTION How many pregnancies are unintended? For ‘morning after’ pill and patients on antiepileptic drugs use For non-contraceptive benefits and contraception use 2/3 50 µg 30–35 µg Benefits of oral contraceptives Skin Improvement of acne Increased oiliness Triphasic norgestimate Levonorgestrel and norgestrel BMD (bone mineral density) + effect with OCPs and maintaining BMD If no bleeding – no estrogen (anorexia nervosa, exercise-induced amenorrhea, gonadal dysgenesis, early oophorectomy, premature ovarian failure, chemo/radiation, hyperprolactinemia) 90 CONTRACEPTION Calcium supplementation especially in teenagers and women in their twenties Protective effects Helps prevent ovarian cysts, benign breast disease, including fibrocystic changes and fibroadenomas Helps prevent pain associated with endometriosis, menorrhagia, polycystic ovary syndrome, and pelvic inflammatory disease Protection against ovarian, endometrial, and possibly colorectal cancer Endometrial cancer Duration of use important. The longer the use, the greater is the reduction in risk of cancer Ovarian cancer OCPs prevent ovulation and decrease risk of ovarian cancer by 40–80% The longer duration, the better. Protection continues after OCPs are discontinued for 20 years Smokers Do not give estrogen in smokers > 35! Estrogen increases thromboembolic episodes, especially in women over 35 years old. Perimenopause Maintain OCPs if non-smoker to gain benefits Percent of pregnancies per patient use % Method Postcoital douche Rhythm Condom Condom and spermicide OCPs (oral contraceptive pills) IUDs 80 40 15–25 5–15 5–15 3–10 Concerns prior to starting oral contraceptives Suggested screening examination Blood pressure measurement Breast, abdominal and pelvic examination Pap test Complete blood count Urinalysis In case of family history of vascular disease: lipid panel In case of family history of diabetes: 2-h postprandial blood glucose test; if elevated, perform glucose tolerance test In case of patient history of liver disease: liver panel Contraindications and precautions to the use of oral contraceptives Contraindications Oral contraceptives should not be used by women who currently have the following conditions: Thrombophlebitis or thromboembolic disorders A history of deep vein thrombophlebitis or thromboembolic disorders Cerebral vascular or coronary artery disease Known or suspected carcinoma of the breast Carcinoma of the endometrium or other known or suspected estrogen-dependent neoplasia Undiagnosed abnormal genital bleeding Cholestatic jaundice of pregnancy or jaundice with prior OC use Hepatic adenomas or carcinomas Known or suspected pregnancy Precautions Women with the following conditions who take oral contraceptives should be monitored with particular care: Breast nodules or a strong family history of breast cancer Hyperlipidemia Impaired liver function Conditions that may be aggravated by fluid retention History of depression Visual changes or changes in lens tolerance in a woman with contact lenses (should be assessed by an ophthalmologist) 91 CONTRACEPTION Missed pills – preventing pregnancy in women who miss one or more oral contraceptive How long has it been since you missed taking your pill? 12 h or less More than 12 h Take the most recent missed pill now Take the missed pill now and further pills as usual Discard any earlier missed pills Use extra precautions (for instance condoms) for the next 7 days How many pills are left in the packet after the most recent missed pill? Seven or more pills Fewer than seven pills When you have finished the packet, leave the usual 7-day break before starting the next packet When you have finished the packet, start the next packet the next day, without a break 92 CONTRACEPTION Oral contraceptive types and dosages Low-dose monophasics Alesse (Wyeth-Ayerst) 21 or 28 day 0.1 mg levonorgestrel 0.02 mg ethinylestradiol Brevicon (Searle) 21 or 28 day 0.5 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol Demulen 1/35 (Searle) 21 or 28 day 1 mg ethynodiol diacetate 35 µg ethinylestradiol Desogen (Organon) 28 day 0.15 mg desogestrel 0.03 mg ethinylestradiol Levlen (Berlex) 21 or 28 day 0.15 mg levonorgestrel 0.03 mg ethinylestradiol Loestrin 1/20 (Parke-Davis) 21 day 1 mg norethindrone acetate 20 µg ethinylestradiol Loestrin 1.5/30 (Parke-Davis) 21 day 1.5 mg norethindrone acetate 30 µg ethinylestradiol Loestrin Fe 1/20 (Parke-Davis) 28 day 1 mg norethindrone acetate 20 µg ethinylestradiol 7 pills 75 mg ferrous fumarate Loestrin Fe 1.5/30 (Parke-Davis) 28 day 1.5 mg norethindrone acetate 30 µg ethinylestradiol 7 pills 75 mg ferrous fumarate Lo-Ovral (Wyeth-Ayerst) 21 or 28 day 0.3 mg norgestrel 0.03 mg ethinylestradiol Mircette (Organon) 28 day 20 µg ethinylestradiol 150 µg desogestrel (days 1–21) Placebo (days 22–23) 10 µg ethinylestradiol (days 24–28) Modicon (Ortho) 21 or 28 day 0.5 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol Nelova 1/35E (Warner-Chilcott) 1 mg norethindrone 35 µg ethinylestradiol Nelova 0.5/35E (Warner-Chilcott) 0.5 mg norethindrone 35 µg ethinylestradiol Nordette (Wyeth-Ayerst) 21 or 28 day 0.15 mg levonorgestrel 0.03 mg ethinylestradiol Norethin 1/35E (Roberts) 28 day 1 mg norethindrone 35 µg ethinylestradiol Norinyl 1+35 (Searle) 21 or 28 day 1 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol Ortho-Cept (Ortho) 21 or 28 day 0.15 mg desogestrel 0.03 mg ethinylestradiol Ortho-Cyclen (Ortho) 21 or 28 day 0.250 mg norgestimate 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol Ortho-Novum 1/35 (Ortho) 21 or 28 day 1 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol Ovcon 35 (Bristol-Myers Squibb) 21 or 28 day 0.4 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol Yasmin (Berlex) 28 day 30 µg ethinylestradiol 3 µg drospirenone Yaz (Berlex) 24/4 – day dosing. 0.02 mg ethinylestradiol 3 mg drospirenone Triphasics Cyclessa (Organon) 28 day 7 days: 0.100 mg desogestrel 0.025 mg ethinylestradiol 7 days: 0.125 mg desogestrel 0.025 mg ethinylestradiol 7 days: 0.150 mg desogestrel 0.025 mg ethinylestradiol Ortho-Novum 7/7/7 (Ortho) 21 or 28 day 7 days: 0.5 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol 7 days: 0.75 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol 7 days: 1 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol Tri-Levlen (Berlex) 21 or 28 day 6 days: 0.050 mg levonorgestrel 0.030 mg ethinylestradiol 5 days: 0.075 mg levonorgestrel 0.040 mg ethinylestradiol 10 days: 0.125 mg levonorgestrel 0.030 mg ethinylestradiol Tri-Cyclen (Ortho) 21 or 28 day 7 days: 0.180 mg norgestimate 0.35 mg ethinylestradiol 7 days: 0.215 mg norgestimate 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol 7 days: 0.250 mg norgestimate 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol Tri-Cyclen Lo (Ortho) 7 days: 0.180 mg norgestimate 0.025 mg ethinylestradiol 7 days: 0.215 mg norgestimate 0.025 mg ethinylestradiol 7 days: 0.250 mg norgestimate 0.025 mg ethinylestradiol Tri-Norinyl (Searle) 21 or 28 day 7 days: 0.5 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol 9 days: 1 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol 5 days: 0.5 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol Triphasil (Wyeth-Ayerst) 21 or 28 day 6 days: 0.050 mg levonorgestrel 0.030 mg ethinylestradiol 5 days: 0.075 mg levonorgestrel 0.040 mg ethinylestradiol 10 days: 0.125 mg levonorgestrel 0.030 mg ethinylestradiol 93 CONTRACEPTION Biphasics Progestin-only Jenest (Organon) 28 day 7 days: 0.5 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol 14 days: 1 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol Ortho-Novum 10/11 (Ortho) 21 or 28 day 10 days: 0.5 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol 11 days: 1 mg norethindrone 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol Micronor (Ortho) 28 day 0.35 mg norethindrone Nor-QD (Searle) 42 day 0.35 mg norethindrone Ovrette (Wyeth-Ayerst) 28 day 0.075 mg norgestrel Graduated estrophasics Estrostep 21 (Warner Chilcott) 21 day 5 days: 1 mg norethindrone acetate 0.02 mg ethinylestradiol 7 days: 1 mg norethindrone acetate 0.03 mg ethinylestradiol 9 days: 1 mg norethindrone acetate 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol Estrostep FE (Warner Chilcott) 28 day 5 days: 1 mg norethindrone acetate 0.02 mg ethinylestradiol 7 days: 1 mg norethindrone acetate 0.03 mg ethinylestradiol 9 days: 1 mg norethindrone acetate 0.035 mg ethinylestradiol 7 days: 75 mg ferrous fumarate Extended-cycle (Menstruation only, 4 times per year) Seasonique (Duramed) 84 days: 0.15 mg levonorgestrel 0.03 mg ethinylestradiol 7 days of tabs with 0.01 mg ethinylestradiol. Seasonale (Duramed – considering selling) 84 days: 0.15 mg levonorgestrel 0.03 mg ethinylestradiol 7 day break prior to next 3-month cycle. Adapted from Caufield KA. Controlling fertility (updates by Dr John Turrentine). In Youngkin EQ, Davis MSD, eds. Women’s Health: A Primary Care Clinical Guide. Norwalk, Connecticut: Appleton and Lange, 1994:112–14; and Physician’s Desk Reference, 51st edn. Montvale, NJ: Medical Economics Books, 1997 94 CONTRACEPTION Patch There is better compliance with the use of the contraceptive patch than with OCPs, but the contraceptive efficacy and cycle control are similar in both methods. (Audet MC, Moreau M, Koltun WD, et al. Evaluation of contraceptive efficacy and cycle control of a transdermal contraceptive patch vs an oral contraceptive: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2001;285:2347–54). Breast discomfort is slightly higher in the first two cycles with the patch than the pill. Dysmenorrhea was also more frequent with the patch, but the difference was not statistically significant. There may be a slightly increased risk of thromboembolic episodes with the patch compared with the oral contraceptive methods because a patient will be exposed to about 60% more estrogen using the patch (Ortho-Evra) than using a typical birth control pill containing 35 µg of estrogen. Ortho Evra (Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceuticals) = 150 µg norelgestromin and 20 µg ethinylestradiol This patch is worn weekly then discarded with a patch-free interval 99% effective IUDs LNG-IUS (Levonorgestrel-Releasing Intrauterine System) →Mirena Mirena (contains levonorgestrel) should be replaced every 5 years 99% effective Paraguard CU T380 can be left in for 8–10 years  98.5% effective Progestasert must be replaced yearly Injections DepoProvera (150 mg IM every 3 months) Lunelle (IM every month) 99% effective 99% effective Rings NuvaRing® (Organon Inc., West Orange, NJ) 120 µg etonogestrel and 15 µg ethinylestradiol Wear for 3 weeks, then discard and have 1-week interval free Efficacy compared to OCs particularly Triphasil 98% effective Barrier methods Diaphragms 94% effective when used with spermicide Cervical caps 91% effective if never pregnant, but only 74% after parous Sponge – frequent side-effect is ‘vaginitis’ in 15% Male condoms 97% effective with perfect use Female condoms 95% effective with perfect use Spermicides VCF vaginal contraceptive film (thin square of dissolving Nonoxynol-9) As effective as any barrier spermicide Implants (Norplant®) LNG Failure rate in first year Failure rate in fifth year Irregular bleeding Weight gain in some of about Use in U.S. women (<1 million) Six capsules each with levonorgestrel Total levonorgestrel 5-year contraception – subtherapeutic within ? days removed? Ovulation after removal resumes ? weeks? (Implanon®) ENG Single rod containing containing 3-year contraception Training offered – call 1-877-IMPLANON 0.2% 1.1% 30–50% 20–25 lb 1% 36 mg 216 mg 3 2–4 68 mg of etonogestrel (ENG) mixed with ethylene vinyl acetate Congenital anomalies with contraception No evidence regarding OCPs, IUD or spermicides Permanent methods Tubal sterilization – Methods include types of ligation, excision, falope rings, Hulka clips, laparoscopy and vaginal. These topics are covered in full in Turrentine JE. Surgical Transcriptions in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1st and 2nd edns. Carnforth, UK: Parthenon Publishing, 1996. London: Informa Healthcare, 2006. Transcervical sterilization – Essure. A microinsertable device and catheter delivery system for minimally invasive transcervical tubal access. This consists of a nickel titanium alloy outer coil and polyethylene terephthalate fibers. The PET fibers are a mesh between the inner and outer coils of the device. The device promotes tissue growth in the fallopian tubes, which over a 3-month period, provides tubal occlusion. Other contraception must be used for 3 months after the procedure is performed 95 CONTRACEPTION Contraceptive chart HOW EFFECTIVE IS THIS METHOD? HORMONAL CONTRACEPTIVES NON-HORMONAL CONTRACEPTIVES VAGINAL BARRIERS PERMANENT METHODS HOW MANY OPTIONS ARE AVAILABLE? HOW OFTEN IS IT USED? ARE THERE INTERRUPTIONS WITH THIS METHOD? PREGNANCY AFTER USE CAN OCCUR The Patch 99% effective There is only 1 contraceptive patch The Patch is applied once a week for 3 weeks. During Week 4, no patch is used There are no interruptions with this method Once stopped, it may take a few cycles before you can become pregnant Oral contraceptive (The Pill) 99% effective There are a variety of pills available in different doses You should take your pill every day, at approximately the same time each day There are no interruptions with this method Once stopped, it may take a few cycles before you can become pregnant Contraceptive injections 99% effective There are 2 options currently available; a monthly injection and an injection that is given every 3 months You receive an injection either monthly or every 3 months There are no interruptions with this method Ovulation may be delayed up to a year Progestinreleasing intrauterine device (IUD) 99% effective There is 1 hormonereleasing IUD currently available The suggested length of use is 5 years or less There are no interruptions with this method Once removed, fertility can return within a year Vaginal ring 99% effective There is only 1 vaginal ring Each month, the vaginal ring is inserted into the vagina and left in place for 3 weeks. During Week 4, you do not wear the ring There are no interruptions with this method Once stopped, it may take a few cycles before you can become pregnant Male condom 97% effective There are a variety of styles, sizes, colors, materials and textures A new one must be used every time you have sex Must be applied when the penis is erect. May cause a slight interruption before sex Without this device, there is no protection against pregnancy Female condom 95% effective There is 1 female condom currently available A new one must be used every time you have sex A female condom can be inserted up to 8 hours before sex Without this device, there is no protection against pregnancy Intrauterine device 99% effective There is 1 copper-T IUD currently available Once inserted in the uterus, it can be left in place for up to 10 years There are no interruptions Once removed, fertility can return within about 1 month Spermicides 94% effective – use with a vaginal barrier increases effectiveness There are a variety of spermicides available in foams, jellies, creams and vaginal suppositories Must be used every time you have sex Must be inserted no more than 1 hour before sex Without this device, there is no protection against pregnancy Diaphragm 94% effective There are a variety of sizes available Must be used every time you have sex (and fresh spermicide must be applied each time) The diaphragm can be inserted 6 to 8 hours before sex Without this device, there is no protection against pregnancy Cervical cap 84% effective in women who have had a child (91% in those who have not) There are a variety of sizes available Must be used every time you have sex (and spermicide must be applied when inserted) The cervical cap provides continuous protection for up to 48 hours Without this device, there is no protection against pregnancy Surgical sterilization Greater than 99% effective For women, there is a tubal ligation (having your tubes ‘tied’); for men, there is a vasectomy These procedures are permanent and irreversible There are no interruptions with this method You will no longer be able to get pregnant 96 CORD PROLAPSE CORD PROLAPSE Incidence Percent of cord prolapses associated with breech Incidence in compound presentations Found in vagina Found at introitus Found along presenting part Found between legs with breech 1/200 or 0.1–0.5% 50% 20% 45% 39% 11% 4% Perinatal mortality 2–8% (one source states over 20%) Predisposing factors (1) Diagnosis (1) Palpable cord on vaginal exam (2) Observed cord protruding onto vulva (3) FHR pattern suggesting cord compression (a) Prolonged, severe, variable decelerations (b) Bradycardia (c) Ultrasound (may diagnose high-risk cases prior to distress) Treatment URGENT DELIVERY TO AVOID ASPHYXIA AND DEATH Preparation for surgery: (1) Push presenting part cephalad (2) Knee–chest position or Trendelenburg (3) Replace cord into uterine cavity and cephalad to presenting part (4) Fill bladder with 500–700 ml of saline (5) Give oxygen!!! (6) Consider giving a tocolytic agent (terbutaline) IV Management (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Comparative modes of delivery (% perinatal mortality) SVD – 35.5%; LFD – 0%; MFD – 33.3%; VE – 33.3%; assisted breech extraction – 25%; total breech extraction or version and extraction – 10%; total of these – 26.9%, compared to C-section – 3.4% Most frequent causes (a) Abnormal presentation (b) Fetal hypotension (with abruptio) (c) Multiparity (d) Multiple gestation (e) Prematurity (2) Less common factors (a) Contracted pelvis (b) Extended cord length (c) Obstetric manipulations (d) Polyhydramnios (e) Premature rupture of membranes (f) Rupture of membranes before engagement (spont. or art.) Place mother in Trendelenburg or knee–chest position Elevate presenting fetal part Administer oxygen to mother Swiftly order preparations for C-section If preparations are prolonged: (a) Distend bladder (500–700 ml NS thru cath) (b) Administer a tocolytic agent (terbutaline) IV These steps will serve to elevate presenting part and decrease or stop uterine contractions both allowing better perfusion CORTISOL TEST Rule out Addison’s ‘Humpback’, decreased K+, Cl, GTT, eosinophils and WBCs The test Give 1 mg Decadron® at 11 pm then draw serum cortisol at 8 am Normal result should be <5 mg 97 CYSTIC FIBROSIS CRITICAL CARE ESSENTIALS Wedge and urine decreased with pulse elevated and H&H ok = increased vol Wedge increased, urine decreased, lungs X, H&H ok = Lasix Wedge and urine decreased with pulse elevated and H&H decreased = give blood CUSHING’S SYNDROME Symptoms or findings Obesity 95% Moonface and molar rash 95% Hypertension 85% Glucose intolerance 80% Menstrual/sexual dysfunction 75% Hirsutism and acne 72% Striae 67% Weakness 65% Osteoporosis 55% Easy bruisability 55% Depression 80% Edema of legs 40% Overnight dexamethasone suppression test given at 11 pm and tested at 8 am the following morning is: + if fails to suppress plasma cortisol under 5 µg /day + if urinary cortisol > 100 µg/day Almost virtually diagnostic of Cushing’s in a non-pregnant female if value is > 250 µg/day CYSTIC FIBROSIS Chronic pulmonary and exocrine pancreatic disease Almost all men with CF have bilateral absence of vas deferens Another disorder – congenital bilateral absence of the vas deferens (CBAVD) is found in 1% of infertile men and in higher % of those presenting with azoospermia. CBAVD is milder form of CF. No fructose in sperm when obstruction of vas is present CF is most common lethal autosomal recessive disease found in people of N. European descent Carrier frequency is about 4–5% or 1/22–25 Disease frequency is 1/2500 1/1600 in N. European descent Clinical manifestations of CF Meconium ileus Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease leading to bronchiectasis and respiratory failure Life expectancy Patients can be expected to live to age 26 or longer CF gene found on chromosome number 7, locus 31 A fragment of this gene on chromosome 7 encodes a protein called cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) that assists in transport of chloride ions to maintain hydration in epithelial-lined lumina If CFTR is dysfunctional, secretions in pulmonary small airways and in the pancreatic ducts become tenacious and obstruct those structures – lung + pancreatic problems OFFER TESTING ONLY TO PATIENTS AND COUPLES WITH FMH OF CF. Get informed consent! Mutations in CF patients @ deletion of three base pair resulting in the loss of phenylalanine residue Amniotic fluid cells or CVS may be used prenatally Increased F508 Testing for increased F508 deletion is imperfect – detects only half to two-thirds carrier couples 98 CYSTIC HYGROMA How many gene mutations can cause CF? (Most common is increased F508) 400–800 Most labs screen for how many of the most common genes that cause CF? 32 Negative test decreases risk to 1 in 246 or 90% If husband carrier is unknown, pt with CF has estimated risk of having child with CF of 1/50 Screening Screening for only one partner; voluntary, informed consent required, education and counseling, quality control of lab and equal access to testing should be available Population-based screening should NOT be recommended with NEGATIVE FMH Congenital bilateral absence of vas deferens (CBAVD) Most men nevertheless have caput epididymis – microsurgical sperm aspiration is possible Then intracytoplasmic sperm injection (dilution with glycerol 10%) Genetic basis of disorders requires proper testing and counseling take place and parents-to-be are very informed of genetic risk to offspring CYSTIC HYGROMA Congenital malformation of lymphatic system usually seen in nuchal region uncommon. Can be associated with chromosomal anomalies or fetal hydrops First trimester Aneuploidies Second trimester XO (monosomy) most common Diagnosis Ultrasound and physical exam Prognosis If nl karyotypes without septations and spontaneously resolves = good Those with septated lesions – increased risk of abnormal karotype with decrease in survival rate CYSTOCELE Rupture of pubovesicle cervical fascia (central defect of endopelvic fascia) Anterior repair corrects anterior midline vaginal defect. See Prolapse (POP) Repaired by dissection to lateral vaginal wall until defect demonstrated CYSTS Features of benign versus malignant Cystic Unilocular <10 cm Unilateral Regular borders Ascites Solitary thick septa Papillations Matted bowel Irregular borders Most common cysts or masses found in reproductive age women: Pelvic mass Pregnancy Pelvic neoplasm Fibroid Ovarian mass Functional cysts Ovarian neoplasm Dermoid Ovarian cancer is unlikely to cause sudden pain In a premenopausal woman presumed to have a benign cyst, surgery for pain or failure to resolve should conserve the ovary if at all possible In postmenopausal women, repeat sonograms and observation are justified unless CA-125 is elevated or the cyst’s size or complexity increases. When surgery is necessary in postmenopausal women, remove the entire ovary for complete pathologic analysis 99 DELIVERY DESCRIPTION DAYS TO REMEMBER Morula Blastocyst Fertilized ovum reaches uterus in Implantation Trophoblastic venous sinuses form Cardiovascular system begins to form Earliest morphological indicator of sex appears Oogenesis begins 2–3 days after fertilization 4–5 days after fertilization 5–6 days 6–7 days 9–11 days 21 days 8–9 weeks 11–12 weeks DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS See DVT DEHYDRATION Guidelines for the athlete Effects of dehydration What to drink during exercise Dehydration can affect an athlete’s performance in less than an hour of exercise – sooner if the athlete begins the session dehydrated If exercise lasts more than 45 min or is intense, a sports drink should be consumed during exercise Dehydration of just 1–2% of body weight (only 1.5–3 lb for a 150-lb athlete) can negatively influence performance A 6–8% carbohydrate (CHO) solution maintains optimal carbohydrate metabolism Dehydration of greater than 3% of body weight increases an athlete’s risk of heat illness (heat cramps, exhaustion or stroke) During events when fluid loss is of primary concern a beverage with less than 7% CHO is recommended Fluids with salt (NaCl) are beneficial for increasing thirst and voluntary fluid intake as well as offsetting losses Recognition of the basic signs of dehydration Thirst, irritability, fatigue, muscle cramps, loss of performance, vomiting Recommended guidelines (1) Before exercise: drink at least 17–20 oz of Gatorade 2–3 h before the activity starts (2) During exercise: drink 28–40 oz of Gatorade per hour of play (at least 7–10 oz every 10–15 min or amount equal to sweat and urine loss) (3) After exercise = drink at least 20 oz of Gatorade per pound of weight loss within 2 h to help rehydration • Gatorade Thirst Quencher contains a 6% carbohydrate solution (14 g CHO/8 oz) DELIVERY DESCRIPTION Include Infant info: viability, weight, sex, Apgars, presentation, position Maternal info: episiotomy? extension? repair description, EBL Anesthesia, laceration of cervix, vagina or vulva Other: placental and cord description 100 DEPO-LUPRON DEPO-LUPRON Leuprolide acetate – GnRH agonist Action Endometriosis treat for 6 months Fibroids (uterus shrinks more than fibroid ) treat for 3 months Initial stimulation followed by suppression of pituitary gonadotropins Contraindications Undiagnosed vaginal bleeding, pregnancy and breastfeeding Side-effects Amenorrhea after two doses Bone loss of what % after first 6 months of treatment? Flare response after first dose seen in (Hot flashes, palpitations, syncope, menopausal symptoms) Anaphylaxis possible – treat with epinephrine 1 : 1000 0.5 cc SC Needed for first 2 months Birth control 98% 5% 3 weeks Category Dose DEPO-PROVERA® (DMPA) X IM every month for 3–6 months 3.75 mg Medroxyprogesterone acetate 150 mg IM every 3 months for contraception Increase dose for other 104 mg subq every 12 to 14 weeks (thigh or abdomen) (Both IM and subcutaneous DMPA cause decrease in BMD after 1 to 2 years of treatment) Resumption of ovulation Mechanism of action Treatment of bleeding 7–9 months Blocks LH surge Thickens mucus Alters endometrium Ibuprofen 800 mg t.i.d. × 5 days or ethinylestradiol 20 µg or Premarin 1.25 mg × 10–21 days Action Contraception and others Inhibits gonadotropins – prevents ovulation. Thins endometrium Helps relieve endometriosis-associated pain Side-effects Irregular bleeding, weight changes, breast tenderness, acne, hair loss, galactorrhea, eventual amenorrhea to 55% after 1 year, loss of bone density with long-term therapy Birth control Effective within Category Dose Symptoms X IM every 3 months 150 mg Subq every 12–14 weeks 104 mg Resumption of ovulation after DMPA What % patients conceive within 1 year? DEPRESSION 24 h See also Postpartum depression (1) Emotions Sadness, hopelessness, restlessness, irritability, loss of interest, trouble concentrating, trouble making simple decisions, guilt, or thoughts of death or suicide (2) Headaches Bothered by headaches that cannot be explained by other conditions (3) Sleep Sleeping too much, or not enough, sleep problems affecting patient’s life (4) Fatigue and decreased energy (5) Stomach aches (6) Weight Losing or gaining weight recently without trying (7) Aches & pains (8) Stress & tension 7–9 months 70% DERMATOLOGIC CONDITIONS COMMON TO OB/GYN 101 Treatment SSRIs Start with SSRIs. If the patient becomes pregnant, there is a slight risk of persistent PPHN (pulmonary hypertension of the newborn). However, The risk is small (6–12 cases of PPHN per 1000 births, or 0.6–1.2%). On the other hand, if the drugs are discontinued, there is a serious likelihood depression will recur, which poses other fetal and maternal risks. Weigh the risks, and tell the gravida treated with an SSRI that 99% of infants deliver without PPHN Activating Citalopram (Celexa), escitalopram (Lexapro), fluoxetine (Prozac or Serafem), or sertraline (Zoloft) Sedating Fluvoxamine (Luvox) or paroxetine (Paxil or Paxil-CR) Other antidepressants Buproprion Mirtazapine Venlafaxine Wellbutrin or Wellbutrin-SR (class B and dopamine-activating) Remeron or Remeron SolTab (complex, sedating) Effexor or Effexor-XR (serotonin, norepinephrine, mildly sedating) Duloxetine Cymbalta (duloxetine HCl) is also indicated for the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD). Immediate switching from an SSRI is well tolerated EMSAM Selegilline transdermal system is the first transdermal patch for the treatment of MDD. It is a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI). Avoid foods high in tyramine (aged cheese and tap beer) to reduce risk of hypertensive crisis especially with 9 mg/24 h patch and 12 mg/24 h patch. Start with 6 mg/24 h patch daily without tyramine dietary restriction then if there is a need for an increase dose, do dietary restriction of tyrosine Suicide National Hotline 1 800 784-2433 DERMATOLOGIC CONDITIONS COMMON TO OB/GYN Acne Treatment (1) Mild (a) Benzoyl peroxide (PanOxyl, Benzagel or Desquam X) (b) Cleocin T solution 30 or 60 ml (c) Erythromycin base (Staticin, 60 ml, Eryderm 60 ml, T-stat pads) (2) Moderate (a) Tretinoin (Retin-A) q. h on dry face or q.o.d. Use 0.025% cream or 0.01% gel for fair complexion Use 0.05% cream or 0.025% gel for others Cream preferred for dry skin; gel for oily skin (b) Benzoyl peroxide at different time than Retin-A (c) Tazorotene topical gel 0.1% (Tazorac) Use q. h on clean face (3) Severe (a) Tetracycline 500 mg b.i.d. on empty stomach. Decrease dose to 250–500 mg daily after lesions clear or increase dose after 4–6 weeks to 2 g daily for several weeks if lesions have not subsided (b) Erythromycin 1 g daily effective (c) Doxycycline hyclate or monohydrate (100–150 mg b.i.d.) The monohydrate causes less GI side-effects but is more expensive (d) Minocycline 100 mg b.i.d. (more expensive than TCN or Dox but most effective antibiotic in its class) (e) Ampicillin if pregnant 102 DERMATOLOGIC CONDITIONS COMMON TO OB/GYN • WARN patients about decreased effectiveness of OCs and dangers of sunlight (especially with estrogens, prednisones, spironolactone) Oral (1) (2) (3) contraceptive therapies that are approved by FDA for acne: Ortho Tri-Cyclen 35 µg of estrogen Estrostep 20 µg/30 µg/35 µg of ethinylestradiol Alesse 20 µg ethinylestradiol Rosacea Diagnosis Red flush of central face, neck and nose Rule out malignant carcinoid, lupus; basal cell carcinoma if rhinophyma present Treatment Avoid hot food and drinks Tetracycline 500 mg p.o. b.i.d. Metrogel 0.75% × 9 weeks Hidradenitis Diagnosis Large cysts and/or abscesses, in axilla, under breasts, groin, buttocks, anogenital region and/or thighs Treatment Antibiotics, prednisone, Accutane, surgery Melasma Diagnosis Brown, macular facial pigmentation – increased with sun exposure (develops in 5–70% pregnancies) Common with OCs (5–34%) Treatment Melanex 3% or Solaquin forte 4% b.i.d. Retin-A cream if not pregnant Avoid sun or use sun blocks Chemical peels Cowden’s disease Diagnosis Flesh, pink or brown papules at midfacial, perioral, lips and/or ears Punctate keratoses of the palms and soles Mutations in the PTEN gene on chromosome 10 Breast cancer can occur in up to 30% of women with Cowden’s disease Treatment Assess for breast cancer (20–30%) – often bilateral Prophylactic mastectomy advocated Thyroid cancer is present in 8% Alopecia Diagnosis Drugs, secondary syphilis (‘moth-eaten’ appearance), Tinea capitis or androgenetic etiology – androgen tumor? Treatment Determine etiology and treat accordingly Seborrheic keratosis Diagnosis Barely elevated small papules Treatment Electrodessicate, shave excision or liquid nitrogen Fungus of toenails or fingernails Diagnosis Establish diagnosis with KOH prep Fax 216 844-1076 for Derm Pak Treatment Diflucan 150 mg weekly Lamisil 250 mg daily p.o. continuous (6 weeks for fingernails and 12 weeks for toenails) Sporanox (itraconazole) 200 mg/day. Pulse dose with 400 mg/daily for the first weeks of each month for 16 weeks Psoriasis Diagnosis Rich red hue, smooth plaque; genetic 1–3% – can occur at site of trauma Scaly, red follicular papules merge to form large, bright plaques Avoid lithium, β-blockers, antimalarials and systemic steroids 103 DERMOIDS Treatment Betamethasone dipropionate (Diprolene, Alphatrex) Anthra-Derm 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1% ointment 1.5 oz, 42.5 g tubes Drithocreme HP 1% cream, 50 g tube PsoriGel 7.5% coal tar solution; 1% alcohol gel 4 oz Topical steroids (pulse dosing – 2 weeks of medication and 1 week of lab only with plastic occlusion very effective) for psoriasis on < 20% of body For more than 20% of body – consider dermatology referral for UVB/tar, PUVA, methotrexate, hydrea, etretinate, etc. Lichen sclerosus Diagnosis White ‘cigarette-paper plaque-like’ lesions. Biopsy necessary to rule out squamous carcinoma Treatment Clobetasol (Temovate) 0.05% cream or ointment (30 g) b.i.d. applications for 10–14 days then taper to twice weekly. Monitor these patients closely every 6 months for squamous cancer Pregnancy-associated rashes Most common in primigravida PUPP (Polymorphological Urticarial Papules of Pregnancy) No risk to mother and infant Seldom recurs. Usually resolves 2 weeks postpartum Usually > 28 weeks Increased with multiple births or increased weight gain Extreme pruritus starts on abdomen in striae Treatment (1) Aveeno baths (2) Cool compresses (3) Benadryl 25 mg p.o. q. 4–6 h (4) Prednisone, phototherapy – deliver baby Herpes gestationis (pemphigoid gestationalis) Rare (1 : 50 000 pregnancies) Risk is unclear to fetus (reports of increased PTD and SGA and transient neonatal lesions and occasionally associated with Graves’ disease) Often recurs. Usually occurs earlier but usually in second or third trimester C3 complement. Increased HLA-DR3 and HLA-DR4 Not associated with herpes virus despite name. Eruptions usually start periumbilical. Urticarial plaques with tense vesicles or bullae. Has been associated with trophoblastic disease Treatment Systemic and topical steroids Pruritus gravidarum Most common (1–2%) Risk is increased in regards to infant mortality and prematurity Usually recurs Associated with cholestasis (itching associated with bile acids) Intense itching during pregnancy (usually more intense on extremities than trunk) Impetigo herpetiformis Rare Risk is increased (systemic symptoms with decreased Ca+ and also decreased parathyroid) Sepsis can occur DERMOIDS Most common – neoplastic ovarian lesion in females of reproductive age Bilateral 15–25% Malignant (usually squamous) < 2% Torsion (most frequent complication) 16% 104 DETROL Treatment of torsion: untwist or cystectomy (pseudoencapsulation) Avoid spillage (chemical peritonitis) Struma ovarii (% ovarian teratoma) (See Struma ovarii for more details) DETROL Tolterodine tartrate – potent antimuscarinic 2–3% Category C Indications Overactive bladder, symptoms of DI – frequency and urgency, increased residual urine, decreased detrussor pressure Contraindications Narrow angle glaucoma, urinary and gas retention Caution If used with emycins or ketoconazole (cytochrome P450 pathway). Consider decreasing dose 2 mg p.o. b.i.d. or 4 mg LA daily Usual dose DIABETES AND PREGNANCY Background (1) 2–3% pregnancies affected (2) 90% of this 2 3% represent GDM (3) 50% of women who develop GDM will develop overt DM within 20 years (4) Women with overt DM who conceive have a 10-fold increase in maternal mortality and perinatal mortality of 4% Classification A1 Diet-controlled GDM A2 GDM complicated by insulin use, hypertension, polyhydramnios, macrosomia or prior stillbirth B Overt; onset > age 20 and duration <10 years C DM overt; onset age 10–19 or duration 10–19 years D Juvenile onset or duration of 20 years or more F Associated with nephropathy R Associated with retinopathy T Renal transplant patients Major malformations (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Mean: Fasting: Preprandial: Postprandial: Goals Screening Increased × 4 Risks increased by 30% between 5–9 weeks (embryogenesis) Spontaneous abortions increased by 35% Common: CNS, cardiac, renal, retinal Uncommon: caudal regression syndrome (1) 90–105 60–90 80–95 < 120 HbA1C: Preconception level (normal–similar to non-DM women) Used to assess anomaly risk and to provide a goal for the woman aspiring to improve her chances of a good outcome (2) Screen all women over 25 years of age at 24–28 weeks (3) Screen early in pregnancy (first visit) and 24–28 weeks those women with: (a) Family history of DM (b) Prior infant with cardiac anomaly (c) History of stillbirth (d) History of repeated pregnancy loss (e) Previous child > 4000 g 105 DIABETES AND PREGNANCY Diagnosis (1) If 1 h 50-g p.o. glucose challenge test is >140 mg/dl (2) 3 h GTT of 100-g p.o. glucose after 3 days of adequate carb. intake. Two abnormal values are necessary to make diagnosis of GDM Time WHO Glucose level (mg/dl) Carpenter & Coustan Fasting <105 <95 1h <190 <180 2h <165 <155 3h <145 <140 (3) If 1 h 50-g test is greater Management (1) Goals: maintain FBS of 60–80 mg/dl; 2 h pp levels of 60–100 mg/dl (2) Diet: 2200–2400 kcal for women of normal weight (3) Recommend 20–30 minutes of exercise 3–4 times weekly. If women are willing and able, exercise can improve postprandial blood glucose levels and insulin sensitivity (4) Insulin: abdominal to achieve consistency and rotation and at perpendicular to skin to prevent intradermal injection rather than SC NPH alone Surveillance NPH + REG a.m. 2/3 a.m. 2/3 – 2/3 NPH 1/3 REG p.m. 1/3 p.m. 1/3 – 1/2 NPH (q.h.s.) 1/2 REG (AC) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Patient diary (charting of glucose levels, insulin dosage and date/time) Type A1: no amnio; delivery by 40 weeks Type A2, B, C: twice weekly NSTs > 34 weeks; delivery at 38 weeks if glucose levels abnl and PG present Type D, F, R: twice weekly NSTs from 28–30 weeks; delivery at 36 weeks if abnl glucose levels and PG present Ultrasound (fetal anatomy) with echocardiogram (serious consideration) 18–20 weeks Pre-term labor (1) MgSO4 or calcium channel blocker. (Avoid terbutaline if possible – tendency to cause hyperglycemia) (2) Corticosteroids (for lung maturity, but know that hyperglycemia will probably result) Labor & delivery (1) Insulin (regular insulin 50 units in 500 ml NS) Shake well; run out 50 ml waste to ensure absorption of surfaces Continuous pump rate of 0.5 units/h or > with increments of 0.5–1 unit/h to obtain necessary glucose levels (2) D5LR (3) Bedside glucose values every hour with finger stick test strips (4) Adjust infusion p.r.n. to maintain glucose levels 100 130 mg/dl Diabetes-in-pregnancy program protocol Class A and A/B (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Glucose determination weekly Biweekly visits until 34 weeks, then weekly Ultrasound examination every month Non-stress test at 34 weeks, then weekly HbA1C not necessary No 24-h urine, ophthalmologic evaluation or fetal ECG necessary Daily fetal movement counts Class B and C (1) Daily home glucose monitoring (2) Biweekly visits until 34 weeks, then weekly (3) Ultrasound: dating at 20 weeks (profile and echocardiogram), then monthly (4) HbA1C monthly 106 DIABETES AND PREGNANCY (5) (6) (7) (8) Non-stress test at 33 weeks, then weekly Ophthalmologic evaluation, follow-up according to findings 24-h urine initially and in each trimester Daily fetal movement counts Class D to H Above, plus the following: ECG initially, uric acid, liver function tests, fibrinogen and fibrin split products in each trimester Delivery time Class A and B: <42 weeks’ gestation Class C to H: at term gestation or pulmonic maturity (weekly amniocentesis starting at 38.5 weeks) Labor (1) Blood glucose to be maintained at <100 mg/dl (2) Intravenous: D5½ NS solution and 10 units of regular insulin ml/h – 1 unit insulin/h (3) D5½ NS solution piggy-backed to insulin-carry solution to adjust glycemia (4) Hourly finger-stick blood glucose determinations Diabetes screening 50-g oral glucose load, between 24 and 28 weeks’ gestation, without regard to time of day or prandial state; venous plasma glucose measured 1 h later If value ≥140 mg/dl – schedule 3-h GTT 3-h GTT 100-g oral glucose load in a.m. > fast of 8 h Patient should remain seated and not smoke throughout testing FBS ≥105 1h ≥190 2h ≥165 3h ≥145 If screen is normal, no further dipstick required after 24 weeks’ gestation (for glucosuria) (Gribble RK, Meier PR, Berg RL. The value of urine screening for glucose at each prenatal visit. Obstet Gynecol 1995; 86:405–10) Abnl GTT (class A + B) [if 3-h GTT abnl] Glucose weekly Biweekly visits until 34 weeks, then weekly Ultrasound every month NST at 34 weeks, then weekly Daily fetal movement counts Antepartum surveillance of the diabetic pregnancy Test When to initiate Maternal assessment of fetal activity 28 weeks Non-stress test Weekly beginning at 28 weeks; twice weekly beginning at 34 weeks Contraction stress test Any time a non-reactive non-stress test is obtained Biophysical profile In conjunction with contraction stress test Non-stress test Fetal body movements Fetal breathing Fetal tone Volume of amniotic fluid Hemoglobin A1C levels Early in gestation or upon presentation for prenatal care, also at any time maternal compliance is questioned Ultrasound Every 4–6 weeks (to screen for fetal macrosomia, fetal size and determination of the best route for delivery) 107 DIABETES AND PREGNANCY Patient-monitored capillary blood glucose goals during pregnancy in diabetic women Specimen Blood glucose (mg/dl) Fasting 60–90 (3.3–5.0 mM) Pre-meal 60–105 (3.3–5.8 mM) Postprandial 1 h 100–120 (5.5–6.7 mM) 0200–0600 60–120 (3.3–6.7 mM) Risk factors for gestational diabetes • Age 30 or older • Obesity • Hypertension • Glycosuria during the current pregnancy • Prior delivery of an infant with birth weight > 9 lb • Prior stillbirth • One or more family members with diabetes mellitus Screening and diagnostic criteria for gestational diabetes mellitus Screening All pregnant women without a diagnosis of gestational diabetes prior to 24 weeks 50-g oral glucose load, between 24 and 28 weeks’ gestation, without regard to time of day or prandial state Venous plasma glucose measured 1 h later and Value of ⱖ140 mg/dl (7.8 mmol/l in venous plasma indicates need for 3-h glucose test) Diagnosis 100-g oral glucose load, administered in morning after overnight fast of 8–14 h and after at least 3 days of unrestricted diet (ⱖ150 g carbohydrate) and physical activity Venous plasma glucose is measured at fasting, 1, 2 and 3 h after glucose load (subject should remain seated and not smoke throughout test and Two or more of the following venous plasma concentrations must be met or exceeded for positive diagnosis: Fasting 1h 2h 3h 105 190 165 145 mg/dl mg/dl mg/dl mg/dl (5.8 mmol/l) (10.6 mmol/l) (9.2 mmol/l) (8.1 mmol/l) American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists (1994) criteria for diagnosis of gestational diabetes using 100 g glucose taken orally – gestational diabetes is diagnosed when any two values are met or exceeded Timing of measurement Plasma glucose (mg/dl) National Diabetes Carpenter & Coustan Data Group (1979) (1982) Fasting <105 <95 1h <190 <180 2h <165 <155 3h <145 <140 108 DIABETES AND PREGNANCY Classification of diabetes complicating pregnancy Class Onset Fasting plasma glucose 2-h Postprandial glucose Therapy A1 Gestational <105 mg/dl <120 mg/dl Diet A2 Gestational >105 mg/dl >120 mg/dl Insulin Class Age/onset Duration (years) Vascular disease Therapy Over 20 <10 B None Insulin C 10–19 10–19 None Insulin D Before 10 >20 Benign retinopathy Insulin F Any Any Nephropathy* Insulin R Any Any Proliferative retinopathy Insulin Heart Insulin H Any Any *When diagnosed during pregnancy: 500 mg or more proteinuria per 24 h measured before 20 weeks’ gestation Classification of diabetes in pregnancy Pre-gestational diabetes Class Age of onset (years) Duration (years) Any Any No Diet only A Vascular disease Therapy B > 20 <10 No Insulin C 10–19 10–19 No nsulin D Before 10 > 20 Benign retinopathy Insulin F Any Any Nephropathy Insulin R Any Any Proliferative retinopathy Insulin H Any Any Heart disease Insulin Gestational diabetes Class Fasting glucose level Postprandial glucose level A1 <105 mg/dl and <120 mg/dl A2 >105 mg/dl and/or >120 mg/dl 109 DIABETES AND PREGNANCY Gestational diabetes Screening (50-g glucose, check glucose 1 h later; if > 135, 3-h GTT) (1) First visit and at 28 weeks for patients with one of the following risk factors: (a) Family hx of DM (∗H/o repeated pregnancy loss) (b) > 25% above IBW (∗Previous child > 4000 g) (2) All other OB patients: 24–28 weeks Diagnosis (1) All patients with abnl 1 h or random glucose >135 (2) 3-h GTT (a) Nl activity (b) No intercurrent illness (c) Adequate diet for 3 days prior to test (d) Fasting glucose – 100 g glucose – blood glucose at 1 h, 2 h, 3 h ABNORMAL VALUES∗: FBS 1-h 2-h 3-h > > > > 105 190 165 145 Two or more = GDM ∗ Management (1) Diet modification (a) Consult nutritionist or (b) 36 kcal/kg or 15 kcal/lb (IBW) + 100 kcal/trimester (c) Diet composition: 40–50% CHO, 12–20% protein, 30–35% fat (2) Glucose monitoring (Pt diary) (a) FBS <105, 2-h postprandial <120 q.d. (b) If either consistently abnl, insulin Insulin Anticipated requirements: EGA 6–18 weeks 18–26 weeks 26–36 weeks 36–40 weeks 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 U/kg U/kg U/kg U/kg Type I & II DM (pre-existing) Type I & II DM (pre-existing) Initiate therapy at ½ above doses Distribution NPH alone NPH + REG a.m. 2/3 a.m. 2/3 – 2/3 NPH 1/3 REG p.m. 1/3 p.m. 1/3 – 1/2 NPH (q.h.s.) 1/2 REG (AC) Change only one insulin dose per week Pt diary AC & HS (8, 12, 17, 22) 110 DIABETES AND PREGNANCY Maternal/fetal surveillance Type I/II IDDM Mother (at intake) – thyroid panel, 24-h urine protein/Cr Cl/BUN/Ophtho consult/HgA, C (then q. 6 weeks) – NST protocol Fetus – mother with vascular disease 30–33 weeks q. week 34–36 weeks 3 × per week 36+ weeks q. day – no vascular disease 32–35 weeks 36–37 weeks 37+ weeks q. week 3 × per week q. day 38+ weeks 32–35 weeks 36–37 weeks 37+ weeks q. week q. week 3 × per week q. day Gestational DM Maternal – HA, C q. 6 weeks Fetus – NST protocol – diet-controlled – insulin requiring (same as above; no vasc dx) Consider AOC after 36 weeks for FLM in insulin-requiring Problems when diabetes is a factor Maternal diabetes mellitus Vasculopathy Congenital malformations Maternal hyperglycemia IUGR Fetal hyperglycemia Fetal hyperinsulinemia Macrosomia Hypokalemia Hypophosphatemia Hypomagnesemia Hypoglycemia Early growth delay β-Hydroxybutyrate ? Behavior–intellect deficit Polycythemia & hyperviscosity Respiratory distress syndrome Shoulder dystocia Hyperbilirubinemia Birth injuries Unexpected fetal death 111 DIABETES AND PREGNANCY Diabetes – Study summary Gestational B C D F R H A1 FBS A1 2-h PP A2 FBS A2 2-h PP Age Duration Age Duration Age Duration Nephropathy Retinopathy Heart Screen FBS × 2 3-h GTT Diet percentages Example: (30 kcal/kg so 70 kg × 30 = 2100 ADA diet How much fat in an 1800 g diet? 30% of 1800 = @600 Divide 600 by 9 to get @ 60 g of fat < 105 mg/dl < 120 mg/dl > 105 mg/dl > 120 mg/dl > 20 years old < 10 years 10–19 years old 10–19 years < 10 years > 20 years 140 105, 190, 165, 145 Carbohydrates Fats Proteins 50% 30% 20% Gram/Cal formula Carbohydrate Fat Protein 4 9 4 Insulin dosage calculation Example: 80 kg in third trimester = 80 × 0.9 = 72 units of insulin First trimester with Wt in kg x Second trimester with Wt in kg x Third trimester with Wt in kg x then a.m. NPH to Reg (also total a.m. to p.m. is also) then p.m. NPH to Reg 0.5 0.7 0.9 2/3 to 1/3 ½ to ½ Insulin reference guide Rapid acting Humalog® (lispro): onset is within 15 min, peaks 0.5–1.5 h, lasts 4–6 h Novolog® (aspart): onset is within 15 min, peaks 1–3 h, lasts 4–6 h Short acting (regular)(R): onset is within ½ to 1 h, peaks 2–3 h, lasts 6–8 h Intermediate acting NPH (N): onset is 2–4 h, peaks 6–10 h, lasts 14–18 h Lente®: onset is 3–4 h, peaks 6–12 h, lasts 16–20 h Long acting Ultralente®: onset is 6–10 h, peaks 10–16 h, lasts 20–24 h Glargine (Lantus®): onset is 2 h, peakless, lasts 24 h Fixed combination of N & R 70/30 = 70% N & 30% R: onset is ½ to 1 h, dual peak, lasts 14–18 h 50/50 = 50% N & 50% R: onset is ½ to 1 h, dual peak, lasts 14–18 h Pregestational diabetes FBS Before meals After meals (1 h) (2 h) 2 a.m. to 6 a.m. Gestational diabetes 60–90 mg/dl 60–105 130–140 120 60–90 mg/dl mg/dl mg/dl mg/dl FBS criteria for A1 diabetic < 105 mg/dl FBS criteria for A2 diabetic > 105 mg/dl 2-h postprandial criteria for A1 diabetic < 120 mg/dl 2-h postprandial criteria for A2 diabetic > 120 mg/dl The best measure of overall metabolic control during the pre-conception period is HgbA1C HgbA1C: most significant risk of malformations > 10% HgbA1C: risk of malformation in an insulin-dependent diabetic pregnancy with value > 8.5% 22% Threshold for being considered under good control 6% EFW to perform C-section on diabetic 4250–4500 g or > 112 DIABETES AND PREGNANCY Daily diabetic thresholds FBS 60–90 mg/dl 2-h PP < 120 mg/dl Diet 2200–2400 or 1800–2000 cal (Ob Prolog 4th edn) Ultrasound + MSAFP @ 18–20 weeks MSAFP can be lower in diabetics BPP, NST, CST third trimester Maintain euglycemia – plan normal delivery but > 4500 g, plan C-section Intrapartum management of diabetes Maintain euglycemia by holding a.m. insulin, giving dextrose IV and giving short-acting insulin by checking glucose values every Pre-term treatment: use mag sulfate (not β-sympathomimetic) Diabetic ketoacidosis Treated by giving IV insulin bolus of Then giving Run IVFs of NS 1 liter/h × 2 h then add 5% glucose in water after glucose Do not give bicarb unless pH is 1–2 h 10–20 U reg 5–10 U/h < 250 mg/dl < 7.0–7.1 Diabetic ketoacidosis can result in pregnancy losses as high as 50% Ketones produced are β-OH-butyrate and acetoacetate. Total deficits in DKA are 3–6 liters Diet of Treatment of gestational diabetes (A1) 1800–2000 cal Calculated for @ 30 kcal/kg ideal body weight Start insulin if, despite dietary restrictions, the patient has persistent values of: FBS > 105 mg/dl 1-h postprandial > 140 mg/dl 2-h postprandial > 120 mg/dl 2–3% of all pregnancies complicated by diabetes Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) comprise 90% of this 2–3% Type I (insulin-dependent), Type II (non-insulin dependent) Evaluate postpartum: Postpartum evaluation Time tested No DM IMP glucose intolerance Diabetes mellitus FBS ½, 1, 1½ h 2h < 115 All < 200 < 140 < 140 1 value > 200 140–199 > 140 1 value > 200 > 200 *Above values based on a 2-h, 75-g oral GTT *FBS determinations of ≥ 140 on two occasions establish the diagnosis Complications of insulin dependent diabetes mellitus Diabetic nephropathy defined by what amount of albumin/24 h specimen? > 500 mg Normal albumin excretion rate < 15–20 µg /min Albumin excretion rate that is STRONGLY associated with eventual development of nephropathy > 30 µg/min In term infant, hypoglycemia is defined as blood sugar below what level on two occasions during the first 72 h of life? 30 mg/dl An infant of diabetic mother is lethargic. Glucose is 40%. Central stick is ordered. At what level of Hct would one consider a partial exchange transfusion due to polycythemia? What % of macrosomic infants (> 4000 g) of diabetic mothers have shoulder dystocia What % of macrosomic infants (> 4500 g) of diabetic mother have shoulder dystocia 65% 30% 50% Type I diabetes is associated with chromosome 21 What is the risk for congenital anomalies in infants born to mothers with Type I diabetes? 6–12% Which congenital anomaly is most common in infants born to diabetic mothers relative to those born to mothers in the general population? Caudal agenesis 113 DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR COAGULATION (DIC) Prevalence of diabetes (diagnosed and undiagnosed) in adults in the USA is what %? Background retinopathy not a contraindication to pregnancy. However, background retinopathy progresses to proliferative retinopathy in what % of patients? In women with Type I diabetes, the risk for progression of proliferative retinopathy is increased by proteinuria, hypertension and pregnancy This needs aggressive treatment with possible termination of pregnancy becoming necessary 0.6% 16% Rosiglitazone (Avandia or if in combination with metformin→Avandamet and if with glimerpiride→Avandaryl) that is used in treatment of type 2 diabetes has been shown to have a fracture rate of 2.74 per 100 patient-years, significantly higher than the rates in two other treatment groups DIETHYLSTILBESTROL (DES) SYNDROME Associated with Vaginal adenosis Ectropion cervix Cockscomb cervix Clear cell carcinoma Hypoplastic uterine cavity Increased risks of clear cell vaginal adenocarcinoma 1/1000 Repeat Paps of cervix AND vaginal cytology Associated with abnormalities of the cervix, uterus and upper vagina Increases risks for Spontaneous abortion Preterm cervical effacement Preterm labor Ectopic pregnancy Increased breast cancer (1.3 relative risk) slight DES-exposed patients Adenosis 90% if < 8 weeks when exposed 10% if > 16 weeks when exposed Adenosis found in proximal 1/3 of anterior vagina Clear cell adenocarcinoma – anterior upper 1/3 of vagina or on posterior ectocervix Reddish or induration. Vaginal discharge or bleeding If Paps or colpo are normal then still do annual palpation and Pap of vagina. Also look for collars, hoods, septa, cockscombs, incompetence, uterine or fallopian tube defects Remember: Adenosis occurs if DES given < 8 weeks’ gestation Adenosis occurs if DES given > 16 weeks’ gestation Clear cell adenocarcinoma of vagina or cervix in a DES-exposed patient has risk of development Lesions usually occur along posterior 1/3 of anterior vagina or on posterior ectocervix 90% 10% 1 : 1000 DISCHARGE Stable vital signs No evidence of untreated infections Adequate oral intake Satisfactory bowel and urinary tract function DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR COAGULATION (DIC) Treatment Platelets If platelet count < 50 000 Packs of 6–10 units. One unit increases plt ct 5000–10 000 FFP (4 : 1 is ratio of PRC to FFP) Give if hypovolemia Cryoprecipitate Give if hypofibrinogenemic 4 g fibrinogen 15–20 u @ 100 mg/dl See Blood products 114 DNA VIRUSES DNA VIRUSES DNA viruses to remember Hepatitis B HPV Herpes Varicella DOMESTIC VIOLENCE HOTLINE 1-800-799-SAFE Childhood abuse increases risk factor Repeat cycles DOUBLE BUBBLE SIGN Seen with duodenal atresia – fetal small bowel obstruction causing dilatation proximal to obstruction Double bubble is seen with Down syndrome on ultrasound in what % of patients? 30% Usually normal appearing in second trimester and seen most often in third trimester Seen @ 1/10 000 Some ultrasonic findings (1) Duodenal atresia (classic ‘double bubble’) (2) Cardiac defects – e.g. endocardial cushion defects (3) Cystic hygroma – septated areas @ neck DOWN SYNDROME Major sonographic findings with Down syndrome occur at 14–24 weeks in 25% cases Structural defect has the largest likelihood ratio for detecting Down syndrome A ‘normal’ genetic sonogram cannot reduce the age-related risk of Down syndrome below 1/270 once a subject has attained the maternal age of 35 Ultrasonic findings (1) Hyperechoic bowel (2) Increased nuchal skinfold measurement (≥ 6 mm) (3) Complex heart disease Recommendations ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 77 (Obstet Gynecol 2007; 109: 217–27) endorses routinely offering first-trimester screening for fetal chromosomal abnormalities to all pregnant women, not just those over 35 years of age. First-trimester screening using nuchal translucency and biochemical markers results in higher detection rates than secondtrimester maternal serum triple screen and is comparable to or better than the quadruple screen at equivalent false-positive rates A nuchal translucency value of 3–4 mm or more warrants immediate chorionic villus sampling DRUG CATEGORIES Controlled studies in female failed to demonstrate any risks Have not demonstrated any risks but there are no controlled studies Revealed adverse effects but no controlled studies. Give only if benefit justifies risks Positive evidence of human fetal risk. Use may be acceptable despite risks Studies demonstrate fetal abnormalities. Drugs in this category are contraindicated in pregnancy A B C D X 115 DVT DUBLIN PROTOCOL Active management of labor (derived from Dublin, Ireland). Lowers C-section rate to (1) Patient education (2) Strict criteria for: (a) Diagnosis of labor Regular painful contractions AND one of: Passage of mucus plug Complete effacement or spontaneous ROM (b) Determination of abnormal labor 4.8% > 1.2 or > 1.5 cm/h (c) Interpretation of fetal compromise (3) High-dose Pitocin protocol 6 mu/ml increased by 6 mu/ml every 15 min to max out at 40 (4) Personal nurse in labor (5) Peer review of all operative deliveries • AROM @ 1 h after admission if not already ruptured • Pitocin if dilating less than 1 cm per h DVT TVH 7% TAH 14% Radical hysterectomy 25% % of DVT that occurs postpartum 75% Pregnancy presents an increased risk above baseline of 6–7% Risk of DVT in 28-year-old patient not using contraception 10/100 000 women Risk of DVT in a 49-year-old patient on HRT 30/100 000 Risk of DVT in a 32-year-old patient with uncomplicated 24 weeks IUP 60/100 000 Overall risk is greatest during postop period after major surgery – risk rises 10 × Age increases risk of DVTs Antepartum DVT that results in PE if left untreated If antepartum DVT treated then incidence of PE drops to Clotting factors responsible for thromboembolic episodes: Factor VIII increase Fibrinogen increase Leiden V factor (homozyg 80–90 ×) Homocysteine (folate, B6, B12 decrease this) Protein 20280 Protein C deficiency (1.7) Protein S deficiency (6.6) Postpartum development of pulmonary embolism is relatively uncommon with an incidence of Symptoms 25% 4.5% 25% 4× 20% 10% 6% *3% *1–2% 1 : 5000 How many patients are asymptomatic? 50% Of the patients who are symptomatic: Induration of calf muscles Minimal edema Calf tenderness Difference in leg diameter > 1 cm Homan’s sign 68% 52% 25% 11% 10% Differential a DVT from a postmortem clot at autopsy The DVT looks like candy cane if came up from leg The postmortem clot is simply similar to jello Lines of Zahn Prophylaxis in gyn patients for LMWH Condition Low-to-moderate risk Surgery for benign disease Age > 40 and < 60 years Prophylaxis Dalteparin 2500 U 2 h preop, then daily postop Enoxaparin (Lovenox®), 20 mg deep SC, 30 min to 2 h preop, then daily postop Continued 116 DVT continued Obesity Venous stasis changes Smoking history High risk History of DVT Dalteparin 5000 U 10–12 h preop, then daily postop; or 2500 U 2 h preop, 2500 U 12 h postop, then 5000 U daily thereafter Diagnosis of cancer Radical surgery Enoxaparin (Lovenox®) 40 mg 2 h preop, then daily postop Very high risk Exenteration LMWH (low-to-moderate risk doses) plus external pneumatic compression Radical vulvectomy Two of the following three risk factors: (1) Age > 60 years (2) History of DVT (3) Diagnosis of cancer Treatment Enoxaparin (Lovenox®) 1 mg/kg SC q. 12 h (maximum dosage of 150 mg q. 12 h) or enoxaparin (Lovenox®) 1.5 mg/kg SC q. 24 h (maximum dose of 150 mg, if dose > 150 mg, use q. 12 h dosing) Dosing cautions: Low-weight patients (< 45 kg) – adjustment may be needed, specific guidelines are not available Renal failure – enoxaparin is primarily excreted through the urine Apparent clearance values have been reported as 30% lower in patients with CrCl < 30 ml/min. Adjustments should be considered but specific guidelines are not currently available. For patients with CrCl < 30 ml/min, unfractionated heparin may be best choice Heparin to Lovenox® Wait 4 h after the last dose of heparin to start Lovenox Lovenox to heparin Wait 12 h after the last dose of Lovenox to start heparin Prophylaxis in pregnancy LMW heparin (enoxaparin 1 mg/kg q. 12 h) Unfractionated heparin (keep Aptt 1.5–2.5) Increase to this in second trimester Condition 30 mg b.i.d. 5000 mg SC b.i.d. 7500 mg SC b.i.d. Prophylaxis Low-to-moderate risk Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome with a history of stillbirth or recurrent pregnancy loss but no TE Dalteparin, 100 U/kg every 12 h Enoxaparin, 30 mg every 12 h prior to 28 weeks: 40 mg every 12 h after 28 weeks Protein S deficiency Protein C deficiency History of TE not associated with pregnancy Heterozygosity for factor V Leiden or prothrombin 20210 and a history of TE High risk Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome with a history of TE Antithrombin III deficiency History of TE in pregnancy of puerperium Homozygosity for factor V Leiden or prothrombin 20210 DVT or PE Dalteparin 200 U/kg every 12 h Enoxaparin 1 mg/kg every 12 h Enoxaparin (Lovenox®) 1.5 mg/kg q. daily SC 117 DYSMENORRHEA Prophylaxis is cost-effective. Graded elastic stockings with intermittent pneumatic compression devices – most cost-effective and efficient method of prevention DYSFUNCTIONAL UTERINE BLEEDING Diagnosis of exclusion Eliminate organic lesions, coagulation disorders (1) Anovulatory – postmenarchal secondary to continuous E2 production with corpus luteum formation and progesterone production → proliferative endometrium (2) Ovulatory – after adolescent and < perimenopausal Labs: (1) (a) CBC; (b) TSH; (c) Serum prolactin; (d) Androgens such as androstenedione, testosterone, DHEA-S; (e) FSH + LH (2) Endometrial biopsy (if premenopausal) (3) Hysteroscopy Treatment (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Conservative Progestins Low-dose OCPs IV estrogens with p.o. estrogens Prostaglandin synthesis inhibitors (naproxen, Cox II inhibitors, ibuprofen) before bleeding (6) Ablation/hysteroscopy or hysterectomy DUB with profound anemia (1) IV conjugated equine estrogens 25 mg every 4 h × 3 doses, then premarin 2.5 mg daily × 3 weeks or (2) OCP tapered regimen: 4 pills × 4 days then 2 pills × 2 days then 1 pill daily to complete a 21-day pill pack Nausea and vomiting may interfere with absorption and compliance; therefore Zofran® 8 mg ODT (oral disintegrating tablets) every 6 h can be given if necessary. These do not cause somnolence like Phenergan®, Tigan®, etc. therefore do not interfere with work DYSMENORRHEA Painful menstrual cramps Leukotriene increases myometrial contractions Primary dysmenorrhea No apparent pathology F2 Etiology Increased production and release of prostaglandins which cause increased contractions and uterine activity thus decreased uterine blood flow thus ischemia and pain (occurs only in females with ovulatory cycles) Examination Normal, menses regular, duration of pain 2–3 days Treatment (1) NSAIDs – block prostaglandin synthetase thus block production of prostaglandins (70–90% success) a) Ibuprofen 800 to 1200 mg initial then 800 mg every 6 hours. b) Naproxen sodium (Anaprox, Naproxyn) 250 to 500 mg initially then 250 mg every 6 hours. (2) Mefenamic acid (Ponstel® 250–500 mg then 250 mg every 6 h) (3) Cox II inhibitor although because of the growing concerns about the adverse affects of COX-2 inhibitors, older NSAIDs are probably preferred over the newer COX-2 inhibitors. (4) OCPs (oral, transdermal, or intravaginal) or (5) Combination of NSAIDS and OCPs (6) Heat (ThermaCare): one study found topical heat was similar or superior to oral ibuprofen. (Research suggests that heat and ibuprofen would work well together but seem to have a similar mechanism of action.) Secondary dysmenorrhea Pathology 118 DYSPNEA IN PREGNANCY Etiology or causes of secondary dysmenorrhea Endometriosis Submucous leiomyoma IUD Adenomyosis Adhesions Malformations Examination May be abnormal, > menarche, usually irregular menses, usually anovulatory DIAGNOSTIC LAPAROSCOPY NEEDED Treatment Depends on the cause Dysmenorrhea incidence in US females Most common in females between 5% 20–24 years old DYSPNEA IN PREGNANCY Caused by increased levels of estrogen and progesterone Occurs in what % of pregnant pts? By 20 weeks’ gestation By 30 weeks’ gestation Physiological – occurs in how many pregnancies? 76% 50% 76% 3/4 Causes Increased levels of estrogen and progesterone. Airway conductance and lung compliance are increased due to progesterone induced bronchial smooth muscle relaxation → increases tidal volume and decreases residual capacity → increases minute ventilation → second trimester →increases tidal volume by 40% → mild alkalosis→ increases respiratory rate by 10–15% ‘Perception of shortness of breath’ DYSTOCIA Criteria that must be met prior to arrest disorder being diagnosed: (1) Latent phase complete 4 cm (2) Uterine contraction pattern × 2 h without cervical change in Montevideo units 200 MV units Nulliparous patient with prolonged latent phase > 20 h Nulliparous patient with prolonged second stage >2h Nulliparous patient with prolonged second stage with epidural in place >3h Multiparous patient with prolonged latent phase > 14 h Multiparous patient with prolonged second stage >1h Multiparous patient with prolonged second stage with epidural in place >2h Arrest disorder = complete cessation of progress Protraction disorder = slower than normal labor: Nulligravid patient < 1.2 cm per h Multigravid patient < 1.5 cm per h Evaluate the ‘3 Ps’ Predicting shoulder dystocia (1) Powers – uterine contractility How many contractions should there be in a 10-min window? What % of patients require over 200–224 MV units? What % of patients require ≥ 300 MV units? (2) Passenger – the fetus Evaluate the weight, position and attitude (3) Passage – bony pelvis Deeply engaged head with OP and narrow maternal pubic arch is best delivered without rotation Difficult (Prevention is impossible) 3–5 91% 40% 119 DYSTOCIA Mid-pelvic delivery, prolonged second stage or macrosomia increased risk Macrosomia (4.5 kg) and/or diabetes increased risk Patient should be fully appraised of options. Remember, 1000s of C-sections with all the risks, complications (ileus, hemorrhage, PE), morbidity and mortality are needed to prevent just a few dystocia cases Risks 23% 50% Women with gestational diabetes and/or a macrosomic fetus are at highest risk for shoulder dystocia Weight (g) (1) > 8# < 3000 3000–3499 3500–3999 4000–4499 > 4500 % Dystocia w/out + 0.2 0.8 2.3–2.9 8.6–10.3 24–35.7 with Diabetes 3.7 23.1 50 (2) Antepartum (a) Birth weight (b) Fundal height (c) Maternal diabetes (d) Maternal pre-pregnancy weight; maternal wt gain during pregnancy (e) Post-term pregnancy (> 42 weeks) (f) Prior delivery with shoulder dystocia (g) Wt of largest previous infant (> 4500 g) (3) Intrapartum (a) Prolonged second stage (b) Prolonged second stage plus mid-pelvic delivery (c) Prolonged decel phase Management Maneuvers of shoulder dystocia (Initially call for help if available) (1) McRobert’s (2) Suprapubic pressure (3) Wood’s maneuver – corkscrew Post-shoulder 180 degrees. Body not head – not independent of body. (Variant: Rubens maneuver where Ob pushes on posterior aspect of the posterior shoulder causing shoulder abduction) (4) Mazzanti maneuver Delivery of post-shoulder; trace humerus to elbow, flex elbow so forearm is first delivered across chest and out (5) Fractures (a) Clavicle (b) Humerus (6) Extended episiotomy – 4th degree procto episiotomy NEVER APPLY EXCESSIVE TRACTION (7) Zavanelli maneuver Cephalic replacement as initial maneuver rather than last resort if difficulty encountered especially to those who are inexperienced in dystocia treatment (O’Leary JA. Cephalic replacement for shoulder dystocia: present status and future role of the Zavanelli maneuver. Obstet Gynecol 1993; 82: 847–50) Some sources say try to avoid at all cost secondary to increase neurological injuries and decreased experience (@ 40 known documented cases) (8) Mueller–Hillis maneuver (Thorp JM Jr, Pahel-Short L, Bowes WA Jr. The Mueller–Hillis maneuver: Can it be used to predict dystocia? Obstet Gynecol 1993; 82: 519–22.) Applying fundal pressure to see if head moves down in pelvis – no longer recommended (9) Gaskin or “all fours” maneuver – advocated by midwives but sometimes this takes longer than 4 to 6 minutes available especially if an epidural is in place Brachial plexus injury Erb’s C5–6 Klumpke’s C8–T1 Some are spontaneous 120 EATING DISORDERS Some are encountered without chart documentation 3–5% < 4.5 kg 15–30% > 4.5 kg 80% resolve in 1 year. The remainder usually show partial recovery without surgery – others unfortunately – Asphyxia: 20% noted in surviving infants of dystocia. 5–10 min from time cord compressed Fractured humerus or clavicle – minor – resolve Shoulder dystocia – See Shoulder dystocia EATING DISORDERS Anorexia Bulimia Hypotension Hypotension Dry skin with lanugo Enlarged parotids Yellow palms Erosion of tooth enamel Bradycardia Cardiac arrhythmias Hypothermia • Normal weight bulimic patients generally do not suffer from osteoporosis whereas anorexia nervosa patients, particularly if associated with binge eating and purging, are at very high risk for osteopenia and osteoporosis ECTOPIC PREGNANCY Incidence Incidence in blacks and Hispanics increased What % of ectopics cause all maternal deaths? Number of annual deaths related to ectopic pregnancy Risk of recurrence of ectopic (two sources) 1/100 1.6 × 15% 25–50 7–13% 10–25% 50–80% Risk of IUP following ectopic Risk of spontaneous abortion same as general population Symptoms (abdominal pain/amenorrhea) 90–100%/77–95% hCG fails to increase in 48 h by 50–66% hCG doubles normally with ectopics what % of time 20% Progesterone less than what excludes viable IUP 5 ng/ml Progesterone less than 15 ng/ml observed in tubal pregnancies 81% Progesterone less than 15 ng/ml observed in abnormal pregs 93% Progesterone less than 15 ng/ml CAN be seen in % normal 11% Progesterone level that is highly suggestive of viable preg > 25 ng/ml Culdocentesis + only if ectopic ruptures which is only > 20% Laparoscopy misses diagnosis as it is too small in 2–4% Transvaginal ultrasound Second International Standard of hCG 500 mIU/ml Abdominal ultrasound Second International Standard of hCG 6500 mlU/ml Sac can normally be seen with TV ultrasound when hCG 1000–2000mIU/ml Figure 4 Tubal ectopic pregnancy. (a) Large ruptured fallopian tube from ectopic pregnancy; (b) fetus extruded from tube in patient who presented to ER with shock 121 ECTOPIC PREGNANCY Location of pathology Oviduct 97.7% Ampullary portion 81% Isthmus 12% Fimbria 5% Interstitial 2% Cornual (development in rudimentary horn of bicornuate uterus). Very rare, causes symptom to develop later, difficult to diagnosis, causes massive hemorrhage Abdominal 1.4% Ovarian or cervical (See Spiegelberg’s criteria) < 1% Ectopics are EXTRALUMINAL – that is why a salpingostomy and not an otomy can be done Ruptures occur into ANTIMESENTERIC side because the ectopic outgrows its blood supply Risks Previous PID, tubal surgery, ectopic, IUD, smoking or progestin-only OCPs Signs and symptoms CLASSIC TRIAD (especially if ruptured) (1) Pain (2) Amenorrhea (3) Vaginal spotting Diagnosis H&P, serial hCG levels, decreased progesterone levels, decreasing estradiol levels, increasing MSAFP, C-reactive protein and Ca-125 levels, vaginal US, curettage, culdocentesis (+ if ruptured but < 20% will not be +), laparoscopy (misses 2–4% due to being small plus risk and expense is increased) If hCG fails to increase by at least 66% or > in 2 days → a non-viable pregnancy or an ectopic pregnancy should be assumed hCG < 50% increase in 48 h → abnormal pregnancy Abnormal pregnancy, then hCG rises or falls very slowly and NO POC or pathology → strongly suspect ectopic Serum progesterone < 5 ng/ml abnormal pregnancy > 25 ng/m lviable pregnancy < 15 ng/ml most ectopics Ultrasound diagnosis – sac can normally be seen with TVUS when hCG level is between 1000 and 2000 mIU/ml (first and second IRP) Non-surgical management Single-dose methotrexate 50 mg/m2 IM Single dose and multi-dose regimens for methotrexate treatment of ectopic pregnancy are equally efficacious Inclusion criteria hCG rising, hemodynamically stable Transvaginal sono → unruptured ectopic Ectopic mass < 3.5 cm Patient desires future fertility Exclusion criteria Declining hCG after D&C Mass > 3.5 cm Hemodynamically unstable Desires sterilization Previous sterilization Abnormal CBC or SGOT (WBC < 3000/mm3 or APT > 50 IU/I) Active pulmonary disease Patient non-compliance Free fluid and pelvic pain (ruptured ectopic) Patient instructions No alcohol, intercourse, vitamins or folic acid and use contraception Protocol and follow-up Day 0 hCG, D&C (?), CBC with diff, SGOT, creatinine, Rh Day 1 hCG and give methotrexate Day 4 hCG Day 7 hCG On day 7, hCG should be 15% less than day 4. If not, repeat mtx If cardiac activity on vaginal US, repeat US every other day until no cardiac activity 122 ECTOPIC PREGNANCY Usually there is increased pain post mtx injection. If pain is increased, check hematocrit. If lower than previous mtx, do US for increased fluid in cul-de-sac Pearls Most hCG titers on day 4 are greater than day 1 – be patient Mean time to resolution for hCG to be < 5 is 35–40 days Failure rate 5.8% Failure rate if cardiac activity seen 14.3% Tubal patency rate post-resolution by HSG Recurrent ectopic rate is less than with linear salpingotomy • hCG levels in ectopic pregnancy can be up, down, and all around. The diagnosis of ectopic pregnancy must be made on a combination of laboratory or sonographic and clinical findings. According to one study, approximately the same number of women with ectopic pregnancy experienced an increase in hCG values as did those who experienced a decrease in hCG values. The pattern of hCG measurement for ectopic pregnancy cannot be characterized by a single predictive curve. In 29% of patients with ectopic pregnancy, the hCG profile mimics either an intrauterine pregnancy that is viable or a complete spontaneous abortion (Silva C, Sammel MD, Zhou L, et al. Human chorioniogonadotropin profile for women with ectopic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2006; 107: 605–10) Protocols Methotrexate therapy for persistent ectopic pregnancy Route Dosage Success number (%) Oral 10 mg p.o. q.d. × 5 days 1/1 (100%) 2/2 (100%) 1/1 (100%) IV 5 mg p.o. q.d. × 5 days 1/1 (100%) 5–10 mg p.o. q.d. × 5–7 days 14/15 (94%) 100 mg/m2 IV bolus over 3/3 (100%) 2 1 h, then 200 mg/m IV over 12 h, leucovorin 10 mg/m2 p.o. q. 12 h × 4 doses IM 1 mg/kg IM q.o.d. × 3 doses 1/1 (100%) Alternating leucovorin 0.1 mg/kg IM q.o.d. × 3 doses 50 mg/m2 IM × 1 dose No leucovorin Local Not evaluated 19/19 (100%) 83% 123 ECTOPIC PREGNANCY Patient at risk (before 6 weeks) <6 weeks' gestational age Asymptomatic and unknown gestational age hCG >2000 mIU/ml <2000 mIU/ml Repeat hCG Abnl rise Ectopic protocol Transvaginal ultrasound (>2000 mIU/ml) Normal rise Intrauterine pregnancy No intrauterine pregnancy Repeat for viability Patient at risk (after 6 weeks) >6 weeks' gestational age Unknown gestational age Symptomatic Transvaginal ultrasound No intrauterine pregnancy hCG <2000 mIU/ml Laparoscopy Intrauterine pregnancy Repeat for viability >2000 mIU/ml Repeat hCG Ectopic protocol Abnormal rise Normal rise Ectopic protocol No intrauterine pregnancy Repeat ultrasound (>2000 mIU/ml) Intrauterine pregnancy 124 ECTOPIC PREGNANCY Ectopic protocol No intrauterine pregnancy with hCG > 2000 mIU/ml Office curettage + Villi – Villi Routine follow-up Repeat hCG in 24 h Rising hCG Falling hCG Methotrexate therapy Methotrexate therapy Follow until negative hCG Female patient with lower abdominal pain or abnormal bleeding Pregnancy test (qualitative), complete blood cell count, review of available records Recent ultrasonography documenting intrauterine pregnancy makes ectopic pregnancy unlikely Uterine size >12 weeks + fetal heart tones make ectopic pregnancy and miscarriage likely History and physical exam Negative β-hCG makes pregnancy unlikely Hemodynamic instability requires stabilization usually merits laparoscopy Uterine size <12 weeks with closed os, absence of fetal heart tones requires further evaluation Open cervical os with tissue protruding defines miscarriage 125 ECTOPIC PREGNANCY Pregnant patient with lower abdominal pain or abnormal bleeding, uterine size <12 weeks or no fetal heart tones, cervical os closed, hemodynamically stable Review history and exam; determine patient's risk of ectopic pregnancy HIGH-RISK LOW-RISK <2000 >2000 Begin non-emergent evaluation for miscarriage or blighted ovum STAT quantitative β-hCG If patient's clinical ultrasonographic findings do not merit more attention, serially assess β-hCG every 48 h Viable intrauterine pregnancy Evaluate other possible sources of pain Ultrasound No intrauterine pregnancy Laparoscopy unless ectopic confirmed on ultrasonography Ambiguous findings Offer D&C vs repeat quantitative β-hCG testing in 48 h Discuss medical vs surgical therapy Risk factors include history of STDs or PID, ectopic pregnancy, pelvic surgery, or prior IUD use; signs of peritoneal irritation (e.g. guarding, rebound); hemodynamic instability; and unreliable or non-compliant patient 126 EISENMENGER SYNDROME Treatment of ectopic with methotrexate is successful if sac diameter < 3.5 cm and NO cardiac act 90–95% Post-treatment tubal patency (with mtx) 71% % patients achieve pregnancy after mtx therapy 80% % recurrence rate after treatment 13% Persistent ectopic 5% Diagnose persistent ectopic with post rx β-hCG plateau or increase Surgical management Laparoscopy versus laparotomy? Linear salpingostomy (not sutured) or salpingotomy (sutured) Salpingectomy (removal of tube) or segmental resection (portion of tube) for reanastomosis later Milking tube especially if near fimbria (increases recurrence) Direct injection of mtx (especially interstitial or cornual ectopics < 3 cm) Corneal resection • Segmental salpingectomy is the most popular method. Tubal incisions are ANTIMESENTERIC Bilateral salpingectomy if patient develops ectopic pregnancy after tubal sterilization Definitive surgical therapy more effective than methotrexate for ectopic pregnancy. The overall success rate of laparoscopy for ectopic pregnancy is around 90% and for methotrexate around 79% according to Lewis-Bliehall C, Rogers RG, Kammerer-Doak DN, et al. Medical vs surgical treatment of ectopic pregnancy. J Reprod Med 2001;46:983–8 EISENMENGER SYNDROME VSD with left to right shunting → pulmonary hypertension → bidirectional or right to left shunting → right ventricular hypertrophy AVOID DECREASES IN B/P (blood loss, regional anesthesia or syncope) EMBOLUS % of all deaths after gyn surgery Second leading cause of death after legal abortion Leading cause of death in patients with uterine or cervical cancer Diagnosis Symptoms are TACHYPNEA, SOB, TACHYCARDIA, CHEST PAIN, HEMOPTYSIS CXR, EKG, ABG → if abnormal get ventilation–perfusion lung scan. If ventilation–perfusion scan is ‘indeterminate’ get pulmonary arteriography Treatment STAT anticoagulation therapy using heparin IV until aptt is 1.5–2 × nl × 5 days then warfarin (Coumadin®) therapy × 3 with pt 2–2.5 × nl 40% EMBRYOLOGY Male sexual differentiation Undifferentiated gonad → (Y chromosome with TDF (SRY)) → Embryonic testes → Sertolli cells → MIF → Müllerian regression Embryonic testes → Leydig cells → testosterone → Wolffian ducts + DHT Wolffian ducts → vas deferens, seminal vesicle and epididymis DHT → penis, scrotum and prostate Intersexuality See page 22 127 EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION Important embryological structures and eventual developmental organs to remember Embryological structure Male structure Female structure Gubernaculum Gubernaculum testes Round ligament Ovarian ligament Mesonephric (Wolffian) Epididymis Gartner’s duct Ductus deferens Ureter Ureter Epididymis Gartner’s duct Vas deferens Duct of epoophoron Appendix of epididymis Appendix of vesiculosa Ureter, pelvis, calyces and collecting tubules of kidneys Ureter, pelvis, calyces and collecting tubules of kidneys Paramesonephric (Müllerian) duct Appendix of testis Uterine tube, uterus, cervix and upper 2/3 of vaginal wall Urogenital sinus Bladder and urethra Bladder and urethra Prostate gland Greater vestibular gland and lower 1/3 of vagina Mesonephric (Wolffian) duct Sinus tubercle Phallus Hymen Glans penis Glans clitoris Urogenital folds Ventral penis Labia minora Labioscrotal swellings Scrotum Labia majora Results of abnormal embryological development: Transverse vaginal septum – sinovaginal bulb fails to canalize. Includes fusion of Müllerian duct and urogenital sinus Absence of uterus – paramesonephric duct does not develop Uterus didelphys – paramesonephric duct does not fuse Longitudinal vaginal septum – failure of fusion of lower Müllerian ducts. ‘Double barrel vagina’ EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION Effectiveness 75% reduction In other words, in a single act of unprotected coitus, a woman has an 8/100 chance of becoming pregnant. It is reduced to 2/100 with EC which is a chance of avoiding pregnancy of 98% Plan B provides effectiveness of which is a chance of avoiding pregnancy of 88% reduction 99% The use of an IUD provides effectiveness of Yuzpe method is Options of Yuzpe 99.9% reduction Ethinylestradiol Levonorgestrel Initiate within first May benefit up to first 120 h but decreased efficacy > Midcycle coitus results in pregnancy If emergency contraception used, this is reduced to Use antiemetic @ how soon prior to OCPs? Zofran 8 mg ODT is an excellent option as an antiemetic Ovral® (as above) two doses ® ® ® 100 µg 0.5 mg 72 h 8/100 2/100 30 min to 1 h 12 h apart ® ® q. 12 h × 2 Lo-Ovral , Nordette , Levlen , Triphasil , Tri-Levlen , 4 doses Low-dose (20 µg) 5 doses (or pills) q. 12 h apart × 2 Dedicated marketed products Examples Preven™ Plan B Plan B Preven Same dosing as Yuzpe method 0.75 mg pill of levonorgestrel within 72 h q. 12 h × 2 1 pill ASAP and 1 pill 12 h later www.go2planB.com or 1-800-330-1271 1 blue pill ASAP and 2 blue pills 12 h later 0.25 mg levonorgestrel 0.05 mg ethinylestradiol (EE) 128 ENDOCARDITIS Oral contraceptives (Yuzpe) Ovral Lo-Ovral Levlen Levora® Nordette Triphasil or Tri-Levlen Trivora® Alesse Levlite® 2 white pills ASAP and 2 white pills 4 white pills ASAP and 4 white pills 4 white pills ASAP and 4 white pills 4 white pills ASAP and 4 white pills 4 light orange pills ASAP and 4 light orange 4 yellow pills ASAP and 4 yellow pills 4 pink pills ASAP and 4 pink pills 5 pink pills ASAP and 5 pink pills 5 pink pills ASAP and 5 pink pills 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 h h h h h h h h h later later later later later later later later later Other options Estrone b.i.d. × 5 days 5 mg Danazol 400–600 mg STAT 12 h apart Cu IUD (Copper-T 380A) Within 5–7 days except in rape or STD 99% effective Mifepristone (RU 486) Not approved by FDA at this time Mechanism of action of EC EC may inhibit ovulation Other mechanisms that contribute to the effectiveness of EC include: Thickening of cervical mucus to trap sperm Preventing fertilization of the egg by the sperm Interfering with tubal transport Preventing the zygote from implanting in the uterus Altering endometrial receptivity Interfering with the luteinizing hormone surge Inhibiting the function of the corpus luteum ENDOCARDITIS Prophylaxis Ampicillin IV or IM @ 30 min prior to procedure With gentamicin IV or IM Then give amoxicillin p.o. 6 h later after initial dose or Amp/Gen IV or IM dose again 8 h later For penicillin allergy – give vancomycin IV slowly over 1 h 2g 1.5 mg/kg 1.5 g 1g 129 ENDOCRINOLOGY ENDOCRINOLOGY Conditions to differentiate Characteristics of conditions (1) Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (female pseudohermaphrodite) also known as congenital virilizing adrenal hyperplasia Absence of palpable testes; fusion of labial folds; diagnosis: increase serum 17-OH progesterone; most common autosomal recessive trait chromosome 6 (2) Androgen insensitivity, (male pseudohermaphrodite), (complete testicular feminization) Female phenotype despite male genotype (XY chromosomes); descent of testes – normal but abnormal position (remove at puberty); blind vaginal pouch; absent uterus and tubes; testosterone – normal or elevated. LH elevated, estrogen levels elevated, FSH normal or elevated; MIF (Müllerian inhibiting factor) present; diagnosis likely: breast development, primary amenorrhea, short vagina (blind pouch), absent uterus and cervix, scanty or absent pubic and axillary hair. (Some secondary sexual characteristics – breast development from aromatization of androgen to estrogen) • Remember: absence of uterus occurs only in two conditions – androgen insensitivity and Müllerian agenesis (Mayer–Rokitansky–Kustner–Hauser syndrome) (3) Incomplete androgen insensitivity Men with infertility – incidence can reach 40% due to azoospermia or oligospermia; Reifenstein syndrome – phallus large enough to assign sex as male at birth despite hypospadias, ambiguous genitalia; at puberty gynecomastia occurs but is minimal, karyotype is male (XY) – distinguishes it from other feminization syndromes (Klinefelter’s) (4) Gonadal dysgenesis Genotype 45XO, 46XX or 46XY; usually do not develop ovaries, instead gonadal streaks; most common cause of primary amenorrhea – 50% due to random chromosomal disorder, deletion of all or part of X chromosome, genetic defect, rarely 17α-hydroxylase deficiency (5) Swyer syndrome (bilateral dysgenesis of the testes) Female phenotype but male genotype (46XY); primary amenorrhea; absence of secondary sexual characteristics; lack of production of MIF, testosterone and estrogen; adrenals produce androgens to explain hirsutism; estrogen and progestin therapy supports female secondary sexual development; Y-band areas where testes failed to develop need to be REMOVED (6) 47XXY; non-disjunctional event at sex chromosomes occurring secondary to error in oogenesis or spermatogenesis; tall with azoospermia; gynecomastia in 1/3 of these patients; primary infertility Klinefelter syndrome (7) Karyotype XYY May appear normal male but TALL; aggressive personalities; fertile but female partners may have repeated pregnancy losses (8) Combination of XX gonadal dysgenesis and neurosensory deafness Perrault syndrome (9) Turner syndrome Female phenotype – 1/2500 live births; XO genotype – (part or all of one X chromosome missing – 45X, 45X/46XY, 45X/46X;Xq); cystic hygroma; gonadal dysgenesis with increase in FSH and LH; short stature and webbed neck; cardiac lesion – coarctation of aorta; know Turner stigmata – sexually immature female, short stature, web neck (cystic hygroma), wide spaced nipples, shield chest, streak gonads, coarctation of the aorta, renal anomalies, trouble hearing, high arched palate, normal IQ, low posterior hairline and pigmented nevi. What % abort in first trimester? 97% (10) Phenotype – appears like ‘Turner’ except genotype is XY and cardiac lesion is pulmonic stenosis instead of coarctation of aorta; fertile; autosomal dominant with variable expression Noonan syndrome (male Turner) Continued 130 ENDOMETRIAL ABLATION continued (11) Kallman syndrome Phenotype (5–7 times more frequent in males than females); genotype XX; insufficient pulsatile secretion of GnRH; low to absent FSH, LH (responds to gonadotropins but NOT Clomid); anosmia or hyposmia (inability or decreased ability to smell); amenorrhea; normal height for age; infantile sexual development (minimal or absent pubertal develop); three modes of transmission: (1) X-linked (most common) short arm of X; (2) autosomal dominant; or (3) autosomal recessive (12) Mayer–Rokitansky– Kuster–Hauser syndrome (Müllerian agenesis) Phenotype female; genotype female (XX); presents with primary amenorrhea (second most common cause) – 15%; absent uterus; normal secondary sexual characteristics; obtain IVP – incidence of coexisting renal anomalies is 50%; there is also an increased incidence of vertebral anomalies of 10% (13) McCune–Albright syndrome Triad of: (1) Café-au-lait spots; (2) fibrous dysplasia; and (3) cysts of skull and long bones. Isosexual precocious puberty – 40%; diagnose in neonatal period so treatment can be given so normal puberty ensues (testolactone); GnRH-independent precocious puberty; if left untreated → develops heterosexual precocious puberty from the adrenal androgens (most common cause, however, of pseudo-precocious puberty is an estrogen-secreting ovarian tumor) Pituitary control Norepinephrine and dopamine → arcuate nucleus → GnRH pulses → anterior pituitary Dopamine → → → → → … → anterior pituitary Anterior pituitary produces FSH, LH, prolactin, TSH, GH, MSH, ACTH Posterior pituitary produces antidiuretic hormone, oxytocin and vasopressin ENDOMETRIAL ABLATION YAG laser (penetrates highly vascular areas). Successful 90% Loop resectoscope – favor using which cutting loop? 8 mm Why? Removes tissue in 1 cut – decreases risk of perforation Rollerball or barrel – blended current used, difficult to visualize cavity, can be done with irregular uterus Balloon therapy heated to over Not effective if endo cavity 60⬚C > 10 cm ThermaChoice (Ethicon, Inc., Somerville, NJ) Cryoblation therapy – 5 mm probe used with ultrasound monitoring to help provide safe margin between cryozone and uterine serosal surface. Ablates with temperatures below –100⬚C Advantages: (1) Does not require painful distention of cavity (2) No danger of harmful fluid imbalance CryoGen (San Diego, CA) Scarring will occur by definition. Therefore, cornual hematometra or postablation tubal sterilization syndrome is not uncommon in patients having undergone endometrial ablation. (McCausland AM, McCausland VM. Frequency of symptomatic cornual hematometra and postablation tubal sterilization syndrome after total rollerball endometrial ablation: a 10-year follow-up. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;186:1274–83) 131 ENDOMETRIAL BIOPSY ENDOMETRIAL BIOPSY Interpreting the endometrial biopsy Proliferative or hyperplasia Hyperplasia Cancer 10 mg MPA x 12 days/month or OC 21/7 days 30mg MPA/day or OC/day Staging Repeat Bx 6 months Repeat Bx 3 months No atypia Hyperplasia Continue Rx Childbearing Yes No Surgery 200 mg MPA daily or 500 mg megestrel acetate 2/week or 1 g MPA/week Atypia increases risk toward endometrial cancer Penny, Nickel, Dime, Quarter Most important in management of endometrial hyperplasia without atypia ‘Penny’ represents simple hyperplasia. Progression risk to cancer ‘Nickel’ represents complex hyperplasia without atypia ‘Dime’ represents simple hyperplasia with atypia ‘Quarter’ represents complex hyperplasia with atypia 1% 5% 10% 25–30% (1) Patient age (2) Histological pattern of hyperplasia Most frequent symptom of hyperplasia – abnormal vaginal bleeding Diagnosis ENDOMETRIAL BIOPSY → if not diagnostic → hysteroscopy Most common with perimenopausal years Treatment Hyperplasia 10 mg MPA × 12 days/month or OC 21/7 days 30 mg MPA/day or OC/day 200 mg MPA daily or 500 mg megestrel acetate 2/week or 1 g MPA/week If ≥ 40 years of age: Progestin with endometrial biopsy follow-up in 3–6 months or D&C + or – hysteroscopy (f/up pt < 50 years old) or hysterectomy (with indication) If ≤ 40 years of age: D&C and/or hysteroscopy → f/up with endometrial biopsy in 3–6 months or progestin 10 mg daily × 10 days, OCPs, ovulation induction 132 ENDOMETRIAL CANCER VS ATYPICAL HYPERPLASIA ENDOMETRIAL CANCER VS ATYPICAL HYPERPLASIA Severe atypical hyperplasia (not CIS as terminology) Anaplasia, irregularly shaped nuclei and LACK OF STROMAL INVASION. ATYPIA – most important predictor of malignant potential Pathological diagnosis Atypical hyperplasia – nuclear enlargement with clearing of center of nucleus with increased chromatin peripherally Complex – marked crowding of glands but some stroma remains Well-differentiated cancer – back to back glands with no stroma UTERINE BLEEDING Most important factors (1) (2) Patient age Histological pattern Treatment (1) Moderate to severe atypical hyperplasia (2) Lesser lesions (3) Postmenopausal (4) Stage I, grade 1 carcinoma Hysterectomy Progestins TAH with BS&O TAH with BS&O ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 65 (Obstet Gynecol 2006; 107: 952) states that “Most women with endometrial cancer should undergo systemic surgical staging, including pelvic washings, bilateral pelvic and paraaortic lymphadenectomy, and complete resection of all disease. Exceptions to this include young or perimenopausal women with grade 1 endometrioid adenocarcinoma associated with atypical endometrial hyperplasia and those at increased risk of mortality secondary to comorbidities.” ENDOMETRIAL CARCINOMA > 1/2 myometrial invasion – what stage? invasive cancer Treatment for invasive cancer is TAHBSO, nodes and irradiation Radiation Radiation to upper vagina (pTAHBSO nodes) 6000–7000 cGy Radiation to whole pelvis (pTAHBSO nodes) 4500–5000 cGy Give if grade I tumor with deep (> ½ thickness of myometrium) Give if grade II tumor with superficial myometrial invasion (< ½) Give if grade III tumor with any degree of myometrial invasion Give if any grade tumor with lymph–vascular space or cx invasion See Oncology for FIGO staging of Endometrial (Uterine) Cancer Tumor grade and tumor depth MOST IMPORTANT factors of lymph node metastasis Grade Stage I Stage II Stage III Depth <½ ≥½ Local spread, tumor size and lymph–vascular spread also increase the risk of nodal metastasis According to Harai Y, Takeshima N, Kato T, et al. Malignant potential of peritoneal cytology in endometrial cancer.Obstet Gynecol 2001;97:725–8, endometrial cancer cells found in peritoneal cavity usually disappear within short period of time and seem to have a low malignant potential. However, they theorize that only malignant cells from special cases, such as adnexal metastasis, may be capable of independent growth and are possibly associated with intraperitoneal recurrence. As above – depth, grade, + node status are much more important in determining outcome What % of nodal mets have enlarged nodes? So palpation is not adequate to decide @ lymphadenectomy Mixed mesodermal tumors are what % of uterine malignancies? If spread beyond uterus there is only this survival rate If confined to uterus, the pelvic lymph node met rate is Radiation controversial (local rec but not overall) Chemotherapy investigational (advanced or recurrent disease) 3% 9% 18% < 5% 25% < 10% 1–2% 25% 15–20% 133 ENDOMETRIOSIS Low-grade stromal sarcoma Treatment Rubbery, worm-like, yellowish-gray cord type tumors with minimal atypia with < 10 and usually < 5 mitosis per Late recurrences usually local in 5–25 years at rate of TAHBSO or TLHBSO, postop radiation and progestins with megestrol acetate orally at a dose of 10 HPF 50% 160 mg/day Women who undergo TLH, BSO, and staging typically are discharged the morning after surgery. Most patients return to normal daily activities within 2 weeks of the procedure. Post-op therapy is dependent on tumor grade, invasion, and/or metastasis. Metastasis may warrant whole-pelvic radiotherapy Risk factors for endometrial carcinoma Nulliparous 2–3 × Diabetes 1.3–2.8 × Menopause > 52 years old 2–3 × Overweight 21–50 lb 3× Overweight 50 lb 10 × Unopposed estrogen 8× Chance that an office biopsy for endometrial cancer will underestimate tumor grade 20% Chance that an office Pap smear will detect endometrial cancer 40–50% One year of contraception will decrease a woman’s risk of endometrial cancer (40–55) by 50% The presence of pyometra should be an alert to the high probability of malignancy Shortest distance from serosa to tumor of endometrial cancer for which no treatment is needed 10 mm ENDOMETRIAL POLYPS Most asymptomatic What % patients with abnl bleeding will have polyps? Polyps that undergo malignant transformation Endometrial polyps that are solitary Endometrial polyps that are multiple What chromosome is common in stromal cell of polyp? Curettage removes what % of polyps? So hysteroscopy is best therapy for polyps 25% 0.5% 80% 20% 6p21 25% ENDOMETRIOSIS Theories of etiology (1) Sampson – retrograde flow (2) Halbane – hematogenous/lymphatic (3) Meyer – coelomic metaplasia (4) Dmowski – decreased cellular immunity, embryonic cell rest • Most likely mode of etiology is the decreased capacity of peritoneal macrophages to induce cytolysis of ectopic endometrial cells Incidence Peritoneal fluid factors Endometriosis is thought to affect what percentage of all US women? Among symptomatic women the incidence of endometriosis increases dramatically according to the complaint; (1) Patients with infertility (2) Patients undergoing laparoscopy (3) Patients with chronic pevic pain (1) Increased peritoneal fluid in luteal phase (2) Increased concentration in peritoneal fluid of: (a) Prostaglandins (b) Interleukins (c) Tumor necrosis factor-α (d) Transforming growth factor-β (e) Monocytic chemotactic protein-1 (3) Increased numbers of activated macrophages and natural killer cells (4) Decreased concentration of interferon-γ Suspect diagnosis If subfertility, dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia, chronic pelvic pain May be asymptomatic 10% 30% 45% 97% 134 ENDOMETRIOSIS Diagnosis • Histology of laparoscopic biopsy. Insufficient data to support use of measurement of any peritoneal fluid growth factor, cytokine or angiogenic factor. Ultrasound is helpful in evaluation of endometriomas Typical lesions of endometriosis are histologically negative in what % of cases? Histological biopsy: Presence of (1) Endometrial glands and/or (2) Stroma (3) Epithelium (4) Hemosiderin-laden macrophages In dysmenorrheic women with endometriosis, pain typically begins several days premenstrually and ends before menses is complete Ultrasonography may reveal endometriomas as a “ground-glass” appearance Laparoscopy has confirmed endomeriosis in patients diagnosed clinically on the basis of moderate to severe dysmenorrheal, suspicious physical/ultrasonographic pelvic findings,and an evaluation for infection including a sed rate and cervical cultures in what percent of patients? MRI has also been compared with laparoscopy for diagnostic accuracy Staging Revised American Society for Reproductive Medicine Chart Classification based on Appearance, size and depth Presence and extent and type adnexal lesions Degree of cul-de-sac obliteration Endometriosis is found in what % of pts with pelvic pain, dysmenorrhea and/or dyspareunia? Endometriosis is found in what % of pts with infertility? Fulguration will decrease pain but ? concerning increasing fertility Danazol and GnRH agonist decrease implants as much as Treatments 24% 78–87% ASRM 10–15% 30–40% 70–80% Medical (1) First line : OCPs and/or NSAIDS (2) Second line: Continuous progestins (DMPA) – decidualization of endometriotic implants. Continuous androgens (Danazol) – atrophy of implants GnRH (Lupron®, Synarel®, Zoladex®) – decreases ovarian estradiol production so decreases growth of implants Levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system GnRH with add-back therapy – Premarin, Provera, Prempro™, norethindrone acetate or low-dose OCPs. Consider biphosphonates but bone loss due to GnRH agonist anologs may be mitigated by concomitant add-back estrogen therapy Surgical Cautery/laser of implants Uterine suspension (especially if uterus is retroverted or if there is extensive disease in the cul-de sac) Oophorectomy (even 1/10th ovary can preserve function and fertility) Postop GnRH analog rx (good for superficial but much less for larger lesions) Presacral neurectomy and/or uterosacral resection (good for midline pain relief @ 6–12 months but no evidence fertility is increased and possible complications include injury to middle sacral vessels, ureter or postop transient bladder dysfunction). Removal of the superior hypogastric plexus (presacral neurectomy) has not proved to be more effective in controlling pelvic pain than conservative surgery that only destroys endometrial implants; therefore presacral neurectomy is no longer advised, according to Candiani GB, et al. Presacral neurectomy for the treatment of pelvic pain associated with endometriosis: a controlled study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1992; 167: 100–3. Hysterectomy with unilateral vs BS&O (start postop HRT immediately with estrogen AND progestin) 135 ENGAGEMENT Mild – no evidence that surg vs med vs expect rx increases fertility Moderate – pregnancy is successful after surgery rx in Severe – pregnancy is successful after surgery rx in only Highest pregnancy rate during first year after surgery (no HRT) Recurrence rate after surgery (if it does – limited success rate) 60% 35% < 20% 44% Rectovaginal nodules in excess of 3 cm have a high association – 11% with ureteral compromise in patients with endometriosis so an IVP would be mandated in nodules larger than this diameter. (Donnez J, Nisolle M, Squifflet J. Ureteral endometriosis: a complication of rectovaginal endometriotic (adenomyotic) nodules. Fertil Steril 2002; 77:32–7) Pain relief GnRH × 3 months or danazol × 6 months is effective Continued treatment: add-back therapy with low-dose OCPs and consider biphosphonates OCPs, MPA, Lupron (even without surgery and proof of diagnosis) ERT okay after hysterectomy/BS&O Severe endometriosis – medical therapy may not be sufficient Expectant management is okay if patient is asymptomatic Endometriosis may regress ENDOMETRITIS Reliable indicators of diagnosis are uterine tenderness and temperature Blood cultures are + C-section with BV increases risk of endometritis Vaginal delivery with presence of meconium can be independent factor in development of endometritis. (Jazayeri A, Jazayeri MK, Sahinler M, et al. Is meconium passage a risk factor for maternal infection in term pregnancies? Obstet Gynecol 2002;99:548–52) > 38⬚C < 7% 5× Bacteria Bacteroides, Streptococcus and E. coli Gentamicin/clindamycin NOT effective against S. fecalis There is a rising prevalence of resistant bacteria to β-lactam/ β-lactamase inhibitor combinations → Enterococcus Treatment Unasyn (ampicillin/sulbactam) 3 g stat then 1.5 q. 6 h or cefotetan 2 g and other regimens: Regimen #1: Regimen #2: Regimen #3: Clindamycin 500 mg Gentamicin 1.5 mg/kg Clindamycin 900 mg Aztreonam 1–2 g Metronidazole 500 mg Penicillin 5 mu Ampicillin 2 g Mefoxin 2 g Unasyn 3 g IV stat then 1.5 g IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV q. 8 q. 8 q. 8 q. 8 q. 6 q. 6 q. 6 q. 6 q. 6 h h h h h h h h h Outpatient endometritis Symptoms Intermenstrual bleeding Bleeding at inappropriate times while taking OCPs. Recent onset of dyspareunia. Vague, crampy lower abdominal pain Treatment Ceftriaxone 250 mg IM plus doxycycline 100 mg b.i.d. × 14 days or ofloxacin 400 mg p.o. b.i.d. × 14 days plus either clindamycin 450 mg p.o. q.i.d. × 14 days or metronidazole 500 mg p.o. b.i.d. × 14 days ENGAGEMENT BPD at level of plane of inlet or presenting part at ischial spines Inlet is limiting factor of pelvis 10–11 cm 136 ENTEROCELE REPAIRS ENTEROCELE REPAIRS Moscowitz Superficial bites to encircle the pouch of Douglas (cul-de-sac) Halbane Posterior vaginal wall to anterior rectal wall creates shelf and obliterates cul-de-sac Vaginal Enterocele sac dissected free. Suture placed @ neck above levator hiatus. Additional bites (purse string) above initial suture incorporating uterosacral ligaments ENZYME DISORDERS Important deficiencies to remember: Deficiency of 21-hydroxylase leads to elevation of Deficiency of 17-hydroxylase leads to elevation of Deficiency of aromatase leads to elevation of progesterone pregnenolone androstenedione EPIDEMIOLOGY Randomized clinical trial Observational studies Cohort study Case–control study Cross-sectional study Case-series report Case report Greatest scientific value – the Gold Standard Observational study of large numbers over a long period Highly efficient but prone to numerous bias Sensitivity The proportion of truly diseased persons in the screened population who are identified by the screening test Specificity The proportion of truly non-diseased persons who are so identified by the screening test EPIDURAL Hypotension is most common complication. Dural puncture (PDPH) complicates 1% Definition of maternal decrease in B/P with epidural is loss of sympathetic tone with dilatation of resistance and capacitance vessels. Maintain B/P with vasoconstriction of upper body Definition is decrease of arterial mean B/P of ? less than pre-epidural or systolic B/P less than 20–30 mmHg 100 mmHg Epidural needle passes through the skin, supraspinous ligament, intraspinous ligament and ligamentum flavum. The epidural space is between the flavum and the dura. Onset takes 8–20 min • Would you place an epidural in a patient who is less than 4 cm dilated? Some studies seemingly show that placing an epidural too early can slow or even arrest the labor. However, more recent studies contradict this practice It is certainly feasible and reasonable to administer an epidural earlier if narcotics are not relieving the patient’s pain. Some patients seem to even benefit from the relaxation and relief of pain that is provided by the epidural in such a way that the labor will sometimes progress more quickly Dr Cynthia Wong of Northwestern University was lead author on a major study showing no benefit of delaying epidural analgesia in women with spontaneous labor (Wong CA, Scavone BM, Peaceman AM, 137 EPIDURAL et al. The risk of cesarean delivery with neuraxial analgesia given early versus late in labor. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 655–65) Present recommendations to placing an epidural in a laboring patient is that there should no longer be an arbitrary degree of cervical dilation before such a decision is made. Although persistent posterior occiput position results in certain intrapartum complications, its incidence is not increased by the use of epidural analgesia. (Fitzpatrick M, McQuillan K, O’Herlihy C. Influence of persistent occiput posterior position on delivery outcome Obstet Gynecol 2001;98:1027–31) Dosages (1) Marcaine® 0.75% (bupivacaine) Normal saline Fentanyl 250 µg/5 ml (Sublimaze) 20 cc 30 cc 10 c 60 cc Use test dose of 3 cc (epinephrine) solution. Then top off dose 3–6 cc followed by 6 cc/h rate. Use this formula for expected long labors and less motor blockade (2) Lidocaine 2% with Epi (1 : 200 000) 8.4% Sodium bicarbonate (50 ml vial) Fentanyl 100 µg/2 ml (Sublimaze) 20 cc 2 cc 2 cc 24 cc Use this solution for more of a sensory blockade for postpartum tubals, C-sections and expected operative deliveries. Same dosages as above except C-sections then inject 3 cc test dose, slow 12 cc bolus and add 5 more cc if T10 level not reached after few minutes (3) Xylocaine 2% (10 ml vial × 2) 8.4% Sodium bicarbonate (50 ml vial) Fentanyl 100 µg/2 ml (Sublimaze) 20 cc 2 cc 2 cc 24 cc Use this formula in same type situations as in #2, but with the exception of patient having PIH or condition that contradicts the use of epinephrine Combined spinal/epidural (CSE) anesthesia because of the advent of pencil-point spinal needles, as compared with ‘traditional’ epidural, has reduced the incidence of postdural puncture headache and allowed the ‘walking epidural’. However, some patients have complained of less pain relief and also some increased respiratory depression. Protocols for either should be established Back labor relief See Sterile water papules 138 EPIDURAL Epidural analgesia – potential complications Presumed etiology, signs or symptoms Complication Incidence Treatment Maternal hypotension (most common) Approx. 22% Sympathetic blockade leading to vasodilatation, vascular pooling, diminished venous return Volume preload with 500–1000 ml or balanced salt solution; left uterine displacement; avoid supine position; ephedrine if additional therapy required Maternal central nervous (high spinal) 0.06% Unintentional subarachnoid injection of local anesthetic; severe hypotension, profound bradycardia, respiratory compromise Support airway; intubate; 100% O2; intravenous fluids; vasopressors Maternal central nervous system toxicity 0.03–0.5% Intravascular injection of local anesthetic leading to slurred speech, dizziness, tinnitus, metallic taste, oral paresthesias, syncope, seizures, coma, potential cardiopulmonary arrest (bupivacaine cardiotoxicity) Oxygenate; intubate if necessary; treat seizures with thiopental or diazepam; uterine displacement; IV fluids; vasopressors; CPR if needed Maternal temperature elevation Directly proportional to duration of epidural Sympathetic nervous system blockade thought to inhibit heat loss Antibiotics if intrauterine infection suspected (temp. usually ≥ 38⬚C) Post-dural puncture headache 1–2% Loss of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) through puncture site with decreased CSF pressure. Onset several hours to days after puncture; headache on sitting or standing; relief when horizontal Conservative: rest in horizontal position; hydrate; analgesics; caffeine; if no relief, epidural blood patch Transient rise in fetal transcutaneous pCO2 Unknown May be associated with either decreased uteroplacental perfusion or maternal hyperventilation due to pain, anxiety None necessary Fetal abnormal heart rate pattern Dependent on hypotension, maternal position, contraction pattern Fall in maternal blood pressure leading to uteroplacental insufficiency; exacerbated by aortocaval compression or uterine hyperstimulation Correction of hypotension by hydration; left uterine displacement; avoid supine position; avoid uterine hyperstimulation 139 EPILEPSY Epidural analgesia – some neurological complications reported with regional analgesia Cause Lesion or event Sequelae Needle trauma during spinal or epidural Nerve root lesion Numbness and paresthesia Vertebral stenosis Nerve root lesion Epidural hematoma, abscess or tumor Space-occupying lesion Nerve root lesion Coagulopathy Space-occupying lesion Nerve root lesion Vasculitis Cord ischemia Paralysis, anterior spinal artery syndrome Chronic arachnoiditis Low back pain, cauda equina syndrome Hypotension Epinephrine Infection Error Wrong agent Pentothal, phenol, iodine-containing skin disinfectant, radiographic contrast media, detergents Wrong solution Low pH or hypo-osmotic solution, preservatives and antioxidants from multidose vials resulting in cord ischemia or arachnoiditis Wrong volume Total spinal, spinal fluid leakage and displacement Reversible total paralysis, headache, diplopia from paresis of IVth and VIth nerves EPILEPSY Incidence of serious malformations (attempt monotherapy) 3% Decrease risk of NTD with how much folic acid? 4 mg May discontinue antiepileptic drugs before or during pregnancy if seizures have been well controlled 2 years Serious malformations are increased with one AED (anti-epileptic drug) 3% With two AEDs 5% With three AEDs 10% With four AEDs 20% Management Preconception (1) Folic acid 4 mg daily at least 1 month prior to conception (2) Compliance in taking AED must be stressed. Inform that there is 2.4 × or more risk of congenital malformations but worse outcome if seizure occurs causing hypoxia. (Most epileptic women do have normal babies) (3) Try to decrease the number of AEDs Antenatal (1) Obtain AED levels every 3–4 weeks or more frequent if seizures, drug toxicity or toxicity develop (2) Raise doses if necessary to maintain effective anticonvulsant activity (use 30 mg rather than 100 mg phenytoin capsules) (3) If seizure control is not maintained and anticonvulsant dose has been increased until toxic effects are apparent, add additional anticonvulsant medication. Prescribe folic acid 1 mg and follow CBC. (Folic acid deficiency is common) Early management Treat nausea and vomiting early so patient will be able to take AED Second trimester (1) MSAFP; (2) Level II ultrasound; (3) Review seizure frequency; (4) Consider amniocentesis 140 EPISIOTOMY Third trimester (1) Begin NST every week at 34 weeks’ gestation (2) Begin daily fetal kick count movements (3) Vitamin K therapy to begin at 32 weeks’ gestation – 10 mg p.o. daily at 32–36 weeks’ gestation, then 20 mg p.o. daily at 36 weeks until delivery; 10 mg IV during labor Postpartum (1) Decreased AEDs (2) Check patient every 3–4 weeks after delivery (3) Breastfeeding is not contraindicated while mother is on AEDs EPISIOTOMY If it does not heal think about what disease? Crohn’s Determining episiotomy degree – vaginal wall/mucosa and skin of perineum First degree Superficial transverse perineal muscle Second degree Rectal sphincter Third degree Rectal mucosa Fourth degree ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 71 (Obstet Gynecol 2006; 107: 956–62) recommends that episiotomy be restricted as much as possible Evidence supports that restricted use of episiotomy is preferable to routine use Median episiotomy is associated with higher rates of injury to the anal sphincter and rectum than is mediolateral episiotomy, whereas mediolateral episiotomy may be preferable to median episiotomy in selected cases. Routine episiotomy does not prevent pelvic floor damage leading to incontinence Routine episiotomy is no longer indicated and should be used only in selective cases (Goldberg J, Holtz D, Hyslop J, et al. Has the use of routine episiotomy decreased? Examination of episiotomy rates from 1983 to 2000. Obstet Gynecol 2002;99:395–400) Prenatal perineal massage after 34 weeks of pregnancy reduces the likelihood of episiotomy by 15% Perineal massage also reduced reported pain after childbirth and also had a reduction in the incidence of trauma by 9% ERYTHROBLASTOSIS FETALIS If pregnancy complicated by Rh, ab titers should be determined at prenatal visit and thereafter every First 20 weeks 4 weeks No intervention if albumin titer is < 1 : 16 or indirect antiglobulin titer is < 1 : 32 If pt has had prior affected pregnancy, no ab titers needed and amnio or percutaneous umbilical cord sampling to be done q. 4–8 weeks earlier than prior gestational age that sign morbidity occurred Amnio every 3–4 weeks if in Zone Amnio every 1–4 weeks if in Zone Severe hemolytic disease if in Zone Zone III – high probability of fetal death in how many days? I II III 7–10 Antibodies that produce E. fetalis: Duffy, Kell, Kidd and Lutheran (‘dies and kills’), Lewis – does not cause E. fetalis (‘Lewis lives’) ESOPHAGEAL CANDIDIASIS +HIV, CD4 count < 200/mm3, CD4% < 14 (active AIDS) Treat with Retrovir® (zidovudine) and ketoconazole p.o. b.i.d. or Diflucan® to prevent systemic disease 200 mg 141 ESTROGEN REPLACEMENT THERAPY ESSURE Essure is a relatively new hysteroscopic sterilization method replacing the silastic plugs used in the past. The innermost layer are fibers that elicit a benign localized tissue in growth that occludes the tubal lumen. The patient must not be allergic to nickel, as the outer coil is made of a nickel–titanium alloy (nitinol). Some patients, especially if immunosuppressed, may take up to 3 months for their tubes to occlude. Helpful hints; (1) Use contraception for 3 months prior, to thin endometrium (2) Schedule procedure within the first 2 weeks of cycle (3) Patients should take NSAID @ 1 hour prior to procedure (4) IV sedation (ketorolac 30 mg) given for procedure but paracervical block in office works just as well (5) Flush the uterus as necessary for clots or debris and aspirate (6) Confirm visibility of both ostia and start with tube that appears most difficult (7) Use 2–3 liters of warmed saline to enhance uterine dilation and tubal canulation. Avoid uterine overdistention (8) Inadequate uterine distention due to patulous cervix can be overcome by using another tenaculum or twisting cervix 45 degrees (9) The microinsert is inserted into the tubal ostia at the level of the black marker (10) The delivery catheter is retracted. The notch at the opening of the tubal ostia shows correct placement (11) The delivery wire is retracted from the microinsert ESTRING Soft, flexible, silicone ring insert placed into upper part of vagina lasting 3 months Releases how much estrogen? 7.5 µg/24 h Improve vaginal and urinary symptoms and mucosal appearance without provoking bleeding ESTROGEN Measured in picograms/ml Premarin 1.25 = Estrace® 2 mg = ethinylestradiol 20 µg pg/ml ESTROGEN REPLACEMENT THERAPY % of postmenopausal women using ERT What % of these women discontinue ERT use after 1 year? Unopposed ERT leads to increased incidence of endometrial hyperplasia of Transdermals Natural isoflavonic phytoestrogen 16–20% 50% % of women using transdermals experience adverse skin reactions: ETOH reservoir (Estraderm patch) Adhesive hormone matrix (Alora®, Climara®, Vivelle®, etc.) Found in high concentrations in soy products. Exert only minimal to no influence on plasma leptin concentrations. Minimal to no influence on endometrial or vaginal epithelial changes. Minimal amelioration of vasomotor symptoms (Phipps WR, Wangen KE, Duncan AM, et al. Lack of effect of isoflavonic phytoestrogen intake on leptin concentrations in premenopausal and postmenopausal women. Fertil Steril 2001;75:1059–64) 4–8 × 17% 5–8% 142 ETHICS Hip fractures ERT reduces fractures as compared to no HRT by Lipid profile Improves (increases HDL, decreases LDL, affects endothelial vasculature) Others Decreases osteoporosis, colon cancer and possibly Alzheimer’s. There may be slightly increased risks during first 12–24 months in patients who already have heart disease. (HERS trial) ERT and endometrial cancer In absence of estrogen replacement therapy Well diff endometrioid type with superf inv – risk of persistence Mod diff (up to half myometrial inv) renders risk of Poorly diff (> ½ myometrial inv) renders risk of Non-endometrioid type increases risk well over ` ERT and breast cancer 50% 5% 10–15% 40–50% 50% If FREE of tumor → ERT cannot result in recurrence. If estrogendependent neoplasm is present → it will eventually recur. If estrogendependent neoplasm is present → ERT may result in earlier recurrence So, assess risks, discuss information with patient including the alternatives, risks and benefits. Use ERT if appropriate after cancer No data to indicate increased risk of recurrent breast cancer in postmenopausal women receiving ERT. Consider ERT but use with caution. Weigh possible benefits. Consult patient’s oncologist Extensive randomized, prospective trials are needed. NIH study demonstrated that there were actually fewer breast cancer recurrences when ERT was utilized versus when not used. WHI study demonstrated a possible increase in breast cancer with long-term use ETHICS Terms to be familiar with Autonomy – self-rule Beneficence – promote well-being and avoid doing harm Justice – treat equally Informed consent – adequate disclosure. Nature of intervention, risks versus benefits, alternatives with risks vs benefits Honesty – complete and truthful information Confidentiality – duty to respect patient’s privacy. Duty to maintain confidentiality takes precedence over other obligations EVISCERATION Frequency of fascial dehiscence is between Occurs more commonly with vertical than with transverse incisions Mortality rate associated with evisceration is Usually occurs on what days postop? Abdominal evisceration Treatment Sterile moist towels, abdominal binder and narcotic cough suppressant → to OR → explore and resect any compromised gut → #1 PDS to close fascia → excise skin and subcutaneous fat → irrigate → close skin primarily → NG tube → TPN Vaginal evisceration Rare Treatment Warm, moist diaper → to OR → withdraw viscera → inspect for necrosis and pelvic supporting tissues → suspend → prevent enterocele 0.3–3% 10–35% 5–14 143 EXAMINATION SCHEDULES EXAMINATION SCHEDULES Age (years) Complete physical* Screening examinations Screening tests Immunizations 13–15 Initial visit – need not include pelvic Every 5 years Blood pressure, weight, body image Blood pressure annually Informational and introductory Pap smear every 1–3 years** HPV vaccine if not already done 8–12 Diphtheria and tetanus every 10 years Breast every 1–3 years Serum cholesterol every 5 years Rubella once if necessary Pelvic every 1–3 years Rubella titer at age 20 20–39 Mammography at age 35 40–49 Every 3 years Blood pressure annually Pap smear every 1–3 years Breast annually Mammography every year Pelvic annually Occult blood every year Diphtheria and tetanus every 10 years Serum cholesterol every 5 years Tonometry 50–69 Every 2 years Blood pressure annually Mammography annually Influenza annually Breast annually Occult blood annually Pneumococcal vaccine at 65 Pelvic annually Pap smear every 3 years Diphtheria and tetanus every 10 years Proctosigmoidoscopy every 3 years Serum cholesterol every 5 years Tonometry every 2 years 70 & up Annually Proctosigmoidoscopy every 3 years Mammography annually Influenza annually Occult blood annually Tonometry annually *Includes health risk and hearing assessment with education about exercise, nutrition, stress management, smoking, alcohol and drug abuse, seat belt use, repeated excessive exposure to the sun and osteoporosis **After two consecutive negative results 144 EXERCISE DURING PREGNANCY EXERCISE DURING PREGNANCY Major questions (1) Increase in non-working tissues produces vasoconstriction. (Does pregnant uterus have same vasomotor mechanism?) (2) Increased body temperature – shift of blood volume from non-working tissues (splanchnic + renal) to working tissues (muscle + skin) Recommendations (1) Mild to moderate exercise does not have to be curtailed during pregnancy (2) Avoid hyperthermia (not in excess of 102ºF). Fetus is at 1°C warmer than mother. Avoid more than 10 min in sauna or hot tub (3) Avoid difficult activities (skiing or horseback riding) that require increased coordination secondary to increased production of relaxins that cause increases in uncoordination and increases the chance of accident (4) Decrease overall performance to about 50% of non-pregnant levels in third trimester (5) Non-weight bearing exercise can be maintained at higher levels throughout pregnancy (6) Avoid supine position during exercise after first trimester. (Decreases cardiac output in that position) (7) Maintain adequate carbohydrate diet – avoid hypoglycemia (8) Increase heat dissipation (appropriate hydration, clothing and avoidance of adverse environmental conditions) Relative contraindications to exercise (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) Incompetent cervix Twins after 24 weeks’ gestation Multiple gestation > 24 weeks or when fundal height is term History of PTL Known placenta previa after second trimester or if bleeding at any trimester PROM History of PIH Essential hypertension Certain cardiac diseases History of IUGR Cardiac arrhythmia Asthma or COPD Type II diabetes mellitus Breech presentation during third trimester Previous sedentary lifestyle Underweight Obesity Iron-deficiency anemia Recurrent spontaneous abortion of unknown origin (first trimester) Heart rate of pregnant woman should not exceed Target heart rate formula: Non-pregnant Pregnant 140 b.p.m (220 – age) × 0.8 (220 – age) × 0.7 EXERCISE DURING PREGNANCY Exercise programs (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Squatting positions – decrease incidence of forceps and shorten secondary stage labor Pelvic floor exercises – may benefit postpartum for muscles to return to the pre-pregnancy condition Toning exercises – helps maintain proper posture and prevents lower back pain Semi-recumbent/sitting – not supine exercises to avoid aortocaval compression syndrome Recreational and sports activities – okay, but orthopedic risk Jogging – do not initiate after pregnancy. Limit to about 2 miles per day to prevent hyperthermia and dehydration. 4–6 mile brisk walk. Pay attention to terrain and wear shoes with proper support Aerobics – consistent with jogging recommendations (a) Programs should have a scientific basis (b) Avoid overextension + exercises on back (c) Avoid hard surfaces and limit reps to 10 (d) Warm-up and cool-down should be done gradually BICYCLING (1) (2) (3) Program can be started during pregnancy Stationary cycle is preferable to standard bicycling because of weight and balance changes during pregnancy Bicycling should be avoided out of doors during high temperatures and high pollution levels SWIMMING – may be the best (1) (2) (3) (4) Respiratory changes may make swimming difficult in late pregnancy Calisthenic exercise in water is encouraged for maintenance of strength and flexibility Avoid water that is too cold or too hot Jacuzzi temps > 38.5°C should be avoided SCUBA DIVING – avoid Fetus may be at greater risk than mother (decompression sickness, hyperoxia, hypoxia, hypercapnia and asphyxia) MUSCULAR STRENGTH & ENDURANCE – increases chance of transient hypertension (Valsalva maneuver) (1) Training with light weights can cautiously continue in pregnancy (2) Avoid heavy resistance on weight machines (3) Avoid use of heavy free weights. Use close spotter for light free weights (4) Avoid Valsalva maneuver – use proper breathing CONTACT SPORTS – avoid after first trimester Main points to remember (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Can continue regular exercise (at least 3 times per week) Avoid exercise in the supine position after the first trimester Modify intensity according to maternal symptoms Avoid even mild abdominal trauma Ensure adequate diet (normal pregnancy requires 300 kcal/day) Augment heat dissipation with adequate hydration Prepregnancy exercise routines should be resumed gradually AVOID → hyperthermia (102⬚F) such as hot tubs and saunas. Difficult activities that require coordination. SCUBA (9) Check contraindications if high-risk or abnormal pregnancy 145 146 EXTERNAL CEPHALIC VERSION EXTERNAL CEPHALIC VERSION Usually successful in what % of patients? 65–70% Increased success rate with terbutaline especially with nulliparas up to 27–52% SCORING SYSTEM (using parity, dilatation, EFW, placenta position and station) Score Factors 0 1 2 Parity 0 1 2 Dilatation ≥ 3 cm 1–2 cm 0 cm Estimated weight < 2500 g 2500–3500 g > 3500 g Placenta Anterior Posterior Lat/fundal Station ≤ –1 –2 ≥ –3 Not a suitable candidate if Ideal candidate if score is ≤4 ≥8 • Criteria for ECV Completion of Prefer terbutaline especially with An ultrasound for presentation before and after Reactive NST or BPP Rh therapy if needed Scoring system (parity, dilatation, EFW, placenta, station) INFORMED CONSENT Contraindications Multiple pregnancy IUGR Third-trimester bleeding Abnormal AFV Uterine malformation Placenta previa Decrease success rate if Low AFV, obesity, anterior placental location, cervical dilatation, low breech into pelvis, anterior or posterior position of fetal spine 36 weeks nulligravids ≥8 Uncontrolled hypertension Maternal cardiac condition PIH Non-reassuring FHR Major fetal anomaly EXTERNAL CEPHALIC VERSION 147 External version of breech presentation or transverse lie The following patients should be excluded from consideration for external version of breech presentation: (1) Any patient in whom a tocolysis is contraindicated (2) Any patient in whom there is a high index of suspicion for utero placenta insufficiency and fetal distress (3) Premature labor, PROM or very dilated cervix (4) Multiple gestation (5) Third-trimester bleed, suspected abruption, placenta previa (6) Gestational age less than 36 weeks or estimated fetal weight greater than 3800 g (7) Previous uterine surgery Protocol (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) The risk/benefit should be discussed with the patient in advance. The patient should be aware of the risk of transient fetal bradycardia during the procedure and the occasional (less than 5%) need for urgent Cesarean. A routine hospital consent form will be signed at time of version The patient’s prenatal records, including lab work should be in Labor & Delivery The Labor & Delivery staff and the OB Anesthesia staff should be notified of the date and time of the attempted version and enough staff should be available at the time of the version, if a Cesarean becomes necessary The patient should be NPO after midnight On arrival to Labor & Delivery, a sonogram should be performed to determine: (a) Fetal position and type of breech (b) Estimated fetal weight (c) Head extension and nuchal cord if possible (d) Anomalies if possible (e) Placenta location (f) Amniotic fluid volume If contraindications to version are determined the procedure should be canceled (6) (7) (8) A non-stress test should be performed and evaluated prior to the procedure A deep-vein open IV should be inserted and a type and hold drawn A tocolysis (terbutaline or MgSO4) may be started at the lowest dose, as per protocol (see individual tocolysis protocols). Tocolysis may not be necessary in some patients (9) The version should be attempted as soon as the tocolytic is effective if infusion. This may be 5 min for subcutaneous terbutaline or 30 min for MgSO4 (10) The version should be done with an assistant who can provide intermittent fetal heart rate monitoring and sonograph during the procedure (11) After the attempted version, continue fetal monitoring for 1 h. The patient needs a reactive NST prior to discharge (12) If the patient is Rh negative, a Kleihauer-Betke test should be drawn and the appropriate RhoGAM should be administered prior to discharge 148 FACE PRESENTATION FACE PRESENTATION Chin (mentum) Mentum posterior – labor is impeded. MP can convert spontaneously to anterior even late in labor Etiology Enlargement of neck (fetal goiter), coils of cord @ the neck may cause extension, anencephalic fetus, pelvic contraction increased, macrosomia increased, pendulous abdomen in multiparas (permits fetal back to sag promoting cervical extension) Diagnosis Vaginal exam X-ray sometimes needed as can be confused with breech Treatment May attempt delivery of mentum anterior, however C-section is frequently preferred due to association with pelvic contraction C-SECTION mentum posteriors – rotations are obsolete FATTY LIVER OF PREGNANCY Serum bilirubin usually < 10 Aminotransferases elevated but usually < 300 HALLMARKS with symptoms are glucose < 50 mg/dl and WBCs often above 30 000 Symptoms: anorexia, headache, fatigue, jaundice, vomiting or abdominal pain (especially RUQ or diffuse to back) Labs: S. bilirubin usually < 10 mg/dl unless hemolysis or renal fails. PT and PTT prolonged. Aminotransferases increased but usually < 300 u/l. Glucose < 50 mg/dl and WBCs > 30 000 FECAL INCONTINENCE ‘Dovetail sign’ with decreased sphincter tone Patients with third- or fourth-degree tears – what % experience urgency and incontinence? What % have pudendal neuropathy? If there is pudendal neuropathy, anal sphincteroplasty is success Diagnosis: ? Transanal ultrasonography → pudendal nerve motor latency testing… → if + and no external anal defect → treat with biofeedback or dynamic anal graciloplasty p.r.n. If negative and pudendal neuropathy → then do an anal sphincteroplasty 50% 60% 80% FERTILIZATION/GROWTH Morula Blastocyst Fertilized ovum reaches uterus in Implantation Trophoblastic venous sinuses form Cardiovascular system Earliest morph indicator of sex appear Oogenesis begins 2–3 days 4–5 days 5–6 days 6–7 days 9–11 days 21 days 8–9 weeks 11–12 weeks FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME Incidence 1/1000 Diagnosis (diagnose if two of the following are present and suspect if one is present): (1) Growth restriction (2) Facial abnormalities (low-set ears, thin upper lip, midfacial hypoplasia) (3) CNS impairment (microcephaly, ADD, MR) (4) Other physical defects: Cardiac – VSD (most common), increased ASD, abnormality of GV, tetralogy of Fallot 149 FETAL DEMISE FETAL ASSESSMENT When to start Start at-risk patients 32–34 weeks How frequent Start high-risk patients At risk At high risk 26–28 weeks weekly biweekly How reassuring Very reassuring in that NSTs neg predictive value Neg predictive value for CST, BPP and mod. BPP Kick counts Fetal kick counts – how many movements in 2 h is normal? NST NST – 2 or > FHR accelerations (15 b.p.m. + lasts 15 s) in period of Non-reactive NST – lacks suff FHR accels in > how many min? 24–28 weeks’ gestation – may not be reactive in this % 28–32 weeks’ gestation – may not be reactive in this % CST OCT or contraction stress test = three 40 s contractions in POSITIVE contraction stress test = decels with ? contractions BPP Modified BPP (normal) = reactive NST and AFI 99.8% 99.9% 10 20 min 40 min 50% 15% 10 min 50% or > > 5 cm (abnormal) = non-reactive NST and AFI UADV < 5 cm Umbilical artery Doppler velocimetry Normal high velocity diastolic flow Extreme IUGR absent or even reversed flow This test is good for IUGR, post-term gestation, DM, SLE, antiphospholipid syndrome In a high-risk obstetric population undergoing antepartum fetal testing, perinatal mortality rate is 12/1000 • FHR monitoring criteria No differences have been seen in patients who were monitored electronically vs intermittent Doppler auscultation. Depends on the standard of care for the community Fetal bradycardias and prolonged decelerations are 2 distinct entities; the first usually does not warrant immediate intervention Fetal scalp stimulation to assess fetal status should be done during periods of FHR baseline FETAL CIRCULATION Umbilical vein → ductus venosus Portal vein (right and left) → join at this point level for abdominal circumference measurement Inferior vena cava → to right atrium Foramen ovale → to left atrium Left and right ventricles → ductus arteriosus to aorta (indomethacin can cause premature closure) Hypogastric arteries → to umbilical arteries and become ligamentum teres FETAL DEMISE Incidence Fetal deaths per what definition of total births? Reporting requirements vary. Most states Diagnosis Ultrasound (sometimes FRH is interpreted as mom’s rate) Follow for DIC DIC = ¼ females with dead fetus develop this after 4 weeks Fibrinogen to be measured weekly (normal) DIC Delivery 1000 20 weeks or > 450 mg/dl < 100 mg/dl PGE2 20 mg every 4 h with Zofran® (ondansetron) 8 mg every 6 h or Phenergan 25 mg every 6 h Use laminaria or Pitocin p.r.n. Electrolytes every 24 h 150 FETAL FIBRONECTIN TEST Cause Request autopsy, placental culture/stains (Listeria), karyotype (use blood, skin, fascia, patellar tendon, amnio), Kleihauer–Betke, VDRL, antibody screen, tox titers, CMV, lupus, glucose, thyroid, viral cultures, bacterial cultures. Obtain photographs and X-rays Labs Cause and tests to rule out • Drug use – get blood and urine for toxicology • Abruption – Kleihauer–Betke stain • Diabetes – HgbA1C, glucose • VDRL – to rule out syphilis • Viral titers – Rubella, parvovirus • Rh and antibody screen • Lupus anticoagulant, anticardiolipin antibody ‘DAD VV tails real low’ FETAL FIBRONECTIN TEST Criteria (1) Amniotic membranes intact (2) Cervical dilatation is minimal (3) Sampling must be between 24 weeks, 0 days and 34 weeks, 6 days Negative tests help rule out imminent delivery within Not for general OB population. Results from lab must be timely < 3 cm 2 weeks FETAL WEIGHT Estimated 20 weeks 28 weeks 32 weeks 36 weeks 40 weeks 500 1000 1600 2500 3500 g g g g g FEVER (POSTOP) Definition ≥ 38°C (100.4⬚F) × 2 @ 6 h apart > 24 h after surgery or 38.7°C (101.5⬚F) anytime Infection Non-infection (90% microatelectasis) Increased risk Increased risk of postop fever if EBL or operating time is over Thickness of SC is highest risk factor for wound infection If patient is over 200 lb, risk of infection increases Causes Remember the 5 Ws (1) Atelectasis – most common cause of fever Diagnosis – presents with fever, tachypnea, tachycardia Treatment – spontaneously resolves (usually) by 3–5 days Wind Incentive spirometry. If does not clear: chest PT, IPPB, aerosol or intermittent/continuous and airway pressure 20% 80% > 1500 cc 2h 8× (2) Pneumonia – commonly associated with atelectasis Infection usually begins in the collapsed area of lungs Diagnosis – presents with high fever, cough, dyspnea, tachypnea, increased sputum production and purulent, coarse rales, toxic Treatment – same as atelectasis PLUS parental antibiotics. Initial choice of antibiotic based on Gram stain then sputum cultures Wound (3) Wound infection – after hysterectomy the incidence is 90% of this 5% is within the first 2 weeks after hyst. The incidence is 8 times more frequent if the patient is > 200 # 5% 151 FEVER (POSTOP) Diagnosis – presents with fever on 5–10th day, tachycardia, increases tenderness and pain Two RARE types – VERY VIRULENT (can produce toxicity in the first 48 h). These are (i) Clostridium and (ii) acute β-hemolytic streptococcus Treatment – (i) Open and drain, (ii) Gram stain, aerobic and anaerobic cultures, (iii) pack to debride and irrigate, (iv) antibiotics if peripheral cellulitis, (v) delayed closure after afebrile and granulation and (vi) prophylactic antibiotics for high-risk or other situations Walk her! (4) Phlebitis – superficial thrombophlebitis is commonly associated with IV catheter Diagnosis – presents with superficial tenderness along course of veins and develops painful, erythematous induration with or without fever Treatment – IV caths should be replaced every 48 h (i) If phlebitis occurs – remove catheter, (ii) rest, elevation and local heat, (iii) moderate to severe cases – treat with NSAIDs or rarely with therapeutic doses of IV heparin and antibiotics (5) DVT 15% incidence Usually begins during surgery so prevent rather than treat. Three key predisposing factors are (i) increased coagulation factors, (ii) damage to vessel wall, (iii) venous stasis Diagnosis – 50% are asymptomatic. The 50% symptomatic patients: (a) Induration of calf muscles 68% (b) Minimal edema 50% (c) Calf tenderness 25% (d) Difference in leg diameter 11% (e) Homan’s sign 10% (f) Doppler ultrasound (venography is the Gold Standard) Treatment – Heparin 5000–10 000 IU IV then 1000–1500 IU until ptt is 1.5–2.5 × out. For 5–7 days then Coumadin 15 mg daily for 3 months after 48 h of heparin. Also see treatment with enoxaparin (Lovenox) under DVT Etiology Hereditary deficiencies: (a) Factor VIII deficiency (b) Factor V Leiden (c) Homocysteine (d) Protein 20280 (e) Protein C ( f ) Protein S (g) Antithrombin III DVT risk in perspective (chance of DVT): 28-year-old female not on OCPs 49-year-old female on HRT 32-year-old pregnant female at 24 weeks’ gestation 25% 20% 10% 6% 3% 1–2% 10/100 000 30/100 000 60/100 000 (6) Septic pelvic thrombophlebitis – occurs in procedures 0.1–0.5% Diagnosis – exclusion of others. When fever is not responding to appropriate antibiotic treatment and there is no abscess or hematoma Sometimes presents with fever, tachycardia, GI distention or unilateral abdominal pain Treatment – heparin 7–10 days. Long-term treatment not needed unless septic pulmonary embolus occurred during hospitalization Water (7) UTI – most commonly acquired in hospital patient from Foley cath Atonic bladder is more prone (with or without catheter) Increased risk – (i) older female, (ii) diabetics (3 × risk), (iii) length of time catheter is left in place Diagnosis – presents with frequency, mild dysuria if lower UTI presents with high fever, chills, flank pain if higher 152 FIBROCYSTIC BREAST Treatment – antibiotic therapy. If symptoms persist after ab rx, check IVP to rule out ureteral obstruction Treat with ab for 10 days if symptoms exist with Foley in place, not just single dose or 3-day therapy Wonder drugs (8) Drug fever – reaction to a drug can cause fever. Discontinue the suspected drug Remember the Ws again Wind (atelectasis) Postop day 1–3 (pneumonia) Postop day 3–7 or > Wound (Streptococcus or Clostridium) Postop day 1–2 (other bacteria) Postop day 5–7 or > (ovarian abscess) Postop 1 week or > (cuff cellulitis) Postop day 4–6 Walk (phlebitis) Postop day 3–5 (DVT) Postop day 3–7 or > Water (UTI) Postop day 3–7 or > (ureteral obstruction) Postop 1 week or > Wonder drugs (drug-induced fever). Anytime while on any drug(s) Consider Ob situations too! Womb (endometritis) Weaning (breast engorgement, mastitis, breast abscess) FIBROCYSTIC BREAST Occurs in what % of females age of < 21 What % of cytologic specimens of breast fluid show evidence of malignancy? Most common benign condition of the breast Histology – cystic and epithelial proliferation and stromal fibrosis. If associated with atypia → associated with increased incidence of cancer 10% 0.1–1% FIBROIDS Symptoms of bleeding vs pain/pressure 33% vs 33% Symptoms depend on #, size and location. (Frequency, urgency, rectal pressure, infertility, enlarging midline mass?) What % of fibroids are symptomatic? 20–40% Uterine sarcoma noted in only 0.1% Figure 5 The patient presented with heavy bleeding, anemia and a large mass protruding into the vagina. Note the large fibroid coming through the dilated cervical opening of the uterus 153 FIBROIDS Treatment Expectant (1) Expectant especially if uterus ≤ 12 cm with slow growth (< 6 cm in size in 1 year) or no growth Hormonal (2) Hormone therapy – Lupron, DMPA, danazol, RU486 (A) Advantages (a) Perimenopausal – often avoids hysterectomy (b) Shrink to allow better surgery mode (c) Decreases blood loss (100–150 cc) (d) Correct anemia decreasing need for transfusion (e) Atrophy endometrium for hysteroscopic ablation (B) Disadvantages (a) Can cause degeneration – ‘piece meal’ myoma (b) Hypoestrogenic side-effects (c) Expense (d) Need for injections Myomectomy Destructive techniques (3) Myomectomy – used especially for retaining fertility. Recurrence rate with myomectomy is 20% (4) Laparoscopic myolysis – electrothermy, laser coagulation or cryo (holes drilled) (5) Laparoscopic cryomyolysis – one hole is drilled into center of fibroid to form ice ball (‘her/option’ cryoblation system by CryoGen, San Diego, CA) Both myolysis and cryomyolysis respond better if treated preoperatively with GnRH agonist UAE (6) Uterine arterial embolization Hysterectomy (7) Hysterectomy Most hysterectomies should be performed vaginally even for fibroids. The advantages for the patients more than outweigh the risks and disadvantages. (MIVH developed by the author is the newest method) See section on Hysterectomy comparing TVH to TAH Comparison of hysterectomy to myomectomy Advantage of hysterectomy over myomectomy (1) Less blood loss (2) Decrease chance of recurrence (within 20 years of a myomectomy, 25% subsequently have hysterectomy for recurrences) (3) Postop complications much less wound infection 2% bleeding 2% Advantages of myomectomy over hysterectomy (1) Preservation of reproductive capacity (2) Lack of possible negative psychological effects from uterine loss Myomectomy for infertility Fibroid in association with recurrent second-trimester pregnancy loss. Location (submucous) is more significant than size of fibroid Theories (1) Thinning of endometrium so implantation is in poor site (2) Rapid growth (increased hormones of pregnancy) → compromises blood supply → necrosis (‘red degeneration’) → uterus contracts (3) Encroachment of fibroids upon fetal space to develop Surgery Reserved for repetitive second-trimester spontaneous abortions with female whose abortuses were normal (pheno + karyotype) and viability is > 9–10 weeks’ gestation Recurrence rate of myomectomy for infertility is ‘Red’ degeneration 20–25% Myomas during pregnancy or puerperium occasionally undergo ‘red’ or ‘carneous’ degeneration that is caused by a hemorrhagic infarction Signs and symptoms (1) Focal pain (2) Tenderness to palpation (3) Occasional low grade fever (4) Moderate leukocytosis common 154 FISTULA (5) Peritoneal ‘rub’ – develops secondary to inflammation of parietal peritoneum overlies infarcted myoma Differential (1) Appendicitis (2) Placental abruption (3) Ureteral stone (4) Pyelonephritis Treatment (1) Analgesia (i.e. codeine) (2) Usually spontaneously abates within a few days FISTULA Etiology Ob/Gyn surgery or radiation therapy. Most common cause Ob trauma Usually due to episiotomy 3rd or 4th degree Location of fistula after hysterectomy or enterocele repair upper 1/3 Location of fistula after posterior colporrhaphy lower 1/3 Genito urinary fistula incidence after radical hysterectomy is 1–2% Symptoms Usually 7–14 days postop there is rectal passage of blood clots or gas/fecal material from vagina. Causes emotional distress in patient Diagnosis Define defect with small metal probe or catheter in rectum with methylene blue and tampon in vagina What % of fistula spontaneously close? Obstipate Treatment Mechanical bowel prep Golytely Phosphate soda 25–50% 25% heal spontaneously 1 liter/h till clear or 4 oz × 2 @ 4 h apart prior Antibiotic prep Cefotetan 2 g or Unasyn 3 g Surgical technique – wide mobilization, adequate blood supply, minimal to no pressure Postop: low residue diet, decrease fiber, stool softener and avoid coitus Critical surgical principles for fistula repair (1) (2) (3) (4) Wide mobilization Excision of entire tract Meticulous closure of rectal orifice Reapproximation of broad tissue surface to broad tissue surface WITHOUT surface tension Choices of fistula repair (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Use of Martiius graft Transverse transperitoneal repair Development and advancement of a rectal flap Development and advancement of a vaginal flap Interposition of the levator muscle and fascia of Colles between the vaginal and rectal tissues FITZ-HUGH–CURTIS SYNDROME Perihepatic inflammation and adhesions that develop in 10–15% females with acute PID from transperitoneal or vasc dis of GC or Chl Signs and symptoms (1) RUQ pain (2) Pleuritic pain (3) Tenderness with liver palpation (4) Usually preceded by PID Differential (1) Acute cholecystitis (2) Acute appendectomy (3) Ectopic pregnancy (4) Pneumonia (5) Adnexal torsion 155 FORCEPS Diagnosis (1) H&P (2) Laparoscopy (most accurate) – especially with patients of uncertain diagnosis or patients not responding to treatment (3) Endometrial biopsy – 90% correlation (4) Ultrasound – limited value (5) Culdocentesis – questionable (6) Laboratory – lacks evidence to support diagnosis FLU See Influenza FORCEPS Classifications • Outlet (1) Fetal head is at +3 station and rotation does not exceed 45⬚ (2) Scalp is visible at the introitus without separating the labia (3) Fetal skull has reached the pelvic floor (4) Sagittal suture is in AP diameter or R or L OA or OP (5) Fetal head is at or on perineum • LFD (1) Fetal skull at or > +2 cm station and rotation may exceed 45⬚ (2) Rotations of 45⬚ or < (L or R OA to OA or Lor R OP to OP) (3) Fetal skull not on pelvic floor • MFD Station > 2 + but head engaged Indications for operative vaginal delivery • The following apply when the fetal head is engaged and the cervix fully dilated (1) Prolonged second stage (2) Suspicion of immediate or potential fetal compromise (fetal bradycardia) (3) Shortening of the second stage for maternal benefit (maternal cardiac condition) (4) Maternal exhaustion Types of forceps Simpson’s – best suited for a molded head Tucker–McLane’s – solid blades, prefer for unmolded outlet Elliot’s – preferable for the unmolded head Keiland’s – for rotation OP to OA (Scanzoni maneuver) Piper’s – for breech delivery Laufe’s – short, outlet deliveries Indications (examples) Maternal exhaustion Prolonged second stage Maternal cardiac condition Fetal bradycardia Requirements for safe forceps Complete cervical dilatation Empty bladder Rupture of membranes Presenting part at or below ischial spines Adequate pain relief Likelihood of success Complications (1) Retinal hemorrhage More common after instrumental delivery. Appears to be transient (2) Subgaleal hematoma (a) Bleeding beneath the aponeurosis of the scalp. (Most serious complication of VE rather than forceps. 5–10/1000 VE) 89% of subgaleal hematomae were delivered by VE – 3% died (b) Baby may show signs of overt shock, hypotension, tachycardia and a drop in hematocrit. Treatment includes careful monitoring, use of a pressure bandage to the scalp and early transfusion 156 FRAGILE X (3) Caput Effusion of serum that overlies the periosteum that resolves (4) Cephalohematoma Collections of blood that accumulate under the periosteum of skull bones, usually parietal. 10–25% are associated with skull fracture (5) Intracranial hemorrhage Intracranial hemorrhage in the term newborn infant is more common than was previously realized (6) Skull fractures True incidence of skull fracture at the time of VE may be higher than appreciated, for unless neonates demonstrate abnormal neuro behavior, they do not routinely undergo skull films Maternal complicationsOnly 4% of women who undergo instrumental delivery sustain anal sphincter injury, but up to 50 % of women with 3rd-degree perineal tears have had instrumental delivery Strongly consider right mediolateral rather than midline episiotomy because the midline is associated with serious risk of anal sphincter injury with potential long-term consequences Forceps versus vacuum Retinal hemorrhage more common with VE than forceps (38% vs 17%) Cephalohematoma more common with VE than forceps (9% vs 3%) Facial bruise, abrasion and nerve palsies more common with forceps Maternal injury is more likely with forceps, fetal injury is more likely with vacuum Avoid forceps if (1) Proper application is not possible (2) The case is risky Key (1) Remember that rotations can also be done manually (2) Proper placement! (3) Documentation (indication, instrument used, station, position, degree of asynclitism of fetal head when forceps initiated, any rotation that was required, anesthesia, EBL, specifics of laceration and/or episiotomy, infant Apgar scores and cord gases. Write a pre-op and post-op detailed note) (4) Consider Ob history (Hx of malpresentation, persistent OP – possible anthropoid pelvis or obesity, excessive weight gain, and glucose intolerance – all warning signs of LGA infant) (5) Informed consent – written recommended like for C-section. (6) Abdominal exam is critical – EFW, OA, and engaged fetal head? (7) Keep molding in mind – traction + molding may increase risk of intracranial injury (8) Be aware of fetal head position throughout labor (9) Have a valid indication (see above indications) (10) Avoid sequential use of instruments (VE-LFD-VE) if at all possible (11) Have a clear endpoint and exit strategy (failed forceps to C/S is okay and some Ob Departments have set up guidelines for the number of forcep and/or vacuum extraction attempts (12) Handle bad outcomes with compassion • Spontaneous vaginal delivery is more likely after previous instrumental delivery than after cesarean section FRAGILE X Most common inherited form of mental retardation More common in males occurring Incidence in females Triple repeat (cystosine–guanine–guanine). Full mutation 1 : 1500 1 : 2500 > 200 All sons who inherit an expanded, full mutation will have fragile X features. In daughters, prognostication is limited Gene FMR-1 (long q arm of X): Premutation Mutation 50–100 repeats > 200 repeats 157 GALACTORRHEA Symptoms Autistic behaviors. Macroorchidism in adult males. Narrow face with a large jaw. Speech and language problems. Becomes more noticeable with age. Mental retardation ranges from borderline to severe – most are moderate CVS Not reliable Transmission depends on: (1) Sex of parent (2) Number of cytosine–guanine–guanine repeats in the parental gene Diagnosis (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) DNA-based molecular tests (a) Southern blot analysis (b) Polymerase chain reaction Test for fragile X if developmental delay or MR of ? etiology Test if family history of fragile X or family history of MR Offer amniocentesis to known carriers Test women with elevated FSH, especially with family history of premature ovarian failure, fragile X syndrome, or relative of either sex with undiagnosed mental retardation, late-onset tremor or ataxia, or movement disorders Prenatal fragile X diagnosis can be obtained using DNA from amniocytes or CVS. Screening for fragile X would cost from $99 to $300.00 per test FRANK PROCEDURE Procedure which is utilized to take years of pressing to form new vagina using dilator GALACTORRHEA Prolactin level – if up, get TSH – if up, check T3 and T4 If normal TSH and prolactin and regular menses no further test If abnormal menses – get AP and lat coned down view of sella turcica – if abnormal, get MRI If prolactin elevated and patient has headache or visual disturbances, get MRI If prolactin > 100 ng/ml, get MRI Treatment: If estrogen levels (E2) are decreased under this value, one should give estrogen to prevent osteoporosis 40 pg/ml If patient has macroadenoma with increased prolactin, bromocriptine is to be given Empty sella syndrome (incompleteness of the sellar diaphragm) is seen in what % autopsies? 5% Empty sella syndrome is seen in what % of patients with amenorrhea and galactorrhea? 4–16% Causes Medications Thyroidism (hypo) 3–5% Hormones (estrogens, OCPs, TRH) Adenoma Antihypertensives (α-methyl dopa) Kidney disease Dopamine Medications Psychotropics (phenothiazines) Hypothalamic Antiemetics or anesthetics Acromegaly (pit tumor, Cushings) L-Dopa Trauma (thoracic operation, herpes zoster or chest trauma) Lactation syndrome varients causing galactorrhea: Forbes–Albright – association of galactorrhea with intrasellar tumor Chiari and Frommel – antecedent pregnancy with inappropriate persistent galactorrhea Argonz and del Castillo – inappropriate galactorrhea in absence of previous pregnancy 158 GALLBLADDER DYSFUNCTION GALLBLADDER DYSFUNCTION Oral contraceptive therapy increase risk 2× Hypolipidemic medicines increase risk 33% This % of patients may have gallstones in common bile duct for years asymptomatically 8–15% This % of pregnant patients (in study of GB disease) scanned by ultrasound have evidence of stones 96% Gold Standard to test for stones in common bile duct ERCP (endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography) GASTROSCHISIS VERSUS OMPHALOCELE Gastroschisis Incidence is 1 : 10 000 ISOLATED ANOMALY. Defect in abdominal wall is to the RIGHT of the umbilicus Preterm labor complicates Vaginal delivery is okay (C-section does not improve chances) Survival is approximately Omphalocele Incidence is 90% 1 : 4000 Associated with OTHER ANOMALIES Insertion of cord into sac with membrane – CENTRAL Preterm labor also complicates Mortality is approximately If contains only bowel → 87% have abnormal karyotype If contains only liver → 9% have abnormal karyotype A > 50% 70% of the time > 50% 60% B Figure 6 Gastroschisis. (a) This infant delivered prematurely while patient was undergoing abruption and hemorrhage. Note the defect in the abdominal wall is to the right of the umbilicus. In omphalocele, the defect is central. (b) The same infant after repair 159 GENETICS GENETICS This % of chromosomal abnormalities are lost (first trimester) spontaneously 50–60% Triploidy – common findings in miscarriage. Dispermy leads to partial moles. Digyny leads to small, malformed fetus, PIH Chromosomal errors Rate of recurrence 1% Autosomal trisomies (detected in 50–60% of abnl abs) (1) Down’s – most common, accounts for @ newborns 1/650 Down’s arise by non-disjunction in first or second meiotic division in ovum (increased frequency with AMA) 90% % of sperm have wrong # of chromosomes as well – perhaps swim poorly or fail to fertilize well (no age effect is apparent) 5–10% (2) Edward’s – 90% die before age 1. Choroid plexus better marker here than for +21. Incidence is 1/5000 (3) Patau’s – clefting, polydactyly, CNS anomalies 1/10 000 Sex chromosomal abnormalities (1) Monosomy X – Turner’s syndrome What % end in first- or second-trimester losses? 90% Posterior nuchal SEPTATED cystic hygromas @ First trimester 50% Second trimester 85% Stigmata of Turner’s 45X Most common single entity found in spontaneous abs 1/2500 Webbed neck probably due to cystic hygroma pigmented nevi Low posterior hairline Normal IQ but seem MR due to hearing deficit. Coarctation of aorta. Increase carrying angle. Short metacarpals Shield chest with wide spread nipples. Streak gonads. Renal agenesis XY – Noonan’s syndrome 160 GENETICS ‘Male Turner’s’ cardiac lesion is pulmonic stenosis. Phenotype like Turner’s (2) Klinefelter’s syndrome Tall, sterile males with small, firm testes. IQ down @ (3) XXX, XYY (paternal origin of extra chromosome almost as frequent as maternal.) IQ drop compared to sibs @ XXY 20 20 Chromosomal rearrangements Translocations About how many humans have a translocation? 1/250 (1) Reciprocal – occur by breaks and repairs. Can involve any part of any chromosome. Effects are variable. A ‘general’ figure for liveborn outcome 8–10% (2) Simple – addition of one part of chromosome to another nonhomologous chromosome (3) Robertsonian – occur by centromeric fusion of acrocentric chromosomes Which Robertsonian translocation is the commonest translocation in man? 13/15 The 13/15 translocation may lead to increased risk of sp ab, it is usually unrecognized, but actual risk for abnormal liveborn offspring is < 2% FISH (fluorescent in situ hybridization) FISH probes are pieces of DNA that anneal with identical pieces of DNA in the cell. What % abnormalities are prenatally detected? Microdeletions may not be visible on standard cytologic analysis so FISH microdeletion probes are used with abnormal US +/or fam hx 80% Examples of microdeletion disorders: Prader–Willi (hypotonia, obesity, MR) Angelmann (seizures, ataxia, MR) Williams (elfin facies, cardiac anomalies, MR) DiGeorge (immune deficiency, hypoparathyroidism, cardiac anomaly) Smith Magenis (autistic mannerisms, MR, unusual behaviors), etc. Telomere probes Detects ends of chromosomes, will identify smaller rearrangements both balanced and unbalanced. A new tool just becoming available Location of chromosomal abnormalities of these common disorders Blood type (CDE antigens) 1 Wolf syndrome (deletion) 4 Cri du chat (deletion) 5 21-hydroxylase deficiency 6 Cystic fibrosis 7 11β-hydroxylase deficiency 8 Paracentric inversion (1–3%) 9 Patau’s syndrome 13 Robertsonian translocations (13–15) and (21, 22), 14q, 21q Prader–Willi 15q12 Angelman 15q12 Most common trisomy detected in spontaneous abortions 16 Edwards’ syndrome 18 Down’s syndrome 21 Type I diabetes 21 DiGeorge’s syndrome (microdeletion) 22 Autosomal dominant Rate of recurrence 50% Neurofibromatosis Marfan’s Huntington’s chorea Polycystic kidneys with adult onset Von Willebrand’s disease Sipple’s syndrome (multiendocrine neoplasia type II) X-linked % risk of a new dominantly transmissible disorder if Dad > 50 is 1–2% Rate of recurrence 50% Testicular feminization Hemophilia A deficiency factor 8 (1/10 000) Placental sulfatase deficiency Muscular dystrophy 1/3300 Diabetes insipidus There are sex-linked dominants (Duchenne muscular dystrophy and hemophilia A and B) 161 GENETICS There are sex-linked recessives (worse in males – Goltz syndrome, incontinentia pigmentii and those that occur almost exclusively in females – Rett, Aicardi syndromes) Fragile X More common in females than males in ratio of Most common hereditary form of MR. Due to triplet repeat mutation 2:1 25% Autosomal recessive Thalassemia, sickle cell anemia Congenital adrenal hyperplasia PKU Galactosemia Metabolic disorders (Tay–Sachs) Cystic fibrosis – deletion of phenylalanine at position 508 Chromosome groups Imprinting 1, 2, 3 A 4, 5 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 13, 14, 15 16, 17, 18 19, 20 21, 22 Sex chromosomes B C D E F G Process of turning off one copy of a gene (mat or pat) during RNA transcription Many imprinted genes have to do with growth: Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome characterized by organomegaly, omphalocele and risk of abdominal tumors. Make too much Prader–Willi is microdeletion with imprinted From mother or maternal uniparental disomy (2 copies of mother’s chromosome 15) and inactivated UPD – unexplained IUGR, neonatal diabetes Multifactorial inheritance Offspring of affected individuals recurrence risk is Examples: spina bifida, clefting, pyloric stenosis, clubfoot, etc. Cancer genetics Oncogenes serve as stimuli to cell division such as HPV and genes associated with aggressive tumor growth such as HER2/neu and estrogen receptors IGF2 SNRPN SNRPN 2–8% Tumor suppressors function to be certain that DNA transcription is correct before cell is allowed to divide. Tumor suppressors are sometimes hereditary (breast + ovary) such as BRCA1 and BRCA2 and some endometrial cancer is hereditary such as HNPCC The most common HNPCC-associated cancer is endometrial cancer Hereditary breast–ovarian cancer risk assessment is best done using the Frank model The lifetime risk of developing colorectal cancer or breast cancer if your patient has inherited a clinically significant HNPCC gene mutation or a BRCA1/2 gene mutation is 50% When evaluating an asymptomatic woman for HNPCC, an appropriate first step in gene mutation testing would be to test colorectal tissue from an affected family member for microsatellite instability The common founder mutation gene test is most useful in Ashkenazi Jewish men and women The empiric risk for a fetus with a balanced translocation, to have anomalies or develop mental delay MHC (major histocompatibility complex) in humans is located on what chromosome? Occasionally, carriers will display some symptoms. An example is with cystic fibrosis and CBAVD (congenital bilateral absence of the vas deferens) 10% 7 162 GENITAL MUTILATION Polymorphism is a change in the genetic code that is not expected to significantly change the size or function of the resulting protein Ultrasound findings in regards to genetics: (1) The likelihood of a karyotypic abnormality after detecting 1 structural abnormality is 14% 5 70% 7 82% (2) The all-or-none scoring system for a genetic sonogram evaluates all the following: (a) Thickened nuchal fold (b) Pyelectasis (c) Echogenic intracardiac focus (d) Choroid plexus cysts (3) A normal second-trimester ultrasound examination reduces the likelihood of the fetus being karyotypically abnormal by approximately 50% GENITAL MUTILATION (1) Usually performed prior to adolescence (2) Removal of clitoral prepuce, clitoris, labia minora and occasionally much of the labia majora (3) Infibulation of the vagina (4) No scientific basis for the procedure GENITAL ULCERS Herpes Syphilis Chanchroid Granuloma inguinale HSV – painful vesicles intranucleated giant cells – Rx acyclovir Incubation period 2–7 days T. pallidum – painless – darkfield microscopy – Rx penicillin Incubation period 2–4 weeks H. ducreyi – very painful, Gram stain (school of fish) – Rx rocephin/Emycin 1–14 days Calymmatobacterium granulomatis, PL ulcer, Donovan bodies, TCN 1–4 weeks LGV Chlamydia trachomatis – tender lymph nodes, culture/compfix, Rx doxycycline 3 days to 6 weeks Causal organisms and important points Granuloma inguinale Calymmatobacterium granulomatis Look for ‘Donovan bodies’ – look like ‘safety pins’ Chanchroid Hemophilus ducreyi Look for ‘school of fish pattern’ – the classic streptobacillus chains Lymphogranuloma venereum Chlamydia trachomatis Serotypes L1, L2, L3. Look for multiple fissures of perineum and rectum GESTATIONAL TROPHOBLASTIC DISEASE Hydatidiform moles 1/1000–1/1200 Partial mole 69XXX or 69XXY Usually small for dates. Focal trophoblastic proliferation. < 5–10% of postmolar GTD Complete mole 46XX or 46XY Fetus is absent. Diffuse villous edema. Frequent medical complications. Theca lutein cysts are present in 15–20% Invasive moles Rarely metastasize. Treated with chemotherapy Invasive moles follow partial moles in @4–11% Invasive moles or choriocarcinoma follow complete moles @ 25% 163 GESTATIONAL TROPHOBLASTIC DISEASE 1/20 000–1/40 000 Choriocarcinoma • Develop from term pregnancies • Develop after molar pregnancies • Develop after other gestations Gestational choriocarcinoma Develop early systemic hematogenous metastasis. Chemotherapy is indicated. Syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast elements. Pure epithelial neoplasm 50% 25% 25% Placental site tumors Secrete amounts of β-hCG that are small in relation to tumor volume NOT SENSITIVE TO CHEMOTHERAPY HYSTERECTOMY is treatment of choice CXR ? Symptoms What % of pts with a negative CXR with GTD will have metastasis on CT scan? Bleeding between 6–16 weeks’ gestation Large for dates Small for dates Theca lutein cysts Hyperemesis Hyperthyroidism Incidence of PIH (first or second trimester) Diagnosis (1) 40% 80–90% 50% 25% 15% 8% 1% 1% Complete mole (a) hCG > 100 000 (b) Ultrasound → ‘snowstorm’ appearance (2) Partial mole (a) Histology after D&C (b) Pre-evacuation hCG increased but not as high as in the complete Incidence of spontaneous remission after evacuation of molar pregnancy is 80% Average time (acc to DiSaia) until undetectable levels of hCG after evacuation of molar pregnancy 7 hCG levels usually above 100 000 mlU/ml Treatment Labs (1) Clotting function studies (2) Blood type and antibody screen (3) Renal and liver function studies (4) Determination of β-hCG level (5) CXR (CT might be considered) and ultrasound (6) CBC with platelets Evacuate uterus. Use suction D&E device with 12–14 mm suction cannula. Pitocin to be started after starting the evacuation and continue for several hours. If the uterus is > 16 weeks size – have 2 units of PRBCs available. Pulmonary complications are frequent with enlarged uteri. Replace blood or IV loss p.r.n. Give RhD p.r.n. Methotrexate – treat non-metastatic GTD. Methotrexate is excreted by kidneys – get pretreatment creatinine. Hysterectomy – will shorten and decrease amount of chemo but does not improve high-risk metastatic disease Treatment for hydatidiform mole is usually curative in 80% What size suction cannula should be used during a suction D&E for hydatidiform mole? 12–14 mm Pitocin should be used after start of evacuation and continued for several hours. If the uterus is over 16 weeks, how many units of PRBCs should be available? 2 units hCG levels should be obtained every 1–2 weeks Until results are negative for how many negative determinations? 3 Then hCG levels should be followed every 3 months For how many months? 6–12 164 GnRH ANALOGS GnRH ANALOGS Decapeptide produced in arcuate nucleus in the median eminence of hypothalamus inhibited by dopamine Substitutions at position 6 Secreted in pulsatile fashion by hypothalamus Serum half-life 2–8 min GRANULAR CELL TUMOR Misnomer because actually is schwannoma, arising from a nerve sheath. Lesions can occur or may recur anywhere but rarely are truly malignant. Sometimes called myoblastoma GRANULOMA INGUINALE Chronic PAINLESS nodule of vulva that progresses to a beefy red ulcer. Uncommon in the USA but with increased frequency in the Caribbean Cause Calymmatobacterium granulomatis Diagnosis Donovan bodies (deep-staining bacteria with a bipolar appearance resembling a safety pin) Treatment Oral tetracycline GROUP B STREPTOCOCCUS Percent of pregnancies that are colonized with GBS in vagina or rectum Fatality rate in infants infected with GBS ACOG 20% 5–20% Selective prophylaxis to all at risk regardless of culture status Risk factors (1) Temperature (2) Rupture of membranes (3) Premature infant (4) Chorioamnionitis (5) Intra-amniotic infection (6) GBBS bacteriuria in pregnancy (7) Previously affected infant > 100.4°F > 18 h < 37 weeks CDC Screen at 35–37 weeks’ gestation and treat all + results and increased risk patients AAP Screen at 26 weeks’ gestation and treat all + results and increased risk patients Current Recommendations (1) All pregnant women should be screened at 35–37 weeks’ gestation for vaginal and rectal colonization (2) Screen each pregnancy to determine need for prophylaxis. Prior colonization in a previous pregnancy is not an indication for treatment in a future pregnancy. (3) Exception – women with prior GBS infected neonate or with GBS colonized urine in the current pregnancy should receive intrapartum prophylaxis (4) GBS colonized women who have a planned C-section prior to rupture of membranes or onset of labor do not need intrapartum prophylaxis. If prophylaxis is given, it is best at time of incision rather than at least 4 hours prior to delivery (5) If no screening obtained and patient is < 37 weeks, rupture of membranes > 18 hours, or temperature ≥ 100.4°F (38°C), then intrapartum prophylaxis is indicated 165 GROWTH HORMONE Penicillin G 5 million units IV, then 2.5 million units IV every 4 h or ampicillin 2 g IV, then 1 g IV every 4 h. If the patient is allergic to penicillin and not at high risk for anaphylaxis, the drug of choice is cefazolin. If allergic to penicillin and high risk for anaphylaxis, obtain GBS culture with erythromycin and clindamycin sensitivity testing and if sensitive give clindamycin 900 mg IV every 8 h. If the culture is not sensitive to either antibiotic or sensitivity testing is not feasible, then the drug of choice is vancomycin. To date, there are no reported GBS penicillin-resistant strains; however, there has been a notable increase of in vitro GBS resistance to clindamycin and erythromycin Treatment GROWTH HORMONE (1) Decreases glucose tolerance (2) Increases incidence of carpal tunnel syndrome (3) Increases exercise capacity (4) Decreases body fat (5) Increases muscle mass American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology algorithm for prevention of early-onset group B streptococcal disease in neonates, using risk factors Are any of the following risk factors present? – Previously delivered infant who had invasive GBS disease – GBS bacteriuria during this pregnancy – Delivery at < 37 weeks' gestation* – Duration of ruptured membranes >18 h – Intrapartum temp at > 100.4°F (>38°C) YES Give intrapartum penicillin** NO No intrapartum prophylaxis needed *If membrane ruptured at < 37 weeks' gestation, and the mother has not begun labor, collect group B streptococcal culture and either (a) administer antibiotics until cultures are completed and the results are negative or (b) begin antibiotics only when positive cultures are available **Broader-spectrum antibiotics may be considered at the physician's discretion, based on clinical indications 166 HALBANE PROCEDURE Group B beta streptococcus - Summary Group B Beta Strep is responsible for causing 15 000 cases of neonatal sepsis. The number of early-onset disease cases decreases with intrapartum prophylaxis for GBBS carriers. Although prophylaxis is widely accepted, there is still debate as to the best strategy for identifying women who are carriers. Also, costeffective – necessity of antepartum screening has come under question Asymptomatic colonization GBBS is present in 15–40% of pregnant women. (Variation in colonization rate 2 degrees to ethnicity, geographic location, number sites cultured as well as methods of culture) African-Americans > 21%; Hispanics 20.9%; Whites 13.7%; Hisp (Caribbean descent) 28%; (Mexican descent) 9.2%; Diabetics 2 x higher – 20 vs 10% Isolation rates highest from introitus, rectum, cervix Supports concept gastrointestinal tract as reservoir Vertical transmission occurs 40–73% of infants of colonized women For every 100 colonized women, only 1 infant will develop GBBS Overall, attack rate ranges from 1 to 3 per 1000 live births Risk factors for neonatal GBBS Preterm labor Preterm, PROM ROM > 18 h prior to delivery Intrapartum fever Hx of infant with GBBS infection Clinical manifestations (most common) of early-onset GBBS < c.7 days of life (late onset > c.7 days of life). Early onset accounts for 66% of all neonatal infection. Mortality rate 25–33% (1) Septicemia (2) Pneumonia (3) Meningitis Late onset presents with meningitis in 85% (nosocomial/cross. colon) Mortality 15–20% but survivors – 25–50% neurologic sequelae Culture Gold standard ‘Todd-Hewitt’ Broth. Because cultures take 48 h, rapid GBBS antigen using coagulation, latex-particle agglutination and enzyme immunoassay. 1–2 h but has low sensitivity in lightly colonized patients, and could thus potentially fail to identify many patients who should receive prophylaxis HALBANE PROCEDURE Obliterates cul-de-sac Approximates posterior vaginal wall to anterior rectal wall Isolates from intra-abdominal pressure Provides peritoneal shelf that deflects pressure from this dependent portion of female pelvis HEADACHE Chronic migraine is a frequent headache disorder that affects 2–3% of the general population 167 HEADACHE Features of primary headaches Migraine headache Tension-type headache Cluster headache Aggravating or triggering factors, Alcohol, chocolate, other foods, altered sleep, change in weather, menstruation, physical activity Emotional stress, Alcohol rebound effect of overuse (mostly unknown) of analgesics (mostly unknown) Ameliorating factors Dark, quiet, rest Hot or cold compresses Physical activity Usual Usual Usual Slight and uncommon Slight and uncommon Slight and uncommon Rare Rare Rare Rare Rare Not present Occasional Not Not Not Not Usual Usual Often Not present Throbbing Unilateral Moderate-to-severe 4 h to 3 days 2/week to 2/year Steady ache Bilateral Slight-to-moderate Hours, weeks, months Daily to 2/year Boring One orbit Excruciating 30 min to 3 h Daily for weeks or months Family history Usual Occasional Rare Gender F>M F>M M>F Associated symptoms Nausea Phonophobia Photophobia Nasal congestion/ rhinorrhea Red/tearing eyes Ptosis/miosis Aura present present present present Characteristics Type of pain Location of pain Intensity of pain Duration Frequency 168 HEADACHE Sample questionnaire Patient: Date: _________ ______ (Please answer all questions below – YES or NO – with a check mark) PAST HEADACHES (Patient may have more than one type of headache or mixed headaches) YES ___ NO ___ 1. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 2. 3. 4. ___ ___ 5. ___ ___ 6. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Do you have an idea of what may be causing your headache? (Whiplash, diabetes, high blood pressure, eye strain, etc.) Did this same type of headache ever occur before? Do you have more than one type of headache? Is the headache pain so intense that sometimes it becomes unbearable? TENSION HEADACHES (Muscle contraction headache) Head pain, tension, and muscle contractions of head, neck or shoulders Do your headaches occur during stressful tension or nervousness at home, at work or during social occasions? Do your neck, shoulder muscles or head junction feel tight and painful during the headache? Is your headache pain dull and steady, like an intense constant pressure? Does your headache feel like a tight band around the head? Do you usually have one (1) or more headaches per week? Do your headaches occur during the day? Does mother, father or any blood relative have similar headaches? Does exertion (lifting, running, straining, sex) affect your headache? Does nausea and/or vomiting occur before or during your headache? ___ ___ 14. ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. MIGRAINE HEADACHES (Common or Classic) Usually women. Relieved by parenteral ergotamine confirms diagnosis Do you have any changes in vision (flashing lights, sensitivity to light, spots, blurred vision, etc.) before or during your headache? Does your headache usually start on one side of the head? Does your headache throb and pulsate or feel like it’s pounding? Do your headaches usually occur during the night or upon awakening? Do your headaches usually occur during weekends and holidays? (Females only) Is your headache associated with your menstrual period? 20. 21. CLUSTER HEADACHES Usually men. 3 or more headaches per day for 4–8 weeks Do you have watering of the eye on the affected side of the headache? Do alcoholic drinks cause or aggravate your headaches? ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ 22. ___ ___ ___ ___ 23. 24. ___ ___ 25. ___ ___ 26. ___ ___ ___ ___ 27. 28. ORGANIC ORIGIN Allergy, sinus infection, aneurysm, brain tumor, etc. Does chocolate, cheese, milk, nuts, Chinese food or any other food cause or worsen your headaches? Do you have any hearing problems – noise, drainage or stuffiness in either ear? Have you noticed any paralysis, muscle weakness, numbness, swallowing problems or speech changes during your headaches? Do you have any facial pain, aching jaws, stuffiness or congested sinuses along with your headache? Has it been over eighteen (18) months since you last visited a dentist? PREVIOUS TESTS & MEDICATIONS Have you had tests of headache? (X-ray, brain scan, injections, etc.) Have you used any previous headache medication? List all medications on the back of this form 169 HEARTBURN (GRAVID CONSIDERATIONS) Tension, migraine, cluster and organic headaches Differentiate Treatment options Migraines (1) (2) (3) (4) Naproxen 500 mg p.o. daily Metoclopramide 10 mg p.o. daily Butorphanol NS 1 mg Sumatriptan (Imitrex) 6 mg SC or 25 and 50 mg p.o. or 5, 10, and 20 mg NS (5) Naratriptan hydrochloride (Amerge®) 2.5 or 5 mg tablet p.o. q. 4 h (max. dose 2 tablets in 24 h) Migraine prophylaxis (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Clusters (1) Sumatriptan 6 mg SC (2) Ergotamine mg sublingual Cluster prophylaxis (1) Verapamil 80 mg p.o. t.i.d. (2) Ergotamine tartrate with caffeine 100 mg – 1 mg p.o. b.i.d. Chronic tension headache prophylaxis (1) Amitriptyline 25 mg p.o. q.d. (2) Divalproex Na+ 250 mg p.o. b.i.d. (3) Dihydroergotamine 0.5 mg t.i.d. IV Propranolol 20 mg p.o. t.i.d. Verapamil 80 mg p.o. t.i.d. Methylergonovine 0.2 mg p.o. t.i.d. Naproxen 250 mg p.o. t.i.d. Divalproex Na+ 250 mg p.o. b.i.d. Amitriptyline 10–25 mg p.o. q.d. Methysergide 2 mg p.o. b.i.d. Melatonin 3 mg @ 30 minutes prior to bedtime (esp. if HA related to delayed sleep phase syndrome) Menstrual migraines (1) Women experience migraines approximately 3 times more likely than their male counterparts (2) What proportion of females experience true menstrual migraine, as opposed to menstrually associated migraine (MAM)? 7–14% Falling estrogen levels reduce endogenous endorphin activity, raising sensitivity to pain Menstrual migraines in OC users most likely occur during the placebo days of the pill cycle. Triptan with the lowest initial response rate but the drug most likely to stave off migraine recurrences because of its long half-life is naratriptan Maximum recommended daily dose of sumatriptan tablets is 200 mg In OC users experiencing recurrent migraine, the optimal Pill formula is norethindrone/ethinylestradiol 20 mg. OC users requiring add-back estrogen during the placebo week are advised to take: conjugated equine estrogens esterified estrogens oral or transdermal 17β-estradiol In severe and refractory MAM, which hormonal treatment is recommended? GnRH agonists In menstrual migraineurs with comorbid hypertension, which prophylactic regimen might be particularly useful? β-blockers Strategies to try in management of chronic daily headache and MAM: (1) Switching to a lower-dose OC (2) Instituting a 2-week course of a triptan (3) Adding ice packs, massage and stress-reduction techniques HEARTBURN (GRAVID CONSIDERATIONS) Incidence in pregnancy There is a wide range of incidence Symptoms Indigestion, epigastric pain, dysphagia, water brash (hypersalivation), anorexia, nausea, vomiting and rarely pulmonary symptoms Complications Esophagitis, bleeding, strictures (rare) 10–80% 170 HEARTBURN (GRAVID CONSIDERATIONS) Helpful signs to diagnose History: Unable to lie down, forced to sleep upright Exacerbates: fatty foods, caffeine, chocolate, natural mint, onions, garlic Differential diagnosis PUD, gastritis, gallstones, constipation, pancreatitis, fatty liver of pregnancy and pre-eclampsia Consider these labs Liver function tests, amylase, urinalysis Treatment steps (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Medications Antacids Avoid food/beverage 3 h prior to bed Avoid ETOH and smoking (decreased LES tone) Eat smaller and more frequent meals Avoid foods that exacerbate symptoms High-protein and calcium-rich food may increase LES pressure and improve symptoms 50% pregnant women take antacids Liquids have greater gastric acid neutralizing capacity Tablets (according to one study) increased esophageal pH improved relief reflux Aluminum hydroxide (Mylanta®, Amphojel®, etc.) Pregnancy class Magnesium hydroxide (Maalox®, Riopan®, etc.) Calcium carbonate (Tums®, Rolaids®, Alka-Mints®) H2 blockers neutralize gastric pH and decrease gastric volume Cimetidine (Tagamet®) 400 mg q.i.d. or 800 mg b.i.d. Ranitidine (Zantac®) or famotidine (Pepcid®) 150 mg b.i.d./10 mg b.i.d. Nizatidine (Axid®) Sucralfate coats mucosa and there is possible aluminum absorption Motility agents increase gastric emptying and LES pressure Metoclopramide (Reglan®) 10–15 mg q.i.d., 30 min prior to meals +hs Cisapride (Propulsid®) 10 mg q.i.d., 15 min prior to meals and hs Proton pump inhibitors suppress gastric acid secretion Omeprazole (Prilosec®) Lansoprazole (Prevacid®) 20 mg q. daily Pantoprazole (Protonix®) 40 mg q. daily Esomeprazole (Nexium®) Precautions Gaviscon®, an antacid, with increased dosages can be associated with silicaceous nephrolithiasis, hypotonia, respiratory distress and cardiovascular problems in the fetus Cimetidine has an increased effect of theophylline, warfarin, Dilantin® and lidocaine. It is used as a pre-op medication to prevent gastric acid aspiration (Mendelssohn’s syndrome). It is slow to cross the placenta It has antiandrogenic effects (800 mg b.i.d. or 400 mg q.i.d.) Carafate® – dose 1 g q.i.d. Coats ulcer crater and promotes healing. As effective as H2 blocker in relieving gastroesophageal reflux but it is costly. It also has bioavailable aluminum and has been associated with fetal death, abnormal skeletal growth and impaired hearing and memory in treated offspring of rats Metoclopramide can also be used as a pre-op to increase gastric emptying, decrease emesis and increase lactation. Side-effects can include anxiety, insomnia, hallucinations and dystonic symptoms Cisapride can be used to treat patients with nocturnal heartburn due to reflux. It releases endogenous acetylcholine and stimulates gas motility. Use only if potential benefits justify potential risks Proton pump inhibitors help heal erosive esophagitis If symptoms persist Further testing needs to be done to rule out bleeding, esophageal strictures, Barrett’s esophagus, pre-cancer or cancerous conditions Endoscopy can be performed using Demerol, Versed®, Valium or lidocaine 10% spray. Try to avoid barium studies with fluoroscopy B1 B1 B1 B2 B1 C B1 B C C C B C 171 HEMATURIA hCG Human chorionic gonadotropin. The syncytiotrophoblast is responsible for the production of hCG Level of hCG to see a SAC using a vaginal probe should be Level of hCG to see a SAC using an abdominal probe should be Level of hCG to see FETAL ACTIVITY using either probe should be 1500 6000 10 000 Phantom hCG phenomenon – false high levels of LH or a substance in blood that interferes with the hCG immunoassay. These substances may represent heterophilic antibodies, human antimouse antibodies (HAMA) or other antibodies to rabbit, goat or sheep immunoglobulin, non-specific protein binding or hCG-like substances. Because these are large glycoproteins, they are not excreted in urine. If phantom hCG is suspected – before treating an ectopic or gestational trophoblastic disease, consider performing both a urinary hCG assay and another type of serum hCG assay in a reference lab prior to initiating therapy, thereby avoiding a potentially disastrous situation for the patient and risk of liability for doctor HELLP Diagnosis and definition Hemolysis Abnormal peripheral smear Bilirubin Elevated liver enzymes SGOT 1.2 mg/dl > 72 IU/l Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) > 600 IU/l Low platelets Platelet count < 100 000 Assessment and stabilization (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) If DIC is present, correct coagulopathy Provide antiseizure prophylaxis with magnesium sulfate Treat severe hypertension Transfer to tertiary care center if appropriate Perform computer tomography or ultrasound of the abdomen if subcapsular hematoma of the liver is suspected Evaluate fetal well-being Evaluate fetal lung maturity if < 35 weeks’ gestation (1) If mature, induce delivery (2) If immature, give steroids, then allow for delivery (3) Deliver if abnormal fetal assessment (4) Deliver if progressive deterioration in maternal condition HEMATURIA Definition Presence of blood in urine (isolated hematuria) produced by bleeding in the urinary tract from urethra to renal pelvis Total hematuria: occurs evenly throughout voiding (blood mixed fully with urine); suggests bleeding source proximal to bladder Initial/completion hematuria: occurs at beginning or end of micturition; suggests bladder or urethral origin Causes (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Urinary calculi Benign/malignant neoplasm Infection Tuberculosis Trauma Renal disease Radiologic studies (1) IVP, renal ultrasound – evaluate for hydronephrosis, renal/ureteral stones (2) CT, renal arteriography – sometimes necessary to disclose certain lesions (cysts, tumors) (3) Retrograde pyelography – when IVP not possible (Cr >1.5) Diagnostic procedures (1) Cystoscopy – refer to Urology (2) Renal biopsy – refer to Nephrology 172 HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES Diagnosis of hematuria Urinalysis (midstream) RBCs → Cath excludes vaginal or uterine bleeding RBCs → urine culture (most frequent cause of hematuria after age of 20 is acute UTI) RBCs → plus do second a.m. urine specimen for cytologic analysis to rule out precancerous condition Rule out Stone, Hematologic, Infectious and/or Trauma as etiology HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES Genetic screening (1) Electrophoresis – appropriate initial lab test (2) Solubility testing – valuable test for rapid diagnosis of sickle cell disease (3) MCV – recommended for patients at increased risk for thalassemia (4) When screening indicated – both partners should have red cell indices and Hgb electrophoresis as primary tests If MCV decreased → increased risk for α- or β-thalassemia If MCV < normal: Fe+ deficiency absent, then do DNA testing Electrophoresis absent for β-thalassemia DNA testing will look for α-globin gene deletions Remember, hemoglobin electrophoresis is the primary screen HEMORRHAGE IN OBSTETRICS Postpartum hemorrhage Definition Etiology Loss of > 500 cc of blood during delivery Underdiagnosed (∼40% lose > 500 cc/5% lose >1000 cc) Early – within 24 h after delivery Late – 24 h to 6 weeks after delivery Uterine vs. extrauterine Uterine (1) Atony – over-distension (hydramnios, multiple gestation), temporal (rapid/prolonged labor), macrosomia, high parity, chorioamnionitis, tocolytics (MgSO4, terbutaline), prolonged oxytocin administration, halothane anesthesia (2) Rupture – previous uterine surgery, internal podalic version, breech extraction, obstructed labor (esp. high parity/multigestational), abnormal fetal presentation, mid-forceps rotations (3) Inversion – complete vs incomplete Extrauterine (1) Trauma – (cervical/vaginal and/or rectal lacerations), forceps, macrosomia, precipitous labor, episiotomy (2) Hematoma – vulvar (subacute volume loss/pain), vaginal (severe rectal pressure), retroperitoneal (least common, but most dangerous/no warning signs) (3) Retained placental fragments – accreta, increta, percreta, abnormalities (succenturiate lobe) (4) Coagulopathy – obstetric conditions (abruption, amniotic fluid embolism, pre-eclampsia, retained dead fetus). Medical conditions (acquired/inherited coag disorders, autoimmune thrombocytopenia, anti-coagulant use) What % of maternal deaths are due to hemorrhage? 1/8 What % of blood volume is noted by 30 weeks’ gestation? 40% How many milliliters of blood per minute flows at term? 600 ml What drop in hematocrit defines hemorrhage for vaginal delivery? 500 ml or 10% drop If the parity is > 7, there is how many times the risk of uterine rupture? 20 x Transfuse if the EBL is > 1000–1500 ml 173 HEMORRHAGE IN OBSTETRICS Classification of hemorrhage Hemorrhage class 1 2 3 4 Acute blood loss 900 ml 1200–1500 ml 1800–2100 ml >2400 ml % lost 15 20–25 30–35 40 Response Asymptomatic Tachycardia Hypotension Shock Class 3 also has worsening tachycardia with cool extremities while class 4 may cause oliguria/anuria Postpartum blood loss is often clinically underestimated by 30–50% Early bleed → atony, retained POC, lacerations Late bleed → subinvolution, retained POC, endomyometritis Think coagulation defects if abruption, fetal demise, PIH, AFE, sepsis Urine output – most accurate method of determining volume depletion Treatment Uterine massage or compression→ Pitocin (oxytocin) 20 mIU in 1000 ml IV → Methergine (methylergonvine) 0.2 mg IM or IV→ Hemabate® (15 methylprostaglandin F2α ) IM or intramyometrially in dose of 250 µg) every 15–90 minutes IM or IU or PGF2α Dinoprostone (PGE2) 20 mg PR q 2 hours→ Cytotech (misoprostol) 600–1000 µg PR or PO single dose Angiographic uterine arterial embolization successful 80–95% Activated factor VII (rF-VIIa) works well in severe postpartum hemorrhage when other interventions fall short Give 3 doses of rF-VIIa (200 µg/kg after initial 8 units of RBCs infused then 100 µg/kg 1 hour later and 100 µg/kg 3 hours later Use rG-VIIa judiciously … the cost is $1400/g Uterine artery ligation successful 80–92% Hypogastric (int iliac) artery ligation is successful 50% or 90%* *Ligation of ascending branch of uterine artery controls 90% of patients with pelvic bleeding according to Prolog Blood component therapy Hysterectomy Component Contents Volume Anticipated effect (per unit) PRBCs Platelets FFP Cryo RBC, WBC, plasma Platelets + Fibrinogen, AT III, Fib, factor VIII, von Willebrand factor, factor XIII 300 ml 50 ml 250 ml 40 ml Increase Increase Increase Increase Hgb by 1 g/dl plt ct by 7500 fib by 10 mg/dl fib by 10 mg/dl PRBCs (250-ml units). Each unit increases Hct by @3% Risk of transfusion per 1 unit of PRBCs: HIV 1/150 000–1/1 000 000 Hepatitis B 1/50 000 Hepatitis C 1/3300 Fatal reactions 1/100 000 per unit FFP (250-ml units). Each unit increases fibrinogen by @ 25 mg/dl Use in massive hemorrhage with DIC or if levels of fibrinogen are < 100 mg/dl Cryoprecipitate (15-ml units). Give if HYPOFIBRINOGENEMIC. Has fibrin, Von Willebrand factor, 8, 13 Platelets – usually 6–10 units are used at a time. Each unit increases plt count by @5–10 000 plts Consider platelet transfusion for surgery if plt count is < 50 000 For SVD, platelets need to be > 20 000 174 HEMORRHAGE IN OBSTETRICS There is a 44-fold increase in maternal death from obstetric hemorrhage in Jehovah’s Witness patients. (Singla AK, Lapinski RH, Berkowitz RL, et al. Are women who are Jehovah’s Witnesses at risk of maternal death? Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;185:893–5) Delayed postpartum hemorrhage > 24 h postpartum Etiology Subinvolution of placental site, retained POC, endometritis Management Pitocin, Methergine, Hemabate, antibiotics (endometritis), r/o coagulopathy, curettage (if necessary), may attempt angiographic embolization prior to surgery/hysterectomy 175 HEMORRHAGE IN OBSTETRICS Begin volume replacement maneuvers Postpartum hemorrhage > 500 cc blood loss DETERMINE CAUSE UTERINE Atony (most common) Fundal massage/ bimanual uterine compression Inversion See inversion protocol Rupture EXTRAUTERINE Surgery TRAUMA HEMATOMA Careful inspection cervix, vagina, rectum Repair defect Pitocin Repair defect Hysterectomy Methergine Vulvar/ vaginal Pain, become visible Retroperitoneal RETAINED POC Inspect placenta May present as sudden onset shock Repair defect COAGULOPATHY FFP, platelets, cryoprecipitate as indicated Ultrasound Curettage/ evacuation Hemabate Surgical exploration Surgery Artery ligation Subinvolution of placental site Hysterectomy Abx, oxytocic agents DELAYED POSTPARTUM HEMORRHAGE Oxytocic agents Retained POC +Endometritis D&C D&C Oxytocic agents Abx, D&C, estrogen Endometritis without POC Abx, D&C, estrogen 176 HEPARIN (LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT) HEPARIN (LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT) Easier administration, less need for lab monitoring, less risk of hem, but more costly by 4–6 x. Can be given SC once or twice daily without monitoring. Has longer half-life than unfractionated heparin. Inadequate info to recommend for pregnant women with mechanical heart valves. Like unfractionated heparin there is no greater risk of bone demineralization. Does not cross placenta Advantages (1) (2) (3) (4) Longer half-life More predictable dose–response relationship Decreased risk of thrombocytopenia Decreased risk of hemorrhagic complications Disadvantages (1) 4–6 x more costly (2) Ease of administration – less monitoring (3) Inadequate information to use with pregnant females with mechanical heart valves Other points (1) (2) (3) (4) Does not cross placenta (like unfractionated heparin) Can be given SC once or twice daily without monitoring More predictable dose–response relationship Can be continued throughout L&D or C-section. PTT and PT are not helpful – should not be obtained HEPATITIS A RNA, fecal–oral, IgM, give vaccine + immunoglobulin to sex + household contacts. Vaccine contraindicated with other live viruses Perinatal transmission does not occur. Chronic carrier state does not exist 1/3 B 40–45% DNA, parental, perinatal, sexual; Hep B surface Ag (HbeAg increased viral load) HBIG + vaccine Perinatal transmission with + HBsAg 10–20% Perinatal transmission with + HbeAg and HbsAg 90% C 10–20% RNA, post-transfusion (90%). Most common blood-borne infection in US – Anti-C ab, no vaccine available Perinatal transmission 10–44% Diagnosis Liver Bx Rx: Ribitron 8 a.m. and 3 p.m. Interferon A injection 3 x per week • Women aged 30–40 are the highest of any age range to contract HCV at 3% • Target women given blood transfusions prior to 1 BREASTFEEDING – may ? increase risk of transmission to baby/major factor is viral load at birth Transdermal patch (Alora) For ERT with liver disease Category X 0.05 mg/day 1.5 mg estradiol 0.75 mg/day 2.3 mg estradiol 0.1 mg/day 3 mg estradiol Apply to abdomen, hip or buttock twice weekly Do not use – undiagnosed bleeding, known or suspected pregnancy, known or suspected breast cancer, estrogen-dependent neoplasia, thromboembolic disorder, allergy D Coinfection (acute hep B + D) Superinfection (chronic hep B with acute hep D) E Rare in the USA. Similar to A G Associated with chronic viremia > 10 years with chronic B or C 177 HEPATITIS Hepatitis B in pregnancy DNA virus (Dane particle) 3 principal antigens (HbsAg, HbcAg, HbeAg) Acute infection 1–2/1000 pregnancies Chronic infection 5–15/1000 pregnancies Transmitted parenterally or by sexual contact Risk factors – History of IV drug abuse – History of sexually transmitted disease – Multiple sexual partners – Health-care/public safety career – Household hepatitis B carrier – Work/treatment in hemodialysis – Bleeding disorder (recipient of blood products) Acute infection mortality = 1% (85–90% complete resolution) Chronic infection in 10–15% (15–30% active viral DNA replication) Perinatal transmission 10–20% of HepBsAg seropositive (90% if mother HbsAg and HbeAg positive) Clinical manifestation Symptoms: Signs: malaise, fatigue, anorexia, nausea, RUQ/epigastric pain jaundice, upper abdominal tenderness, hepatomegaly, dark urine, alcoholic stool (fulminant hepatitis = coagulopathy, encephalopathy) Diagnosis Laboratory tests – marked increase ALT, AST, serum bilirubin (severe hepatitis = coagulation abnormalities, hyperammonemia) Liver biopsy – rarely indicated Specific serology Hepatitis virus A B C D Acute Chronic Hep A IgM ab HBsAg HBeAg (high infectivity) HBcAg IgM ab Hep C ab Hep D Ag Hep D IgM ab None HBsAg Persistent hepatic dysfunction Hep D Ag Hep D IgG ab Management Supportive Hospitalization for severe cases (encephalopathy, coagulopathy, etc.) Mild to moderate illness may be managed as out-patient – reduce activity – avoid upper abdominal trauma – maintain nutrition/hydration – avoid intimate contact with household or sexual partners until immunoprophylaxis initiated 178 HEREDITARY NON-POLYPOSIS COLORECTAL CANCER Specific immunotherapy Hepatitis A Vaccine Immunoglobulin Hepatitis B Vaccination Immunoglobulin – investigative trials – pre/post exposure prophylaxis for travel to endemic areas (safe in pregnancy) – cannot alter natural course once patient is clinically ill – indicated for women with risk factors – susceptible pregnant patients targeted for vaccine – exposure to Hep B prior to vaccination exposure via sexual contact – single dose HBIG within 14 days exposure via injury (needle stick, etc.) – immediate dose followed by second dose 1 month later Passive/active immunization especially important in pregnant pts (reduces perinatal transmission 85–95%) Neonatal immunoprophylaxis Vaccination recommended for all newborns (CDC) 1st vaccination = birth to 12 h 2nd vaccination = 1 month 3rd vaccination = 6 months – indicated for newborns of HbsAg positive or unknown status mother – HBIG 0.5 ml lM = birth to 12 h (Hep B screening recommended for all pregnant women) No antiviral agents available (Measures to prevent Hep B effective in preventing Hep D) Immunoglobulin Hepatitis C/D HEREDITARY NON-POLYPOSIS COLORECTAL CANCER Accounts for about what % of all colorectal malignancies and is most commonly associated with endometrial cancer? 5% This is the most heritable colorectal cancer. Normal lifetime risk of developing colorectal cancer is 2% If the same 70-year-old woman has an HNPCC-associated mutation 82% Normal 70-year-old woman lifetime risk of developing various cancers vs one with an HNPCC mutation: Endometrium 1.5% vs 60% Ovary 1% vs 12% Urinary tract < 1% vs 4% Small intestine < 1% vs 5% Biliary tract < 1% vs 2% Stomach < 1% vs 13% Brain < 1% vs 3.7% Use early screening such as colonoscopy, pelvic ultrasound, endometrial biopsy and serum CA-125. Patients must meet ALL of the Amsterdam criteria II or any ONE of the Bethesda criteriamodified. (For criteria, refer to source chart in Powell MA, Mutch DG. Contemporary OB/GYN, Dec 1, 2001: 86) HERPES HSV-1 orolabial HSV-2 genital DNA virus DNA virus Three types of infections (1) Primary (2) Initial, non-primary (3) Recurrent infection 15–20% genital 80–85% genital 179 HERPES Infection in pregnancy Diagnosis Most infections in pregnancy are recurrent with prevalence of Rare for virus to cross placenta → can infect fetus across birth canal Greatest risk occurs during primary maternal infection 1% 40% History and physical (NOT cultures) are most commonly used Culture of lesion is Gold Standard. (Best not to tell patient a definitive diagnosis unless certain prior to having definitive culture results.) Can use Tzanck test to look for ‘Giant Cells’. Can use POCkit HSV 2 Rapid Test if physician’s office is classified by CLIA as ‘Moderately Complex Lab’ (Call 877-776-2548) Classic signs and symptoms (1) Other common signs ands symptoms (2) (3) (4) Painful or pruritic vesicles clustered on the labia and/or buttocks Dysuria Tender inguinal lymph nodes Cervical ulcerations Tzanck smear Rapid and inexpensive test (1) Scrape opened vesicle on slide (2) Giemsa, Sedi or Wright’s stain is applied (3) Characteristic cytopathology: (a) Multinucleated giant cells (b) Atypical keratinocytes (c) ‘Ground glass’ cytoplasm Viral HSVII culture Obtain when vesicle is wet. 90% (only 25–30% recovery with crusted lesions) • Also test for syphilis, GC/Chlamydia, bacterial vaginosis and Trichomonas Educate patient (1) (2) (3) (4) Warn about spread Advise use of condoms Recurrences Advise about danger of perinatal transmission, asymptomatic shedding especially increased with prolonged first-degree outbreak and frequent symptomatic recurrences Treatment in pregnancy (1) Overt lesions regardless of time since ROM C-section (2) If asymptomatic with no prodromal symptoms and/or no vesicule lesions vaginal delivery (3) Treat maternal life-threatening HSV with IV acyclovir • Primary HSV in pregnancy → antiviral therapy • Patient with primary HSV with ACTIVE LESIONS → C-section • Patient > 36 weeks with primary HSV → antiviral therapy • Patient with recurrent HSV with active lesions or symptoms → C-section • PTL or PROM with active HSV → expectant management • Patient > 36 weeks with increased risk of recurrent HSV → antiviral therapy • No active lesions or symptoms during labor → vaginal delivery General antiviral treatment Primary infection Recurrent infection acyclovir 400 mg orally t.i.d. for 7–10 days acyclovir 400 mg t.i.d. for 5 days or 800 mg b.i.d. for 5 days or Valtrex® 500 mg orally b.i.d. Famciclovir 1000 mg b.i.d. for 1 day initiated within 6 hours of symptoms Frequent recurrences acyclovir 400 mg orally for 6 years Herpes zoster Valtrex 1 g orally t.i.d. or acyclovir 800 mg orally 5 times per day or Famvir® 500 mg orally t.i.d. Suppression of HSV II Valtrex 500 mg to 1 g daily acyclovir 400 mg orally b.i.d. Important points to remember Primary infection – viral shedding occurs for Recurrent attacks – viral shedding occurs for Virus stays dormant in – dorsal root ganglia of 2–3 weeks 5–6 days S2, S3 and S4 What % of partners will contract the disease? What % HSV II is genital? Greatest risk to fetus occurs during PRIMARY maternal infection Risk if mother has recurrent infection (if overt lesion present with vaginal delivery) is 75% 80–85% 40% < 1% 180 HIDRADENOMA PAPILLIFERUM There seems to be a protective effect of passive acquired maternal antibodies with lower viral inoculum associated with asymptomatic infection HSV is acquired by what % of seronegative women during pregnancy? 2% HSV with PPROM (rupture of membranes < 37 weeks’ gestation) Risk of neonatal HSV is 19% Therefore, give acyclovir prophylaxis to patient with history PPROM < 30–32 weeks’ gestation and stable – treat expectantly. 75% of patients with PPROM, regardless of management, deliver @ within 1 week Patients with PPROM – intra-amniotic infection occurs in 13–60% Postpartum infection occurs in 2–13% Incidence of infection increases with decreased gestational age at time of membrane rupture General treatment Primary infection Recurrent infection Frequent recurrences acyclovir 400 mg t.i.d. 7–10 days acyclovir 400 mg t.i.d. 5 days or 800 mg 5 days acyclovir 400 mg b.i.d. for 6 years HIDRADENOMA PAPILLIFERUM Benign sweat gland tumors arising from labia minora and majora Small firm tumors with a pointed center. Microscopic – can be mistaken for adenocarcinoma Treatment – surgical excision is treatment necessary for both diagnosis and cure HIGH-GRADE SIL Atypical nuclei take up the majority of the cell. Cells are smaller than epithelial cells Compared to LGSIL – koilocytosis with perinuclear clear areas. HPV. Coarsening of the chromatin or squamous cell cancer of cervix – keratin pearls, not multifocal originates at T-zone and makes up what % of cancer of the cervix? Vs adenocarcinoma of cervix – multifocal/skip lesions, occult lesions, more aggressive than squamous cell cancer and makes up this % 90% 10% HIRSUTISM Suspect ovarian tumor if testosterone level is If testosterone ≤ 200 ng/dl, draw DHEA Treat symptoms if DHEA Exclude CAH if DHEA Obtain MRI to rule out adrenal tumor if DHEA Exceptions to algorithm Cushing’s syndrome 11 p.m. give dexamethasone Then at 8 a.m. draw serum cortisol – should be 21-Hydroxylase deficiency 8 a.m. 17-OHP, value should be Hyperprolactinemia – draw serum prolactin > 200 ng/dl < 500 µg/dl 500–700 µg /dl > 700 µg /dl 1 mg < 5 µg/ml > 4 ng/ml Spironolactone is effective in stabilizing what % of unwanted hair growth? 80% Etiology Anovulation, excess androgen production by ovaries and adrenal (least common) Prevalence of causes of hirsutism PCOS Idiopathic hirsutism 21-Hydroxylase deficient non-classic adrenal hyperplasia HAIRAN (hyperandrogenic insulin resistant acanthosis nigricans) syndrome Ovarian androgen-secreting tumors Drug-induced 70–85% 5–15% 1–8% 3–4% 0.3–0.1% 0.5–1.0% 181 HIRSUTISM Differential Drug induced, intersex (amb gent), ovary (PCO, tumors), adrenal (tumors, Cushings, CAH), peripheral (idiopathic) or pregnancy (luteoma, etc.) Treatment Increased Increased Increased Increased Increased testosterone OCPs DHEA-S (< 5 µg /ml) OCPs DHEA-S (> 5 µg /ml) dexamethasone 0.25–0.5 mg p.o. hs testosterone + increased DHEA-S (7) OCPs + Dex 3α-androstenediol glucuronide – spironolactone 100–200 mg p.o. daily Ovarian – OCPs, progestins (DMPA), GnRH agonist (Lupron), Antiandrogenism (cyproterone acetate – Diane®), spironolactone, ketoconazole, corticosteroids Peripheral – cyproterone acetate, spironolactone 100–200 mg daily, progesterone (topical), OCPs and 5α-reductase inhibitors How some treatments work OCPs – progestin decreases LH, estrogen increases SHBG. Progestins of some OCPs decrease peripheral 5α-reductase activity in skin. There is also some increased metabolic clearance of testosterone by hepatic enzymes May improve with additional treatment using antiandrogens or 5α-reductase inhibitors Spironolactone (Aldactone®) 50–200 mg daily reduces 5α-reductase Flutamide (Eulexin®) 250 mg one t.i.d. (antiandrogen) Finasteride (Proscar®) 5–7.5 mg daily reduces 5α-reductase Eflornithine HCl cream 13.9% may be useful only for the removal of unwanted facial hair After 6 months, if still hirsute – electrolysis, shaving, waxing, laser depilation 182 HIRSUTISM Laboratory findings Determine levels of testosterone in serum >200 ng/dl ≤200 ng/dl Ultrasound to rule out ovarian neoplasm Assess DHEA-S DHEA-S < 500 µg/dl Treat symptomatically DHEA-S 500−700 µg/dl Cosyntropin stimulation to exclude CAH DHEA-S >700 µg/dl MRI to rule out adrenal neoplasia 183 HIRSUTISM Hirsutism protocol 17-ketosteroid assay Testosterone assay (0.2−0.8 mg/ml) 17-ketosteroid >20 mg/24 h 17-ketosteroid <20 mg/24 h Symptoms and signs of Cushing's syndrome (rare) Persistent anovulation or end-organ hypersensitivity RAPID SCREENING TEST (1) Dexamethasone 1 mg p.o. 11 p.m. (2) Blood drawn at 8 a.m. for plasma cortisol 6 mg% r/o Cushing's; 6−10 mg% Cushing's unlikely; 10 mg% or > adrenal hyperfunction POSITIVE Admit for full work-up NEGATIVE Outpatient adrenal suppression (1) Dexamethasone 2 mg q.i.d. x 5 days (2) Repeat 24 h 17-ketosteroid Suppression Lack of suppression Admit for full work-up and consultation (may be due to autonomously functioning adrenal tumor) 3−4 mg/24 h Adrenal hyperplasia Rx with prednisone 5 mg q. day; maintain 17-ketosteroid WNL 5−11 mg/24 h Persistent anovulation (abnormally elevated production of androgens) Rx: (1) Patients who wish to become pregnant – clomiphene (2) Patients who do not – combination birth control pill (3) Depo-Provera 150 mg IM q. 3 months in pill contraindications Electrolysis & ovarian suppression yields the most complete and effective treatment of hirsutism 184 HIV HIV Physician’s responsibilities in regard to HIV (1) Offer voluntary and confidential HIV testing to all women (2) Individual female reproductive choices should be respected regardless of her HIV status (3) A physician may breech confidence if it is clear that there is a high probability of harm to the uninformed individual (4) HIV-positive patients are entitled to same privacy as other patients (5) Postpartum mother may refuse to inform pediatrician Important points about HIV Scheduled C-section to decrease vertical transmission of HIV whether or not the patient is receiving ZDV therapy Risk of vertical transmission without ZDV therapy is Scheduled C-section at 38 weeks’ gestation is recommended for HIV-infected mother to decrease likelihood of onset of labor or ROM before labor Amniocentesis to determine fetal maturity should be AVOIDED Treatment of HIV in pregnancy 25% Antepartum treatment is zidovudine 5 x per day x 15 weeks with each dose 100 mg Intrapartum treatment is zidovudine loading dose over 1 h IV at dose of 2 mg/kg Then until delivery give 1 mg/kg/h Neonatal treatment is zidovudine p.o. q. 6 h x first 6 weeks starting 8–12 h postpartum at dose 2 mg/kg Avoid breastfeeding Perinatal transmission of untreated HIV + female is Treated HIV + female with AZT is Treated HIV + female with AZT and Ob care Treated HIV + female with AZT and C-section How long does it take for antibodies to the HIV virus to develop? 30% 8–10% 4–5% 1–2% 6–12 months hMG Hyperstimulation syndrome incidence is In order to trigger ovulation, the leading follicle should be how many mm in diameter? The follicle typically enlarges how many mm/day allowing anticipation of ovulation? The egg is capable of being fertilized for how many hours? Probability of fertile couple becoming pregnant within one menstrual cycle is hMG can be Pergonal® Metrodin® NO PELVIC or ABDOMINAL EXAMS should be done if hyperstimulation is suspected HOMOCYSTEINEMIA Hyperhomocysteinemia has been linked to osteoporosis, Alzheimer’s disease, vascular dementia, and decreased cognitive function At present, routine supplementation of folic acid, pyridoxine, and cobalamin is safe and may potentially reduce osteoporotic fractures and CVD events Homocysteine levels and mortality Homocysteine level, µmol/l Mortality odds ratio 9–14.9 15–19.9 ≥20 1.9 2.8 4.5 1% 16–20 mm 2–3 mm 24 h 25% LH + FSH or FSH 185 HORMONES AND HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY HORMONES Polypeptide hormones Prolactin, GH (growth hormone) and HPL (human chorionic somatomammotropin) Glycoprotein hormones Thyrotropin (TSH), FSH, LH, hCG Hormones produced by the corpus luteum Progesterone, estrogen, inhibin and relaxin Know the functions of these hormones Inhibin Equivalents of hormones Conjugated estrogen (0.525 mg) – ethinylestradiol (0.005–0.010 mg) Premarin 0.625 mg – Ogen® (estropipate) 1.2 mg (1) Suppresses FSH release (2) Produced by gonadotropin-dependent granulosa cells Activin – stimulates FSH release Relaxin (1) Modulates function of corpus luteum (2) Makes the uterus quiescent Follistatin – also suppresses FSH release HORMONES AND HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY BONE FRACTURE • What % of bone is lost at the spine using Lupron (mostly recovered after discontinuance)? 5% • What % of bone is lost using DMPA? 8% • What % bone is lost after the first 3–5 years after menopause? • Estrogen replacement therapy has been proven to increase bone density 20–25% > 49% BREAST CANCER • 1/25 women die of breast cancer – what is the ratio of women who die from CAD? In regard to the WHI study and breast cancer, there was a slight increase noted at year 4, with a trend toward a later decline in the number of cases. In addition, the confidence intervals for the hazard ratios for breast cancer crossed 1 in both the unadjusted and adjusted analyses and are therefore not considered valid. No increased risk of breast cancer in situ was apparent. Breast cancer risk seems to increase with EPT use beyond 5 years ½ In regard to recurrent breast cancer and the use of HRT, multiple retrospective studies have not demonstrated an increase in the risk of breast cancer recurrence with the use of HT. Some studies, however, have shown that by increasing mammographic density, HT reduces the sensitivity of mammography Top 3 risk factors for breast cancer: obesity, no daily exercise, and more than 2 alcoholic drinks daily CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE • The death rate from CAD is 50% The latest data support the idea that among recently menopausal women, estrogen treatment does not increase, and may decrease, the risk of cardiovascular disease. The WHI showed that over 6.8 years of follow-up, there was a trend for reduced myocardial infarction and death from coronary disease if women were on ERT (0.625 mg of equine estrogen daily). There was also a statistically significant decrease in coronary artery bypass surgery or percutaneous coronary artery intervention 186 HORMONES AND HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY • HRT, in some studies, reduces the rate of MI by 1/3 to 1/2 • The use of HRT at the time of MI was associated with approximately a 35% reduction in mortality. (Shlipak MG, Angeja BG, Go AS, et al. Hormone therapy and in-hospital survival after myocardial infarction in postmenopausal women. Circulation 2001;104: 2300–4) • However, recent research from WHI indicates that there may be a slightly increased risk of heart attack and stroke with the use of HRT (see summary chart of WHI below). Investigators recommended that CEE/MPA not be initiated or continued for the primary prevention of CHD • Estrogen alone may be beneficial for the cardiovascular system, whereas adding MPA may increase risks As expected, higher daily estrogen metabolite levels were associated with a favorable CVD risk profile in the subcohort analysis from SWAN • Women who began HRT within 5 years of menopause had less heart disease than women who started HRT more than 5 years after menopause STROKE Among hysterectomized women in the WHI, the main risk of estrogen treatment was a small increase in the risk of stroke HOT FLASHES Estrogen treatment is clearly effective in reducing vasomotor symptoms ROUTES OF ADMINISTRATION • Nonoral routes of administration of ET/EPT may offer advantages and disadvantages, but the long-term risk–benefit ratio has not been demonstrated. OTHER FACTS • What % of women receive HRT after menopause? 16% • What % of women discontinue the HRT after 1 year of use? 50% • Normal range for serum estradiol concentration in postmenopausal pt not on HRT is 10–20 pg/ml 10 000 women/year taking placebo 10 000 women/year taking combination HRT Breast cancer 30 38 8 more women with breast cancer Heart attacks 30 37 7 more women with heart attacks Strokes 21 29 8 more women with strokes Blood clots 16 34 18 more women with blood clots Colorectal cancer* 16 10 Hip fractures 15 10 6 fewer women with colorectal cancer 5 fewer women with hip fractures *HRT is not indicated for the prevention or treatment of colorectal cancer or hip fractures Difference per year 187 HORMONES AND HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY Menopause with ERT or HRT Estrogen replacement therapies (ACOG still recommends the use of ERT or HRT for short-term relief of menopausal symptoms) Active ingredients ESTROGENS 17 β-Estradiol Oral Brand name Estrace Femtrace Gynodiol Strengths Manufacturer* Minimum dosage/day** 0.5, 1, and 2 mg 0.45, 0.9, and 1.8 mg 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2 mg Westwood-Squibb Warner Chilcott Novavax 0.5 mg 0.45 mg 0.05, 0.1 mg(1) 0.025, 0.0375, 0.05, 0.075, 0.1 mg 0.0375, 0.05, 0.075 mg(1) 0.05, 0.1 mg(1) 0.025, 0.0375, 0.05, 0.06, 0.075, 0.1 mg(2) 0.025, 0.05, 0.75, 0.1 mg (2x wk) 14 µg (ounce per week) 0.025, 0.0375, 0.05, 0.075, and 1 mg Novartis Novartis Rhone Parke-Davis 0.05 mg 0.025 mg 0.0375 mg 0.05 mg Berlex Watson Berlex 0.025 mg 0.025 mg 14 µg Novogyne 0.025 mg EstroGel Estrasorb 0.035 (0.75 mg x 1 per day) 1 arm 0.05 mg (two pouches) calf & thigh Solvay Espirt→ Novavax 0.06 mg 0.05 mg Estropipate Ogen Ortho-Est 0.625, 1.25, 2.5 mg 0.625, 1.25 mg Pfizer Ortho 0.625 mg 0.625 mg Esterified estrogens Estratab Menest 0.3, 0.625, 1.25, 2.5 mg 0.3, 0.625, 1.25, 2.5 mg Solvay King 0.3 mg 0.3 mg Synthetic conjugated estrogens Cenestin 0.3, 0.45, 0.625, 0.9, 1.25 mg Enjuvia 0.3, 0.45, 0.625, 0.9, 1.25 mg Premarin (CEE) 0.3, 0.45, 0.625, 0.9, 1.25, 2.5 mg Duramed Duramed Wyeth-Ayerst 0.3 mg Ethinylestradiol Estinyl 0.02, 0.05, 0.5 mg Schering Vaginal rings Estring FemRing 2 mg (Replace q. 3 months) 0.05 and 0.1 mg (Replace q. 3 mos) Pfizer 7.5 µg/24 h Warner Chilcott 0.05 mg Transdermal patches Estraderm Esclim Menorest(3) FemPatch Climara Alora Menostar Vivelle-Dot Transdermal gel Transdermal 0.3 mg Vaginal tablets Vagifem 25 µg estradiol q. d × 2 wks then twice weekly thereafter Novo Nordisk 25 µg Vaginal creams Premarin Vag. Estrace Vag. Ogen Vaginal 0.01% (0.625 mg/g) 0.01% micronized estradiol 1.5 mg/g Wyeth Warner Chilcott Pfizer 0.01% 0.01% — Intramuscular injections Depo-Estradiol 5 mg/ml estradiol cypionate Pfizer Delestrogen 10, 20, 40 mg/ml estradiol valerate King 1–5 mg IM q 3–4 weeks 10–20 mg IM q. 4 weeks. Tace 12 mg Hoechst Marion Roussel 12 mg 25 mg Pharmacy Center Can vary 2.5, 5, 10 mg Pfizer Cycrin 2.5, 5, 10 mg ESI Lederle Amen 10 mg Carnick 2.5–5 mg for continuous combined, 5–10 mg for sequential 2.5–5 mg for continuous combined, 5–10 mg for sequential 10 mg for sequential Chlorotrianisene Estradiol pellets N/A PROGESTOGENS Progestins Medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) Provera 188 HORMONES AND HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY Norethindrone Norethindrone acetate Progesterones Micronized Norlutin Norlutate Aygestin 5 mg 5 mg 5 mg (2.5–10 mg × 5–10 d) Parke-Davis Parke-Davis Duramed N/A 50, 100, 200 mg Compounding companies Prometrium TESTOSTERONES Testosterone pellets N/A Testosterone cypionate Estradiol Depo-Testadiol cypionate IM Testosterone Stiant buccal system mucoadhesive 100 and 200 mg (200 × 12–14 d) Solvay 75 mg Barter Pharm. Co. 1 mg q. wk Apply to gum above incisor every other day to every day *This is an off-label use Upjohn 2.5 mg 2.5 mg 50–100 mg for continuous combined, 200 mg for sequential 100 mg Columbia (Continued) WHI preliminary findings for estrogen alone – as reported by the NIH Outcomes Reported changes vs placebo after nearly 7 years CHD No increased or decreased overall risk Breast cancer No increased risk Stroke Increased risk Hip fractures Decreased risk Probable dementia and mild cognitive impairment Trend toward increased risk BIOIDENTICAL HORMONES The position statement of the North American Menopause Society (March 2007) is that “the scientific evidence for these preparations was also reviewed and it was concluded that in the absence of safety and efficacy data for any specific preparation, the generalized risk–benefit ratio data of commercially available ET/EPT products apply equally to this group of compounded therapies. Moreover, the Panel recommended caution in use of these products in the absence of regulatory oversight of quality, purity, and batch-to-batch consistency of consistency of ingredients.” 189 HORMONES AND HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY Hormone replacement therapies (continued) Active ingredients Brand name Strengths Manufacturer* Minimum dosage/day** COMBINED PRODUCTS Activella Estratest FS & HS 1 mg estradiol 0.5 mg norethindrone acetate Parke-Davis 0.625 mg esterified estrogens Solvay and 1.25 mg methyltestosterone (MT); 1.25 mg esterified estrogens and 2.5 mg MT 1 tablet 1 tablet 1 tablet Angeliq 1 mg estradiol and 0.5 mg drospirenone Berlex 1 tablet Femhrt 5 µg ethinylestradiol and Warner Chilcott 1 tablet 1 mg norethindrone acetate; 2.5 µg ethinylestradiol and 1 tablet 0.5 mg norethindrone acetate Prefest 1 mg estradiol q.d. × 3 d then 1 mg/ Duramed 1 tablet 0.09 mg norgestimate q.d. x 3 d Premphase 0.625 mg CEE, w/ 5 mg MPA Wyeth-Ayerst 1 tablet Prempro Prempro Prempro Prempro in last 14 tablets 0.3 mg CEE and 1.5 mg MPA 0.45 mg CEE and 1.5 mg MPA 0.625 mg CEE and 2.5 mg MPA 0.625 mg CEE and 5 mg MPA Wyeth-Ayerst Wyeth-Ayerst Wyeth-Ayerst Wyeth-Ayerst 1 1 1 1 Novogyne Twice weekly Berlex Once weekly Organon Intravaginal ring removed at 3 weeks & 1 week break Lilly 60 mg Transdermal patch CombiPatch(1) Vaginal ring Climara Pro Patch NuvaRing Estradiol 0.05 mg daily norethindrone acetate 0.14 and 0.25 mg (9 mm) 0.14 mg norethindrone q.d. (16 mm) 0.25 mg norethindrone q.d. 0.45 mg ethinylestradiol and 0.015 mg of levonorgestrel 0.120 mg etonogestrel 0.015 mg ethinylestradiol tablet tablet tablet tablet ALTERNATIVES Raloxifene Evista KEY: (1) Change patch twice weekly (2) Change patch once weekly (3) Not available in the USA *Sample listing; others available **Some minimum dosages not available 60 mg 190 HORMONES AND HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY Menopause without ERT – contraindications to ERT Absolute contraindications Current breast cancer Current endometrial cancer Acute DVT or evolving thromboembolic event Undiagnosed vaginal bleeding Relative contraindications History of breast cancer History of endometrial cancer History of DVT Chronic liver disease Endometriosis History of CVA or recent MI Pancreatic disease Fibrocystic breast disease Large fibroid uterus Familial hyperlipidemia Hepatic porphyria Hypertension aggravated by estrogen Migraines aggravated by estrogen Risk factors for osteoporosis Non-modifiable risk factors Modifiable risk factors Female sex Age > 65 years Caucasian or Oriental race Premature menopause (spontaneous or surgical) History of an atraumatic fracture Loss of height of >1 inch Family history of osteoporosis Chronic steroid therapy Coexisting medical conditions Hyperparathyroidism Hyperthyroidism Malignancies (e.g. myeloma) Cushing’s syndrome History of smoking Reduced weight for height Excessive alcohol consumption Excessive caffeine consumption Lack of exercise Diet deficient in calcium Diet deficient in vitamin D High-protein diet Medications Prolonged heparin therapy Chronic steroid therapy 191 HORMONES AND HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY Treatment of vasomotor symptoms without estrogen Treatment Dosage/route of administration Efficacy (vs. placebo) Steroid hormones Progestins Depomedroxyprogesterone 150 mg IMI q. 3 months Effective Medroxyprogesterone 20 (10–80) mg p.o. q.d. Effective Megesterol acetate 20 mg p.o. b.i.d. Effective 4-Hydroxyandrostenedione 250–500 mg IMI q. 1–2 weeks Possibly effective Danazol 100 mg p.o. q.d. Possibly effective 2.5 mg p.o. q.d. Probably effective Androgens Synthetic steroids Org-OD-14 (Tibolone) Non-steroidal medications Clonidine 0.05–0.15 mg p.o. or transdermal 200 µg q.d. Probably effective α-Methyldopa 250–500 mg p.o. b.i.d. Probably effective Bellergal-Retard Variable Insufficient data β-Blockers Variable Not effective Clomiphene citrate 50–150 mg p.o. q.d. Not effective Naloxone 22 µg/min IV Not effective Lofexidine 0.1–0.6 mg p.o. b.i.d. Possibly effective Veralipride 100 mg p.o. q.d. Possibly effective Layered clothing _____ No clinical data Environmental alteration Moderate exercise No clear indication of amount needed Data support effectiveness Avoidance of caffeine _____ No clinical data Avoidance of spicy foods _____ No clinical data Varied doses Reduces hot flashes Antidepressants Paxil, Celexa, Prozac, Effexor Natural remedies • • • • • • Vitamin B, C or E Variable No clinical data Zinc Variable No clinical data Bee pollen _____ No clinical data Black Cohosh (Remifemin) 80 mg/d Probably effective Ginseng tea _____ No clinical data Fenugreek _____ No clinical data Gotu kola _____ No clinical data Red clover (Promensil or Rimostil) 40–160 mg daily PO Data do not support use Wild yam root No clinical data _____ It is important to distinguish Remifemin from Remifemin Plus, which contains St John’s wort as an additional product component. It also is important to distinguish between black cohosh and blue cohosh. Blue cohosh is a completely different botanical (Caulophyllum thalictroides), used in the past for labor induction and augmentation, and has considerable adverse and toxic potential (abortifacient, teratogenicity, coronary artery constriction, etc.) The result of a recent clinical trial suggest that the combination of black cohosh and St John’s wort may be useful in treating both vasomotor symptoms associated with menopause as well as depression. (Uebelhack R, et al. Black cohosh and St John’s wort for climacteric complaints: a randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol 2006; 107: 247–55) Whenever possible, use the specific brand of botanical agent studied in clinical trials Avoid black cohosh and soy products in women with contraindications to estrogen Initial data on red clover were promising, but the more rigorous meta-analysis does not support its use Speroff points out that black cohosh is not estrogenic, and black cohosh has no effect on menopausal symptoms. He states that, thus far, all phytoestrogen products (including soy and red clover extracts) are proving to be no different than placebo for treating hot flushes. Estrogen products continue to be the most efficacious for this purpose. The serotonin uptake inhibitor class of antidepressants is next most effective 192 HORMONES AND HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY Treatment of psychosexual issues without estrogen Treatment Dosage/route of administration Efficacy Methyltestosterone 2.5 mg p.o. q.d. Possibly effective Androgel 1% (metered dose) 1.25 mg applied daily to one arm Possibly effective Pharmacologic treatment Androgens Natural remedies Vitamin C 500 mg p.o. q.d./b.i.d. No clinical data Tryptophan Variable Possibly useful Inositol 100 mg p.o. q.d. No clinical data Vitamin B6 50–100 mg p.o. q.d. No clinical data Magnesium Variable No clinical data _____ Probably ineffective Behavioral and/or psychological interventions Treatment of urogenital atrophy without estrogen Prevention Dosage/route of administration Efficacy _____ Effective _____ Useful Petroleum-based lubricants _____ Useful Vegetable oils _____ Useful Polycarbophil _____ Useful _____ Probably ineffective 20–40 mg orally daily Probably ineffective Continued sexual activity Lubrication Water-based lubricants Douching with yogurt Pharmacologic therapy Tamoxifen 193 HORMONES AND HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY Prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease without estrogen Dosage/route of administration Efficacy Prevention Environmental modification Smoking cessation _____ Effective Moderate physical exercise _____ Effective Control cholesterol _____ Effective Control hypertension _____ Effective Control diabetes _____ Effective Control weight _____ Effective Aspirin 81–325 mg p.o. daily Effective Moderate alcohol consumption Variable Effective Progesterone 10–15 g per day Possibly effective HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors Variable Possibly effective Niacin 1–2 g p.o. t.i.d. Possibly effective Bile resins Variable Possibly effective Variable No clinical data Aspirin 81–325 mg p.o. q.d. Effective β-Blockers Variable Effective long-term Calcium-channel blockers Variable Possibly effective ACE inhibitors Variable Possibly effective SERM (Evista) 60 mg p.o. q.d. Effective Conservative (angioplasty) _____ Effective Radical (coronary bypass, transplantation) _____ Effective Pharmacological treatment Natural remedies Antioxidant vitamins (vitamin E, vitamin C,β−carotene) Treatment Pharmacological treatment Surgery 194 HORMONES AND HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY Prevention of osteoporosis without estrogen Dosage/route of administration Efficacy Prevention Screening Bone mass index _____ Useful Smoking cessation _____ Effective Avoid alcohol excess _____ Probably effective Moderate exercise _____ Effective 800 IU p.o. q.d. Effective Calcium 500–800 mg p.o. q.d. (elemental calcium) Effective Calcitonin 50 IU p.o. q.i.d. Effective Calcitriol 0.5–1 µg p.o. q.d. Probably effective 50–75 mg p.o. q.d. Effective 20–40 µg SC q.d. Effective Variable Probably effective Calcium 1500 mg p.o. q.d. (elemental calcium) Effective Salmon calcitonin 50 U q.d./q.i.d. IV or intranasal (100 IU b.i.d.) Possibly effective Environmental modification Dietary modification Vitamin D Pharmacologic treatment Agents that retard bone resorption Agents that promote bone formation Sodium fluoride Human parathyroid hormone Teriparatide (Forteo – Lilly) Anabolic steroids Pharmacologic treatment Agents that retard bone resorption Vitamin D analogs Calcitriol 0.25 µg p.o. q.d. Possibly effective Ergocalciferol 800 IU p.o. q.d. Possibly effective Cholecalciferol 800 IU (20 µg) p.o. q.d. Possibly effective Bisphosphonates Etidronate 200–400 mg p.o. q.d. x 2 weeks 12 weeks off Effective Alendronate (Fosamax – Merck) 5–20 mg p.o. q.d. or 70 mg weekly Effective Tiludronate Not determined Under investigation Residronate (Actonel – Proctor&Gamble) 5 mg p.o. daily or 35 mg weekly Effective Pamidronate Not determined Under investigation Ibandronate (Boniva – Roche) 150 mg p.o. monthly Effective Progesterone Variable Possibly effective Thiazide diuretics Variable Probably ineffective Tamoxifen (Nolvadex) 20–40 mg p.o. q.d. (10 mg b.i.d.) Probably ineffective Sodium fluoride 50–75 mg p.o. q.d. Effective Parathyroid hormone 40 µg SC q.d. Probably effective Growth factors Variable Probably ineffective Anabolic steroids Variable Probably ineffective Potassium bicarbonate 60–120 mmol p.o. q.d. Possibly effective Raloxifene (Evista) 60 mg p.o. q.d. Effective Tamoxifen (Nolvadex) 20–40 mg p.o. q.d. (10 mg b.i.d.) Probably ineffective Agents that promote bone formation Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERM) 195 HYDROPS HOT FLUSHES Hot flushes are controlled without ERT using Megace® in dosage of 10–40 mg/day Transdermal clonidine (Catapres®) is effective in < 50% Bellergal-S is option but try Megace or Catapres first Hot flushes can be caused by or associated with: (1) Menopause (2) Carcinoid tumors (3) Systemic mastocytosis (4) Medullary cancer of the thyroid (5) Medications: Tricyclic antidepressants Monoamine oxidase inhibitors Calcium channel blockers Serotonin uptake inhibitors (6) Idiopathic flushing (7) Idiopathic anaphylaxis (8) Pheochromocytoma (9) Hyperthyroidism (10) Acromegaly Rule out hyperthyroidism prior to starting HRT or ERT for perimenopause. If normal TSH and symptoms continue – consider ruling out pheochromocytoma if patient’s B/P is elevated. (See Pheochromocytoma) • Avoid black cohosh and soy products in women with contraindications to estrogens HUAM (HOME UTERINE ACTIVITY MONITORING) Prevention of prematurity is controversial. Cervical dilatation alone as an appropriate endpoint for approval of this technology. Available data do not support the effectiveness of HUAM for prevention of preterm labor HUMAN PAPILLOMAVIRUS High-risk HPV types 16, 18, 45, 46 Low-risk HPV types 6, 11, 42, 43, 44 The average annual incidence of HPV infection in college women is 14% The median duration of HPV infection is 8 months HYDATIDIFORM MOLE See Gestational trophoblastic disease HYDROPS Causes (1) Immune response to hemolytic disease. What % of hydrops? (2) Non-immune response to: Intrinsic factors Cystic hygroma Heart anomalies Arrhythmia – multiple malformations Sacrococcygeal teratoma Twin–twin transfusion Placental anomaly Idiopathic factors 13% 64% 41% 27% 21% 4% 4% 2% 22% 196 HYDROSALPINGES Diagnosis Ultrasound, maternal blood analysis (Hgb electrophoresis, K-B, IC, serologies for syphilis, toxoplasmosis, CMV, TUBS, parvo) or cordocentesis Treatment Depends on the cause (see above) Complications Increased maternal PIH, PTL (50%) due to hydramnios and postpartum hemorrhage due to uterine overdistention and/or retained placenta HYDROSALPINGES Watery sterile fluid in fallopian tube → end stage of pyosalpinx PID – main cause of tubal infertility and ectopic pregnancy Incidence of tubal infertility after one PID two PID three PID Risk of ectopic after PID increases With bilateral hydrosalpinx, IUP is slim at most only about Diagnosis Treatment HSG (hysterosalpingogram) If suspect PID, get sed rate → if elevated → treat with doxycycline 200 mg then 100 mg b.i.d. for 5 days and postpone HSG until sed rate is normal. Water-soluble dye – risk of infection < 1% but 11% with dilated tubes will develop PID from HSG. If tubes are dilated, also give doxycyline as above after the HSG Conception rate within 1 year after using water-soluble agent Use oil dye if there is no history of suspected PID as this causes less spasm and increases the conception rate after HSG Conception rate within 1 year after using oil-based agent Delayed film – crucial to differentiate normal spill from dye that is just distributed through the pelvis Refer for in vitro fertilization if large hydrosalpinges are seen. Distal obstruction is more commonly seen Best to remove bilateral hydrosalpinx as it will reduce fluid and ectopic rate is @ 12% 23% 54% 6–7 x 12% 27% 41% 15% Ovaries are not to be disturbed and patient to be referred for IVF–ET Prognosis (After tubal reconstruction) – depends on the damage. If damage is extensive, the chance of conception after tubal reconstruction is almost nil → refer for IVF HYGROMAS Cystic hygromas are a malformation of the lymphatic system (occurs in late 6th gestational week) First trimester – consider aneuploidies Second and third trimester – monosomy XO is common Check karyotype – If normal, the prognosis is good Check for septations – if septations present, prognosis is decreased With abnormal karyotype AND septations → this is worse prognosis HYPEREMESIS Nausea and vomiting to extent of weight loss, dehydration, ketosis and electrolyte imbalance Incidence Definition of hyperemesis gravidarum @ what % of women with nausea and vomiting develop hyperemesis gravidarum? 1.3% Nausea + vomiting Nausea only Neither 50% 25% 25% Persistent vomiting, weight loss > 5%, ketonuria, electrolyte abnormalities, dehydration (increased specific gravity), usually requires hospitalization 197 HYPEREMESIS When does it occur? Most of the time, the majority between Usually this % is over by 16 weeks’ gestation 4–7 weeks’ gestation 90% Etiology Vomiting center in medulla is thought to be affected – by unknown. Hormones? Vitamin deficiency? Psychological influences? GI dysmotility of pregnancy? Helicobacter pylori factor? (80% vs 50% H. pylori present in N+V of pregnancy patients) Differential diagnosis Gastroenteritis, hepatitis, cholelithiasis, pancreatitis, pyelonephritis, appendicitis, peptic ulcer disease, multiple pregnancies, hydatidiform mole Labs CBC, U/A, lytes, LFTs, amylase, TSH Test for ketones while NPO after every void, I&Os, weight Specific gravity (concentrated) Ketones Acetone, acetoacetate and β-OH butyrate Management (1) First try 1.020–1.030 Increase protein and decrease carbohydrate and fatty foods in diet. Vitamin B6 25 mg t.i.d. (50% stop vomiting). Severe nausea is reduced to mild to moderate nausea. Premesis® Rx is a prescription tablet containing vitamin B6 75 mg so it can be given once per day. It also contains vitamin B12 (12 µg), folic acid (1 mg) and calcium carbonate (200 mg) (2) Second try B6 and doxylamine (similar to Bendectin®) – vitamin B6 50 mg tablet ½ tablet p.o. t.i.d. with doxylamine (Unisom®) 25 mg one tablet p.o. q. h and/or ½ tablet in a.m. and ½ tablet in p.m. (3) Third try And/or add CAM (complementary alternative medicine) Ginger (ginger capsules 250 mg t.i.d. to q.i.d.). Acupressure (wristbands available) Most popular acupoint for nausea and vomiting is Neiguan (P6) point located two cun (approximately three finger-breadths) below the distal wrist crease on the anterior surface (palmar side) of the wrist. Acupressure may be more successful than acupuncture for the indication of mild to moderate nausea and vomiting during early pregnancy. Increasing the frequency of treatments may reduce the frequency and severity of vomiting If still uncomfortable Add doxylamine succinate (Unisom®) p.o. 12.5–25 mg daily. Diagnose and treat any Helicobacter pylori infection Intake and weight IVFs Review at each visit D5NS 250 cc/h x 4 h then 150 cc/h Give KCl, MVT, folic acid and/or vitamin B6 p.r.n. Total parental nutrition p.r.n. Refer to CNSD (Cert. Nutritional Support Dietician) Diet Day #1 – NPO, day #2 – clear, day #3 – low fat bland 3 x/day + three snacks Drug therapy • Ondansetron HCl (Zofran) 32 mg/50 ml premixed bag – best therapy, first choice – category B. Does not cause sedation. Patient can carry out routine activities. Disadvantage is the cost – it is expensive. Zofran also available in tablet and oral disintegrating tablets forms – 4 mg, 8 mg, 24 mg tablets; 4 mg, 8 mg ODT (strawberry flavor) • • • • • • • Doses (most common therapies) Anticholinergic (scopolamine) Antihistamines (diphenhydramine/Benadryl) Serotonin (5-HT3) antagonist (Zofran and others) Benzamides (metoclopramide/Reglan) Promethazine (Phenergan) Phenothiazines (Compazine®) Butyrophenones (droperidol) – has Black Box Warning now (2001); has caused arrhythmias Category B Category B Category B Category C Category D Phenergan 25 mg IV or suppository q. 6 h In doses of 50 mg → 50% patients sleep so titrate doses 12.5 mg → 198 HYPERLIPIDEMIA 25 mg → 50 mg Zofran 32 mg IV @ 15 min then 0.15 mg/kg IV q. 4–8 h x 3 dose Zofran 8 mg ODT or p.o. t.i.d. x 14 days → 0% sleepers Reglan 10 mg IV or p.o. t.i.d. ½ hour prior to meals and hs Benadryl 50 mg IV @ 30 min then q. 6 h Surgical therapy Nasogastric, gastrostomy or jejunostomy feedings HYPERLIPIDEMIA Treatment (1) Increased cholesterol Cholestyramine, colestipol, niacin, atorvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, simvastatin (2) Increased triglycerides Gemfibrozil, niacin (3) Combined hyperlipids Niacin, atorvastatin, lovastatin, pravastatin, omega-3 fatty acid, vitamin E and vitamin C HYPERPLASIA Diagnosis Endometrial biopsy Histology Nuclear enlargement, hyperchromasia, irregularity of nuclei, significant crowding but with some intervening stroma Most important prognosticator of malignant potential ATYPIA Treatment If patient over 40 – HYSTERECTOMY is treatment of choice but if patient at increased risk – progestins x 3–6 months with repeat endometrial biopsies or D&C and/or hysteroscopy. Hysterectomy if indicated If patient under 40 – progestin 10 mg daily x 10 days or Provera 20 mg daily day 16–25 or DMPA 200 mg IM q. 2 months x 3 doses or OCP or ovulation induction with FOLLOW-UP in 3 months Endometrial evaluation 3–6 month follow-up is effective 62% Discuss risks and informed consent @ hysterectomy p.r.n. Figure 7 Ultrasound of hyperstimulation syndrome 199 HYPERTENSION IN PREGNANCY HYPERSTIMULATION SYNDROME Symptoms NO PELVIC OR ABDOMINAL EXAMS – incidence Mild – abdominal distention/discomfort. Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea. Ovaries enlarge to 5–12 cm. Bloating, decreased appetite Moderate – features of mild OHSS plus US evidence of ascites Severe – features of moderate OHSS plus evidence of ascites and/or hydrothorax or difficulty in breathing. All these plus change in blood volume, hemoconcentration, coagulation abnormalities and diminished renal perfusion and function Course of disease Symptoms typically start 24–48 h and peak around 7 days following ovulation or follicular aspiration. Resolves 10–14 days Risk factors Young age (< 35 years), low body weight, hCG luteal supplementation, COH associated with GnRH agonist protocols, recently established pregnancy, high serum estradiol (E2), rapidly increasing E2 levels, multiple follicles, number of oocytes retrieved and findings consistent with polycystic ovaries (PCO) such as ‘necklace’ sign on US Most widely accepted risk factors: young age, PCO and history of severe OHSS Prevention Recognition of high-risk profile of patient (most important). Monitoring serum E2 level and/or follicular response via ultrasound. Follicular puncture and aspiration. Use of intravenous albumin to enhance intravascular oncotic pressure. Using GnRH agonist instead of using hCG may help prevent OHSS. Use of progestogens for luteal phase support instead of hCG may help. Cryopreservation of all embryos from an IVF cycle precludes pregnancy and may shorten a patient’s course of OHSS Management May or may not need to hospitalize. Urine output less than 1 liter/day or a 24-h fluid imbalance of more than 1 liter may necessitate hospitalization for closer observation 1% Hospitalize if: (1) Symptoms of nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting or diarrhea cause intolerance of food or liquid (2) Examination reveals hypotension, decreased breath sounds, tense abdomen or other signs of ascites, ‘peritoneal’ signs (3) Abnormal blood tests: (a) Hematocrit > 48% (b) Sodium level < 135 mEq/l (c) Potassium level > 5.0 mEq/l (d) Creatinine level > 1.2 mg/dl (4) Ultrasound findings – presence of fluid pockets between loops of bowel when patient is lying supine Fluid management: (1) Normal saline is fluid of choice (2) Diuretics contraindicated for low urine output (3) I&Os q. 2–4 h (4) Consider albumin and/or dopamine with central lines p.r.n. severe Thrombosis prevention (consider) (1) Subq heparin (2) Pneumatic compression hoses if patient confined to bed Ascites management – paracentesis p.r.n. HYPERTENSION IN PREGNANCY Second leading cause of maternal mortality. (Second only to embolism) Chronic hypertension – antiphospholipid syndrome increases risk of development of PIH Patients with homozygous genes for angiotensinogen gene T23T have an increased risk of development of PIH compared to patients with chronic hypertension 200 HYPERTHYROIDISM Important points to remember in treatment of chronic hypertension: (1) α−methyl DOPA (Aldomet) – first line (2) Labetalol and Atenolol – second line of therapy and alternative (3) β-blockers – monitor for IUGR (4) ACE inhibitors – renal dysplasia, renal failures, oligohydramnios, fetal growth restriction, hypocalvaria and death can occur PIH complicates what % of pregnancies in the USA? 6–8% PIH directly caused what % of maternal deaths? 15% PIH develops prior to what week gestation? 20th HYPERTHYROIDISM Graves’ disease makes up this % of hyperthyroidism cases 85% Symptoms Nervousness, palpitations, heat intolerance, goiter, weight loss or inability to gain weight. In pregnancy, most commonly → persistent tachycardia and lack of weight gain Diagnosis Increased FT4 or free thyroxine index and decreased TSH Treatment Tapazole® p.o. b.i.d. in dose of or PTU p.o. t.i.d. in dose of add propranolol q. 6–8 h p.r.n. in dose of 10–20 mg 100–150 mg 10–40 mg When FT4 index improves, decrease antithyroid drug to half dose then until tapazole is 15 mg or PTU is 50 mg daily. Goal is to keep FT4 index in upper 1/3 normal until 30–34 weeks’ gestation, then if euthyroid, then d/c until delivery. Double last total daily amount p.r.n. • Thyroid stimulating antibodies can cross placenta and cause neonatal Graves’ 201 HYPOTHYROIDISM Figure 8 Cycle of thyroid hormones in blood stream HYPOGASTRIC ARTERY LIGATION Right angle or Mixter clamp is passed lateral to medial beneath – hugging its surface. This protects the hypogastric vein. Doubly ligate – DO NOT transect. Palpate femoral pulses and identify ureter before + after. Angiographic arterial embolization is an alternative using Gelfoam as small pledgets. MAST suits while waiting p.r.n. HYPOTHYROIDISM Symptoms Tiredness, lethargy, constipation, cold intolerance, menorrhagia and infertility More advanced symptoms – drowsiness, decrease in intellect and motor activity, hair loss, brittle nails, husky voice, weight gain, stiffness and tingling of the fingers, dry skin. In pregnancy, increase in spontaneous abortions and PIH Diagnosis Increased TSH, decreased serum thyroxine Treatment L-Thyroxine (1.6–2 mg/kg of ideal body weight) – (0.075–0.15 mg/day) If patient is taking thyroid replacement at time of initial visit for pregnancy, check TSH. 50% of pregnant patients will need an increase in dosage If TSH is elevated, increase L-thyroxine by 50 mg and repeat TSH in 4–6 weeks If TSH is normal, repeat TSH at 22–28 weeks’ gestation. After delivery, return to pre-pregnancy L-thyroxine dose. Start newly diagnosed hypothyroid patients with full replacement dose. Repeat TSH every 4 weeks and adjust the amount of L-thyroxine to keep the serum TSH within normal limits In pregnancy, what % will need an increased dose? 50% 202 HYPOTHYROIDISM Diagnosis algorithm: primary hypothyroidism Test TSH FT4 high Consult endocrinologist for possible TSH-secreting pituitary tumor or thyroid hormone resistance TSH >5.0 mU/l TSH 0.5−5.0 mU/l TSH <5.0 mU/l Test FT4 estimate Patient euthyroid Patient possibly hyperthyroid or thyrotoxic FT4 normal Patient subclinically hypothyroid (mild thyroid failure) FT4 low Patient hypothyroid 203 HYSTERECTOMY HYPOTHALAMIC PEPTIDES GnRH, CRF, GHRF, SS HYPOTHERMIA Can lead to Cardiac dysrhythmias Impaired anaerobic metabolism A shift to LEFT in the oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve (decreased oxygen release) Increased intracellular potassium release Delayed drug metabolism HYPOXIA AND ASPHYXIA (1) The term asphyxia should be reserved for clinical context of damaging acidemia, hypoxia and metabolic acidosis (2) Persistent Apgar score of 0–3 for longer than 5 min suggests hypoxic damage (3) Hypotonia and GI dysfunction suggests hypoxic damage (4) Profound metabolic or mixed acidemia (pH < 7.00) on an umbilical cord artery blood sample HYSTERECTOMY What % hysterectomies in the USA are abdominal? 70% What % are performed to treat myomas? 30% Incidence of postop wound infections 2% Incidence of postop bleeding 2% Expert gyn surgeons use the vaginal route for more than 90% hysterectomies Types of hysterectomies from most invasive to less invasive: RTAH TAH HALS LAVH TLH TSH TVH MIVH radical total abdominal hysterectomy total abdominal hysterectomy hand-assisted laparoscopic surgery (hysterectomy) laparoscopic-assisted vaginal hysterectomy total laparoscopic hysterectomy total supracervical hysterectomy total vaginal hysterectomy minimally invasive vaginal hysterectomy The pendulum for doing minimally invasive surgery is swinging back to pelvic and vaginal surgery. Initially vaginal surgery was performed because abdominal surgery could not be done. Infections and the development of antibiotics influenced surgical gynecologists to do more abdominal surgeries. Now to avoid filling the abdomen with CO2 gas and going through seven layers of tissue with one or multiple incisions, the MIVH has been developed to decrease pain and speed recovery. Entering a thin layer of tissue anterior and posterior to the uterus, the MIVH was developed and can be seen in the following step-by-step photographs (Figures 9–16). The author has carried out thousands of MIVHs with operating room times from 5 to 20 min and minimal complications, despite obesity, fibroids, or previous surgeries. Uteri larger than 1400 g have been removed vaginally via morcellation techniques. No indwelling catheter is required for MIVH and there is never a need for a “pre-op laparoscopic peek”. Preliminary laparoscopy can frighten even a highly skilled surgeon away from what more than likely would be a much easier than imagined vaginal procedure, not to mention the increased risk of placing a trocar into the abdomen. Do more TVHs or MIVHs!!!!! OB/Gyn surgeons should be performing many more vaginal compared to abdominal or laparoscopic-assisted hysterectomies!!!!! 204 HYSTERECTOMY (1) If the bony pubic arch is adequate, the cervix mobile at its own level and the uterus is freely movable – the uterus should be able to be removed vaginally regardless of size or complex pathology (2) The benefits of a vaginal hysterectomy include a quicker return to normal activity, less pain and lower costs compared to abdominal hysterectomy (3) Remember to minimize the size of myomas either by giving GnRH agonists preoperatively or by performing bivalving, lash or coring type incisions to place traction and invert the uterus Figure 9 MIVH – injection of Marcaine with 50% epinephrine into the cervical mucosa decreases bleeding and helps develop a plane of dissection Figure 10 MIVH – cutting with a 90° angle Bovie, a small anterior and posterior incision into the cervical mucosa Figure 11 MIVH – after entering the anterior and posterior peritoneum, the regular weighted retractor is removed and replaced by the duckbill weighted retractor for excellent exposure 205 HYSTERECTOMY (a) (b) Figure 12 MIVH – the cardinal and portions of the uterosacral ligaments are bilaterally clamped and doubly ligated with 0-Vicryl suture then tagged for later plication Figure 13 The remainder of the uterine vessels, broad ligaments, utero-ovarian ligaments, round ligaments, and infundibulopelvic ligaments (if adnexa are to be removed) are stapled with stapling device (Ethicon Endo-Surgery, Inc., ETS Compact-Flex45 Articulating Linear Cutter). The stapler remains the best option available due to necessary use of wet sponges required to protect the vagina if the Gyrus or other cauterizing clamps are used. However, the Harmonic Ace is still under investigation as an excellent alternative because of its minimal lateral spread statistics. © ETHICON, Inc. Reproduced with permission. 206 HYSTERECTOMY Figure 14 The viscera are displaced with the wet “JET” pack (McNeil – Catalog # 40120) for better exposure to perform appendectomy, visualize the peritoneum better, and/or check for any possible bleeding Figure 15 The “JET” pack is tagged with an Allis clamp so that it is never possible to lose the only packing ever used in this procedure Figure 16 The peritoneum is reapproximated in a “purse string” fashion, ligaments are plicated, and vaginal mucosa is closed. No catheter or vaginal packing is left in place 207 HYSTERECTOMY Criteria for hysterectomy Palpable myoma or concern to patient Excessive anemia > 8 days of anemia Discomfort Rule out Cervical cancer, Anemia, Medical diseases and Endometrial cancer prior to surgery Emergency hysterectomies Rare with exception of hemorrhage, torsion, or accreta. Occasionally prolapsed fibroids can be snared vaginally and removed, especially if there is a small-diameter pedicle Method of estimating weight of uterus Comparison of TVH to TAH The most accurate method of predicting uterine weight preoperatively is the bimanual assessment. However, one can also predict weight by doing an ultrasound and measuring: width x AP x length = fundus fundus x 0.52 = estimated weight of uterus in grams (60–120 g is average size of uterus; it is estimated that the average Ob/Gyn can remove a 280 g uterus through the vagina) Normal uterine weight 60–90 g Myometrial hyperplasia > 120 g TVH TAH Decreased bowel manipulation Correct vaginal relaxation at same time Decreased compromise to pulmonary system Avoid incisional complication Decreased pain and adhesions Increased ambulation Adnexal pathology TOA Severe endometriosis Need to explore Supracervical hysterectomy Subsequent trachelectomy is common occurrence (> 20%) following elective laparoscopic supracervical hysterectomy. (Okara EO, Jarnes KD, Sutton C. Long-term outcome following laparoscopic supracervical hysterectomy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 2001;108:1017–20) Vaginal hysterectomy after Rates of bladder injury were not statistically different: 1.86% vs 0.89%, C-section according to cumulative data from 4 studies published between 1980 and 2003 (Agostini A, Vejux N, Colette E, et al. Risk of bladder injury during vaginal hysterectomy in women with a previous cesarean section. J Reprod Med 2005; 50: 940–2). Therefore a previously scarred bladder flap does not necessarily mandate an abdominal approach – only closer attention to how the bladder is advanced. The author actually believes that the abdominal approach increases the risk of bladder injury after C-section due to the technique used to develop the bladder flap from above during C-section. This is probably why such minimal complications to the bladder occur during MIVH Laparoscopic vs vaginal hysterectomy Always manage the vaginal cuff regardless of hysterectomy type The rate of complications with laparoscopic/LAVH oophorectomy is approximately 2x higher than that of vaginal hysterectomy and prophylactic oophorectomy. (Agostini A, Vejux N, Bretelle F, et al. Value of laparoscopic assistance for vaginal hysterectomy with prophylactic bilateral oophorectomy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006; 194: 351–4.) Ureteral injury is less common with vaginal than with abdominal or laparoscopic routes! Most bladder injuries during vaginal surgery occur above the trigone and can be repaired by the gynecologic surgeon. (see Wound closure) McCall culdoplasty at all three levels of support (proximal, lateral, and distal). Internal McCall sutures allows placement of 3 rows of sutures across the cul-de-sac from one uterosacral ligament to the other. External McCall sutures allow for 3 additional rows of absorbable sutures incorporated in the vaginal epithelium and uterosacral ligaments to move the vaginal cuff superiorly 208 HYSTERECTOMY Suspensory sutures can also be performed with high uterosacral attachment so that the uterosacrals need not be brought together To avoid complications It is essential that the uterine vessels be ligated before morcellation begins Avoid blunt dissection in women with a history of pelvic surgery Perform cystoscopy after all hysterectomies, especially those that became more difficult during surgery. Ensuring hemostasis and the integrity of the bladder and ureteral patency is of utmost importance The Harmonic Ace is a scalpel that uses ultrasonic energy to cut, dissect, and coagulate tissue. Ethicon Endo-Surgery, Inc. developed this instrument. The author uses and recommends this during TLH because of the minimal amount of lateral spread and temperature differences – thus less damage to soft tissue. This has been compared to electrocautery, Kleppinger Bipolar, Gyrus ACMI, LigaSure, and CO2 laser. The value of Lyons and PKS Plasma Trissector vessel sealing and thermal spread is unknown at the time of this publication Spare ovaries? Approximately ½ of all women over 40 will die of heart disease, while fewer than 1% will die of ovarian cancer Hysterectomy itself appears to reduce the risk of ovarian cancer by 5% to 15% Oophorectomy does not provide a survival benefit over ovarian conservation. It would certainly be acceptable, however, to remove ovaries of a woman over 45–46 years old who is lean, normotensive, with a favorable lipid profile, but fears the possibility of ovarian cancer. Whether this is right or wrong, as long as the patient is informed that this may not even rule out ever having the cancer, it is acceptable for the patient’s peace of mind 209 HYSTERECTOMY Determining the route of hysterectomy Hysterectomy indicated for benign disease Yes Uterus accessible transvaginally Yes No This flow chart not appropriate for decision support Uterus < 280 g (<12 weeks) Yes No No Size reduction possible Yes No Pathology appears confined to the uterus No Abdominal hysterectomy Laparoscopic examination Yes Vaginal hysterectomy Extrauterine pathology absent or mild Operative laparoscopy Yes No No Cul-de-sac inaccessible No Severe adhesions No Yes Severe endometriosis 210 HYSTEROSALPINGOGRAM HYSTEROSALPINGOGRAM Consider PID prior to HSG If suspect PID, get sed rate – if elevated, give doxycycline 200 mg, then 100 mg b.i.d. x 5 days and postpone till sed rate normal When to do HSG Perform early in proliferative phase of cycle AFTER cessation of menstrual flow but preferably prior to ovulation 6–10th day Risk of infection Risk of infection with dilated tubes If tubes are noted to be dilated, give doxycycline 200 mg then 100 mg b.i.d. after HSG. If no history of suspected PID, use oil dye as it decreases spasm and increases conception up to < 1% 11% 41% Risk of dye embolization and/or salpingitis 1–2% Conception rate within 1 year after H2O solution agent is 27% Laparoscopy with chromotubation is indicated if HSG is contraindicated or results are abnormal HYSTEROSCOPY CO2 is agent of choice for diagnostic. NOT operative and limited to how many ml per min? 40–60 At pressure of ? mmHg 100 When distending the uterus with CO2 gas, care should be taken not to exceed intrauterine pressure of 150 mmHg CO2 gas is not practical for operative procedures because it does not allow for clearing debris and should never be used for operative hysteroscopic procedures because of the high risk of CO2 embolism. Air embolism can be detected by a machine-like murmur over the precordium that can often be auscultated With suspicion of an air embolism, these actions should be taken: (1) Hysteroscope should be immediately removed (2) Vagina should be occluded with a wet sponge (3) The patient should be turned to the left side (4) The patient should be transferred to an intensive care unit Normal saline and lactated Ringer’s are useful for diagnostic but NOT operative Nd : YAG – poor cutter but excellent COAGULATOR Argon + KTP used for excellent CUTTING action Dextran can cause DIC and PULMONARY EDEMA so do not use more than 500 ml 1.5% Glycine can cause hyponatremia and hyperammonemia. Decreased visual acuity, cerebral edema and intracranial volume expansion with herniation Half-life 3% Sorbitol can cause hyponatremia and cerebral edema. Mannitol 0.54% added to decrease risk of fluid overload. Half-life is Sorbitol is metabolized to fructose and glucose 85 min 35 min Hyskon® (32% dextran 70) is RAPIDLY ABSORBED. It is a volume expander of 10 : 1 200 ml absorbed displaces how much blood volume? 2 liters ACUTE PULMONARY EDEMA “CARAMELIZES INSTRUMENTS” Dextran molecules can produce DIC + are too big to diuresis therefore needs PLASMAPHORESIS (also interferes with immune blood tests) Molecular weight of Hyskon is 70 000 daltons Anaphylaxis occurs in 1/10 000 Infusion should not exceed 300 ml Patient absorption of Hyskon should not exceed 250 ml 211 IMMUNIZATIONS D5 in H2O can cause profound hyponatremia @ lethargy, confusion, pulmonary edema. Na + Cl (0.9%) or RL not associated with electrolyte imbalance or metabolic disturbance. Fluid overload can be quickly reversed. Rollerball endometrial ablation is an effective treatment for menorrhagia; younger women < 35 who undergo ablation have an increased risk of subsequent hysterectomy compared to women > 45 (Dutton C, Ackerson L, Phelps-Sandall B. Outcomes after rollerball endometrial ablation for menorrhagia. Obstet Gynecol 2001;98:35–9) Key points Preoperative treatment with a GnRH agonist increases the odds of operative complications by a factor of 4–7 Ultrasound guidance may improve outcomes in selected hysteroscopic procedures. Preop vaginal misoprostol (Cytotec), a synthetic prostaglandin E1 analog, prior to hysteroscopy, can significantly reduce the necessity for cervical dilation and minimizes cervical complications and operative time To see all the different hysteroscopic procedures and how these are done (including ablative surgeries) → refer to Turrentine JE. Surgical Transcriptions and Pearls in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2nd edn. London: Informa Healthcare, 2006 ILEUS Functional symptoms Steady, mild abdominal pain. Silent abdomen with absent bowel sounds, abdominal distention, tympany and absence of flatus. N&V < 24 h Flat plate Supine, erect and lateral X-rays show gas in small and large bowel Diagnosis PO Gastrograffin (stimulates peristalsis, passage of stools in hours and not toxic like barium if spills during possible surgery) Treatment GI rest and time, IVFs, lytes, WBCs, Mylicon® decreases surface tension. NG tube only p.r.n. USUALLY SELF-LIMITING Risk of ileus increases if (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Contamination by pus or blood Extensive handling of tissue Obesity Ice cubes, gum chewing or carbonated beverages Preop immobility Prolonged use of narcotics Retroperitoneal surgery Removal of large peritoneal adhesions during surgery IMMUNIZATIONS General principles There are four types of immunologic therapy: (1) (2) (3) (4) Inactivated vaccines: hepatitis B, influenza and pneumococcus Live-attenuated vaccines: measles, mumps, rubella and polio Toxoids: tetanus, diphtheria Immunoglobulins: hepatitis B, rabies, tetanus, varicella, hepatitis A and measles Childhood immunizations cause most women to be immune to measles, mumps, rubella, tetanus, diphtheria and polio by child-bearing age 212 IMMUNIZATIONS Vaccinate according to age group and risk factors Age 13–18 Tetanus–diphtheria booster (age 14–16 x 1) At-risk groups: (1) Child-bearing age and no evidence of immunity – MMR (2) Blood products, household/sexual contacts of hepatitis B carriers, multiple sexual partners in past 6 months – hepatitis B vaccine Age 19–65 Tetanus–diphtheria booster (every 10 years) Influenza vaccine (every year starting at age 55) At-risk groups: (1) Child-bearing age and no evidence of immunity – MMR (2) IV drug users, blood product recipients, health-care workers, household/sexual contacts of Hep B carriers, multiple sexual partners in past 6 months – Hep B vaccine (3) Chronic cardiopulmonary disease, metabolic diseases, diabetes, hemoglobinopathies, immunosuppression, renal dysfunction – influenza vaccine annually (4) Conditions prone to pneumococcal infection (i.e. immunosuppression), chronic cardiopulmonary disease, sickle cell disease, renal disease, status postsplenectomy, diabetes, alcoholism, cirrhosis – Pneumovax Age 65 and > Tetanus–diphtheria booster (every 10 years) Influenza vaccine annually Pneumovax (once) At-risk groups: Exposure to blood products, household/sexual contacts with chronic Hep B carriers – Hep B vaccine Immunizations in pregnancy Theoretical concern of congenital infection by live vaccines during pregnancy although there have been no reported cases MUST weigh several factors: risk of exposure, maternal risk, fetal risk and risk from vaccine/toxoid Rule of thumb → no live vaccines unless: (1) Susceptibility/exposure probable (2) Disease threat to woman/fetus – vaccine risk Only routinely administered immunizations during pregnancy: (1) Tetanus–diphtheria toxoids (2) At-risk group for Hep B virus (see above) MMR → Give 3 months before pregnancy or stat postpartum Polio/yellow fever vaccine → when traveling to endemic area Immune globulins: (1) After exposure to measles, Hep A, B, tetanus, chickenpox or rabies (2) VZIG for newborns of mother who develop chickenpox 5 days before, until 2 days after delivery (3) All women without a history of chickenpox should be passively immunized with VZIG within 96 h of an exposure to chickenpox • See also Vaccines 213 IMMUNIZATIONS Specific indications for vaccines and immune globulins during pregnancy Immunizing agent Indications Vaccines Live virus Poliomyelitis (Sabin) Immediate protection against poliomyelitis for previously unimmunized individuals Yellow fever Travel to endemic areas Measles Contraindicated Mumps Contraindicated Rubella Contraindicated Live bacteria Tularemia Rabbit handlers, laboratory workers Bacille Calmette–Guérin Not recommended Killed virus Hepatitis B Pre- and postexposure prophylaxis for individuals at high risk Influenza Chronic cardiopulmonary or renal disease; diabetes mellitus Poliomyelitis (Salk) Travel to epidemic areas; laboratory workers Rabies Exposure to potentially rabid animals Killed bacteria Cholera Entry requirement for some countries Meningococcus Epidemic meningococcal-non-B disease Plague Laboratory workers; travel to areas with human disease Pneumococcus Cardiopulmonary disease, splenectomy, alcoholism, Hodgkin’s Typhoid Household contact with chronic carrier; travel to endemic areas Pertussis Not recommended Toxoids Anthrax Laboratory workers; handlers of furs and animal hides Tetanus–diphtheria Primary immunization; booster Immune globulins Pooled human Hepatitis A Pre- and postexposure prophylaxis Measles Postexposure prophylaxis Hyperimmune Hepatitis B Postexposure prophylaxis Rabies Postexposure prophylaxis Tetanus Postexposure prophylaxis Varicella zoster Postexposure prophylaxis Horse serum Botulism Treatment of infection Diphtheria Treatment of infection 214 IMPERFORATE HYMEN Recommended childhood immunization schedule USA, 2002 Age Vaccine Birth 1 month 2 4 6 12 15 18 24 months months months months months months months 4–6 years 11–12 years 13–18 years Hep B #1 only if mother HBsAg(–) Hepatitis B Hep B #2 Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis DTaP DTaP DTaP Hemophillus influenzae Type b Hib Hib Hib Inactivated Polio IPV IPV Hep B series Hep B #3 DTaP Hib IPV Measles, Mumps, Rubella IPV MMR #2 MMR #1 Pneumococcal PCV PCV PCV MMR #2 Varicella Varicella Varicella Td DTaP PCV PCV PPV Vaccines below this line are for selected populations Hepatitis A series Hepatitis A Influenza (yearly) Influenza Key: Catch-up vaccination Range of recommended ages Preadolescent assessment This schedule indicates the recommended ages for routine administration of currently licensed childhood vaccines, as of December 1, 2001, for children through age 18 years. Any dose not given at the recommended age should be given at any subsequent visit when indicated and feasible. Indicates age groups that warrant special effort to administer those vaccines not previously given. Additional vaccines may be licensed and recommended during the year. Licensed combination vaccines may be used whenever any components of the combination are indicated and the vaccine’s other components are not contraindicated. Providers should consult the manufacturers’ package inserts for detailed recommendations. Approved by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, US Department of Health and Human Services, 2002 IMPERFORATE HYMEN Cruciate incision should be made (like an X) from 10 to 4 and 2 to 8 o’clock This occurs at the junction of the sinovaginal bulbs with the urogenital sinus Diagnosis History Physical – blue bulging membrane at introitus Ultrasound – confirms distended vagina Management Excise CENTRALLY using an X incision. Avoid needling because this increases risk of infection. Avoid probing or curetting uterus as this increases risk of perforation Differentiate From transverse vaginal septum. Hematometria but bulging membrane not visible → identify separate hymenal ring. (Failed fusion and canalization of urogenital sinus and Müllerian duct derivative) INCISIONS Midline Advantages Disadvantages More rapid entry Better exposure Weaker Less cosmetic 215 INDUCTION Transverse Greater strength More cosmetic Less rapid entry Reduced exposure Risk factors for disruption Infection, obesity, diabetes, emphysema or chronic bronchitis, ileus, malignancy, ascites, irradiation, chemotherapy, corticosteroid therapy INCONTINENCE ‘DIAPERS’ Drugs, Infection, Atrophic vaginitis, Psychological factors, Endocrine, Restricted mobility, Stool impaction. (Mnemonic for urinary and fecal incontinence) Urinary incontinence See Urinary incontinence INCREASES IN GRAVID In pregnancy, renal clearance is increased by This means aminoglycosides get out quicker. However, there is decreased renal clearance with theophylline. Keep at a low level of @ 8–12 GFR increases by Serum creatinine values decrease from 0.7 mg/dl to 0.5 BUN values decrease from 12 mg/dl to 8 RENAL INSUFFICIENCY if serum creatinine is 0.9 BUN is 14 40% mg/dl 50% mg/dl mg/dl mg/dl mg/dl INDUCTION Most patients attain normal progression of labor with how many Montevideo units of uterine activity? 150–350 MV units Low-dose Pitocin starting dose 0.5–2 mU Increase dose by 1–2 mU/min in an interval of 15, 30 or 40 min High-dose Pitocin starting dose 6 mU Increase dose by 1, 3, or 6 mU/min in an interval of 15, 20–40 min Reduce the risks of pitocin (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Start with a written note (include indication and patient consent) Conduct a comprehensive consent process (give patient options) Describe both uterine and fetal responses (reassuring?) Discontinue oxytocin when the uterus overreacts Adjust oxytocin to reflect changes in labor patterns Consider including a labor curve Methods of cervical ripening (1) Pharmaceutical methods Intracervical PGE2 Intravaginal PGE2 gel Intravaginal PGE2 controlled-release insert Intravaginal misoprostol (2) Mechanical methods Osmotic dilators (not associated with hyperstimulation) No uterine or fetal monitoring required Balloon catheter ripening Intracervical laminaria (3) Membrane stripping (also known as sweeping) Decreases the incidence of postdates pregnancy when done weekly beginning at 38 weeks’ gestation. Membrane sweeping at the initiation of labor induction also increased the spontaneous vaginal delivery rate, reduced oxytocic drug use, shortened induction to delivery interval, and improved patient satisfaction. (Tan PC, Jacob R, Omar SZ. Membrane sweeping at initiation of formal labor induction: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2006;107:569–77) 216 INFECTION Dose of terbutaline used to treat uterine hyperstimulation caused by cervical ripening agents is 0.25 mg SC How does Pitocin work? It causes contractions by causing the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum How does terbutaline work? The mechanism of action is to increase intracellular cyclic AMP (adenosine monophosphate) INFECTION Infection Treatment UTI TMP/SMX or nitrofurantoin x 3 days PTL None recommended Assess for need for GBS Rx PPROM Ampicillin and macrolide x 7 days Chorioamnionitis Ampicillin and gentamicin Clindamycin for pen allergy PP endometritis Clindamycin and gent EID or ampicillin/sulbactam C/S (prophylaxis) First-gen. cephalosporin Clindamycin for pen allergy Endocarditis prophylaxis Ampicillin and gentamicin 30 min prior to delivery and 6 h postdelivery BV found in what % of patients? What % of BV infections are asymptomatic? 10–25% 50% INFERTILITY Definition Inability to conceive after how many months for a couple that has never conceived? Inability to conceive after how many months for a couple with a prior conception? Bullet work-up (1) Very thorough history and physical (2) Initial diagnostic tests (a) Semen analysis (b) Basal body cell temperature charting x 3 months (c) Consider HSG and postcoital test More specific work-up (1) Male factor Urological exam, serum testosterone, FSH, testicular biopsy, serum fructose, diabetes screen, sperm penetration assay Treatment Hypogonadism → hMG or GnRH Varicocele → surgical ligation Decreased penetration/oligospermia – IVF, ICSI (2) Female pelvic factor (a) Tubal disorders – HSG, laparoscopy Treatment → tuboplasty/lysis of adhesions (scope), IVF (b) Uterine disorders – HSG, ultrasound Treatment → hysteroscopic lysis of adhesions/metroplasty/ septoplasty (followed by antibiotic and high-dose estrogen), myomectomy (c) Endometriosis – laparoscopy Treatment → laparoscopic fulguration (moderate/severe) and/or GnRH agonist, OCs, danazol, Synarel®, etc. (3) Ovulatory factor FSH/lH, prolactin, thyroid profile, progesterone challenge, endometrial biopsy (luteal phase), serum progesterone, MRI Treatment → hyperprolactinemia – bromocriptine (Parlodel®) thyroid disorder – treat appropriately 12 6 217 INFERTILITY Positive progesterone challenge – Clomid with or without dexamethasone 0.5 mg and/or hCG. If Clomid fails, consider Pergonal or referral. Luteal phase defect – progesterone suppositories 25 mg intravaginally b.i.d. or 250 mg IM weekly (4) Cervical factor Check for spinnbarkeit, ferning and os patency midcycle Treatment → absent/poor quality mucus → low-dose estrogen or IUI (intrauterine insemination) Culture for ureaplasma/Chlamydia If + culture → give antibiotics (Zithromax 1 g once or doxycycline 250–500 mg b.i.d. x 10 days After 3 months After 6 months After 12 months After 2 years Never tell a couple that they will not be able to conceive What % of azoospermic males can conceive? (Probably unable to see all of sperm microscopically) Fecundity 57% 72% 85% 93% 0.3% What is the pregnancy rate of females with primary ovarian failure? Day 3 FSH – normal result is If patient in her 20s with this result, ovaries @ to fail If patient in her 30s with this result, she has had it Very rare to be able to conceive with this result FSH This % 20-year-olds are found to fail to generate embryos in IVF during the recruiting for IVF program Primary ovarian failure 4–5% 5–7 mlU/ml >8 >8 > 15 5% Stage I and II – treated or untreated demonstrates no difference Stage III and IV – surgical treatment is efficacious IVF best treatment for tubal disease What proportion of couples experience infertility? Endometriosis There is an upper limit to sperm count Male factor 15% 250 000 000 million/ml What percent of infertile men consume very little fruits and vegetables? 83% There were only 40% of the fertile men in the low fruit and vegetable study. Antioxidants in broccoli, oranges, tomatoes, peppers, and leafy greens seem to be the ingredients that energize sperm What is the average amount of semen expelled with each ejaculation? 1 tsp Sexual dysfunction as the cause of male infertility is < 5% Endocrine problems as the cause of male infertility is < 3% Retrograde ejaculation as the cause of male infertility is < 0.5 ml Treatment for abnormal semen analysis: Clomid and IUI successful 5% IVF with embryo transfer cheaper than injectables with IUI. Treatment of azoospermia – TASA (testicular aspiration). Rule out deletion of part of Y chromosome – donor sperm? Causes of infertility Work-up and labs to determine cause Incidence Male factor Semen analysis (2–6 cc, liquefies, ≥ 20 mil, 50% mot, 60% mor) 35% Female pelvic factor HSG 25% Ovulatory factor LH/FSH, BBT, Bx, TSH, prolactin 20% Cervical factor Postcoital test 10% Prior to semen analysis, there must be a period of abstinence of 48 h The semen sample must be carried in for analysis within 2h If semen analysis is abnormal, two additional samples must be obtained how many weeks apart? 2 Obtain FSH if semen sample demonstrates oligospermia. If testes small + serum FSH > twice normal then suspect primary testicular failure. In hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, the FSH, LH + test all LOW 218 INFERTILITY Proxeed is a nutritional supplement that has been shown to sometimes improve the quality of sperm after 2–3 months of use. Dosage is one packet in @ 4 ounces of fluid in the morning and evening Ovulation is assessed with BBT, progesterone and endometrial biopsy How many days after estimated ovulation should the serum progesterone be measured? 7 days Low progesterone level may be consistent with normal ovulation Side-effects of infertility meds Effects of drugs or toxins on male infertility (1) Gonadotropins – hyperstimulation syndrome, local injection-associated effects (2) Bromocriptine – GI irritation, orthostatic hypotension, headache, nasal congestion (3) GnRH – local injection-related effects (4) Clomiphene citrate – hot flashes, visual symptoms, nausea (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Sulfa drugs – impaired spermatogenesis Narcotics – decreased libido Phenytoin – ejaculatory dysfunction Diethylstilbestrol – testicular atrophy Radiotherapy – germ cell depletion Intrauterine insemination/timing of ovulation induction Prerequisites (1) Abnormal semen analysis Normal semen: sperm count > 20 million/ml motility at least 50% morphology at least 30% leukocytes <1 million/ml (2) Male should also have history/physical, endocrine work-up p.r.n., antisperm ab testing p.r.n., sperm function testing or radiologic evaluation p.r.n. (3) Female should have HSG, GC/Chlamydia cultures, postcoital test, and late luteal phase endometrial biopsy, laparoscopy and hysteroscopy may be indicated in some (4) HIV & hepatitis tests should be considered initially for both partners Timing Prior to ovulation or at the time of (not after ovulation) LH kits, ultrasound, cervical mucus for Spinnbarkeit/ferning Ovulation usually occurs 24–36 h after the LH surge hCG 10 000 units – ovulation occurs 34–36 h after injection Seminal wash Mix with physiologic buffer (Hamm’s) – centrifuge on low – pellet – resuspend by diluent. Use 0.5 ml for IUI (not too much volume in uterus). Best for patients with hypospadias, retrograde ejaculation or pure oligospermia (1) Clomid: 50 mg day 5–9 or day 3–7 (recruitment of more follicles) Confirm ovulation with LH kit, BBT, US endo Bx or mid-luteal phase serum progesterone Increase by 50 mg/d p.r.n. subsequent cycle p.r.n. (2) hCG: to be given 7 days after the last dose of CC or when ultrasound reveals a follicle of 22–24 mm diameter. No more than six ovulatory cycles recommended (3) Human menopausal gonadotropins Prior to giving hMG, US to rule out ovarian cysts; serum estradiol (E2) on 3rd day of cycle If no cysts >10 mm and E2 concentration < 50 pg/ml, start hMG 150 IU/d on day 3 Check E2 levels on day 4, 6, and 8 Levels should be 100–200 (day 4), 400–600 (day 6), and 800–1200 pg/ ml (day 8). Dosage adjusted accordingly hCG 10 000 U IM when a single follicle or multiple follicles have reached 17 mm or > in diameter hCG 5000 U IM or none given if concern about hyperstimulation 219 INTERSEXUALITY IUI performed at 34–36 h after hCG injection. Progesterone 250 mg IM or 25 mg supp b.i.d. started on day of IUI. Serum β-hCG level is obtained 16–18 days after IUI. IUIs timed at 18 and 42 h after hCG are superior to a single insemination IUI Insemi-Cath (Cook OB/GYN) on TB syringe or Mini Space IUI-Cath (1-800-441-1973) 0.2 ml of air then 0.5 ml (to fundus) No lubricants Clean cervix with normal saline Delay injection until no cramping Pt to lie for 15 min after IUI (? Effectiveness) Complications Spontaneous abortion – 26% vs 10–15% Ectopic – increased to 8% vs 1% Multiple pregnancies (with hMG 25–30%) (with CC 5–10%) Ovarian hyperstimulation – 1% (especially if E2 > 2000) IUI with hMG significantly increases pregnancy rates especially with men with impaired semen parameters Refer to IVF or IVF with intracytoplasmic sperm injection if sperm counts < 5 million/ml or linear progressive motility < 20% INFLUENZA Symptoms Fever, myalgias, headache, malaise Diagnosis Directigen™ FLU A and QuickVue® influenza tests are rapid enzyme immunoassay test kits Reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction methods available Treatment Zanamivir (Relenza®) Category B is given 12 h apart for 5 days in dose of Two puffs b.i.d. Oseltamivir (Tamiflu®) Category C is given with 75 mg tablets p.o. for 5 days in dose of One tablet b.i.d. Vaccines Amantadine and rimantadine. On January 14, 2006, the CDC recommended that clinicians NOT prescribe these to treat or prevent influenza during the 2005–2006 flu season. 91% of the strains of virus in the U.S. are resistant to these drugs. These also CANNOT BE GIVEN if patient allergic to eggs. Antibodies develop in 14 days when using flu vaccine. Side-effects to amantadine are dizziness, nausea and insomnia. Pregnant women are more susceptible in third trimester INTERSEXUALITY Male pseudohermaphrodite Gonads are testes Female pseudohermaphrodite Gonads are ovaries True hermaphrodite Individual with both testicular and ovarian tissue TDF Testis-determining factor is a product of a gene located on the short arm of the Y chromosome termed SRY Sex-determining region of the Y Transvestism/transsexualism These two terms are used only when there is a discrepancy between the two criteria of sex of rearing and the gender role. The sex of rearing is the assigned sex while the gender role is the adopted sex of an individual Sex identification (1) Genetic sex (2) Gonadal sex (3) Morphology of the external genitalia (4) Morphology of the genital ducts (5) Hormonal status (6) Sex of rearing (7) Gender role SRY TDF on the SRY gene is responsible for testicular development 220 INTERSTITIAL CYSTITIS Male pseudohermaphrodite Lack of Müllerian duct regression, mixed gonadal dysgenesis, deficient testosterone production, deficient dihydrotestosterone production, exposure to anti-androgenic substances, complete androgen insensitivity (testicular feminization), incomplete androgen insensitivity Female pseudohermaphrodite Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, 21-hydroxylase deficiency, increased DHEA and 17-OH prog, 11β-hydroxylase deficiency, exogenous androgen intake, endogenous androgen effect True hermaphroditism Testicular tissue should be removed before puberty and the external genitalia reconstructed along female lines. The majority of true hermaphrodites have a chromosome constitution of The rest include Distinguishing tests 46XX 46XY, XY/XYY mosaics or XX/XY chimeras See page 22 INTERSTITIAL CYSTITIS Symptoms Urgency/frequency and/or pelvic pain. Consider flares that correlate with specific events in a patient’s life, especially associated with sexual intercourse (adult women during or after coitus, younger 17–18 year old women – symptoms occur a day or two after intercourse). Flares also occur sometimes the week prior to menses, foods high in potassium, and during stress Urinary frequency is present in what % of patients? Etiology The mucous surface coating of the bladder contains glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), which normally act to regulate permeability. If the GAG layer is defective, as appears to be the case in IC, toxic substances in the urine can penetrate the urothelium and gain access to the deeper layers of the bladder, inducing a tissue reaction. Potassium is likely the primary toxin, leaking through the epithelium, thus activating the nerves and directly depolarizing them. Mast cells are also close to nerves and could also become activated, releasing histamine, which causes local pain and irritation to tissues → irritation causes release of substance P, which stimulates mast cells further and creates a bigger leak in the uroepithelium, releasing more K+ Diagnosis Must have at least one of these symptoms → (1) frequency or (2) pain linked to bladder AND must have the findings of at least one of these (1) Classic Hunner’s Ulcer or (2) Diffuse glomerulations x 3 quadrants 90% Identify the disorder using the Pelvic Pain and Urgency/Frequency (PUF) Patient Symptom Scale questionnaire. A high PUF score is one reason to suspect IC. Intravesical potassium sensitivity test can be used to determine whether patients with chronic pelvic pain have a urological component to their etiology of pain in 85% of patients with + testing. (Parsons CL, Bullen M, Kahn BS, et al. Gynecologic presentation of interstitial cystitis as detected by intravesical potassium sensitivity. Obstet Gynecol 2001;98:127–32) Exclude other causes. Decrease intake of carbonated drinks. The urethral syndrome may represent an earlier phase of IC in which the patient is not continuously symptomatic except the intensity and duration of the pain are greater in IC Algorithm for diagnosis CPP bladder origin/IC CPP with urgency/frequency → physical exam = tender bladder + PUF questionnaire score ⱖ 8 + negative urinalysis → consider CPP of bladder origin (interstitial cystitis). Potassium test optional to help confirm diagnosis. If PUF score is > 10 to 12 → there is an 80% chance that the potassium sensitivity test will be positive 221 INTERSTITIAL CYSTITIS PUF questionaire Pelvic Pain and Urgency / Frequency Patient Symptom Scale Please circle the answer that best describes how you feel for each question. 0 1 2 3 4 3–6 7–10 11–14 15–19 20+ 2 a. How many times do you go to the bathroom at night? 0 1 2 3 4+ b. If you get up at night to go to the bathroom, does it bother you? Never Occasionally Usually Always 4 a. If you are sexually active, do you now or have you ever had pain or symptoms during or after sexual intercourse? Never Occasionally Usually Always b. If you have pain, does it make you avoid sexual intercourse? Never Occasionally Usually Always 5 Do you have pain associated with your bladder or in your pelvis (vagina, labia, lower abdomen, urethra, perineum)? Never Occasionally Usually Always 6 Do you still have urgency after you go to the bathroom? Never Occasionally Usually Always Mild Moderate Severe Occasionally Usually Always Mild Moderate Severe Occasionally Usually Always 1 How many times do you go to the bathroom during the day? SYMPTOM BOTHER SCORE SCORE 3 Are you currently sexually active? YES NO 7 a. If you have pain, is it usually b. Does your pain bother you? Never 8 a. If you have urgency, is it usually b. Does your urgency bother you? Never SYMPTOM SCORE (1, 2a, 4a, 5, 6, 7a, 8a) BOTHER SCORE (2b, 4b, 7b, 8b) TOTAL SCORE (Symptom Score + Bother Score) = *Total score range is from 1 to 35. A total score of 10–14 = 75% likelihood of positive PST; 15–19 = 79%; 20+ = 94% 222 INTERSTITIAL CYSTITIS Potassium sensitivity test Drain bladder Insert #10 French pediatric feeding tube Solution 1 Solution 2 40 ml water/saline 40 ml 0.4 M KCI Slowly infused over 2–3 minutes No immediate reaction – allow to remain 5 minutes Immediate pain – drain bladder and wash with 60 ml H2o Rank urgency (0–5) Rank pain (0–5) Rank urgency (0–5) Rank pain (0–5) Positive test Drain bladder Drain bladder Instill rescue therapy Parsons CL et al. J Urol 1998;159:1862–67 Algorithm for management of interstitial cystitis Conduct history/physical and screen for urgency, frequency, cyclicity, dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia, recurrent urinary tract infections, recurrent yeast vagunitis Straight catheterization culture Treat infection Perform potassium sensitivity challenge Negative Positive Negative Consider laparoscopy Consider other etiology (e.g. endometriosis, adhesions, vulvar) Treatment Consider intravesical heparin Yes Positive Is the patient pregnant? No Consider pentosan polysulfate, hydroxyzine, or amitriptyline Continue current regimen Yes Is there symptom relief? (may require 4–6 months)* No *Timing may vary per patient Consider intravesical heparin, hydrodistention, or laparoscopy Consider diagnostic cystoscopy 223 INTERVAL DELIVERY Treatment Elmiron® (pentosan polysulfate sodium) is only oral medicine approved by FDA to treat interstitial cystitis. This corrects the defect in the mucosal GAG layer. Atarax, Elavil, or Prozac are helpful medical therapies Pentosan polysulfate sodium: mechanism of action (1) GAG replacement (2) Mast cell inhibition (a) Immunologic (b) Neurogenic (c) Other (3) May modulate C-fiber sensory nerves–Inhibits calcium channels Treat IC with Elmiron 100 mg b.i.d. to t.i.d. for 3–4 months then repeat PUF. One can increase to 600 mg b.i.d. with no liver function studies needed. There are no known drug interactions and Elmiron is category B Dietary guidelines for interstitial cystitis Food category Permitted foods Foods to avoid or use cautiously Fruits Blueberries, melons other than cantaloupe, and pears Potatoes, homegrown tomatoes, and vegetables other than those listed on the right White chocolate, cottage cheese, American cheese, milk Pasta, rice, and breads other than those listed on the right All other fruits and juices made from them Fave beans, lima beans, onions, rhubarb, tofu, and store-bought tomatoes Aged cheeses, sour cream, eggs, yogurt, chocolate Rye and sourdough breads Meats/fish Poultry, fish, and meats other than those listed on the right Aged, canned, cured, processed and smoked meats and fish; anchovies; caviar; chicken livers; corned beef; and meats that contain nitrates or nitrites Nuts Almonds, cashews, and pine nuts Most other nuts Beverages Bottled or spring water; decaffeinated, acid-free coffee and tea; some herbal teas Alcoholic beverages; beer and wine; carbonated drinks; coffee, tea, and cranberry juice Seasonings Garlic and seasonings other than those listed on the right Mayonnaise, miso, spicy foods (especially Chinese, Mexican, Indian, and Thai foods) Benzol alcohol, citric acid, monosodium glutamate, aspartame, saccharin, and foods containg preservatives, artificial ingredients/colors Vegetables Milk/dairy Carbohydrates/grains Preservatives Multimedical therapies: Elavil 25 mg every night Atarax 25 mg hs or 25 mg every AM and q.hs Ditropan XR 5–10 mg orally every day Prozac 10–20 mg orally daily Intravesical therapy (use # 10 French Ped tube & instill into bladder) Anesthetic solution → 4–6 mg/kg 5% lidocaine and equal volume 8.4% NaHCO3 Treatment solution → Elmiron 100 mg or 10–20 K heparin in 20 cc 1% lidocaine and 3 cc 8.4% NaHCO3 INTERVAL DELIVERY Definition A long delay between delivery of fetuses in a multiple gestation Contraindications Abruption, fetal distress, chorioamnionitis, labor refractory to tocolysis Informed consent Discuss financial burden, prematurity, chances of success and neonatal morbidity Work-up CBC, US, evaluate symptoms of labor, consider amnio for maturity, NO digital exams, DO NOT remove placenta, obtain pt, ptt, platelet count, fibrinogen and FDP 224 INTRAUTERINE DEVICES (IUDs) INTRAUTERINE DEVICES (IUDs) Insertion of IUD how many days prior to ovulation time decreases inflammatory reaction? 2 days Single doxycycline 200 mg dose. Decreased unscheduled postinsertion visits for pain, discharge and bleeding. Did not decrease infection rate. Some prefer to insert during menses so cramping associated with insertion becomes less noticeable and so that the physician can be more confident that the patient is not pregnant. Women having abortions are often motivated to begin effective contraception, and IUD or LNG-IUS are excellent choices. These are also excellent choices for overweight women in that these are not contraindicated in association with obesity Mechanism Prevent fertilization of egg in fallopian tube by reducing number of sperm in tube and possibly by an additional effect of copper on fertility of the egg. The progestin-containing IUDs act mainly by rendering the endometrium atrophic thereby interfering with the implantation of fertilized egg. Also, in what % of women using progestin-type IUDs for at least a year, is ovulation prevented? 50% Avoid inserting IUDs In patients with multiple sexual partners or in patients who have an STD Contraindications Pregnancy, pelvic malignancy, PID, hyperbilirubinemia (due to Wilson’s disease – applies only to those IUDs containing copper) Relative contraindications History of ectopic, PID, severe dysmenorrhea, sickle cell anemia, congenital anomalies of the genital tract and valvular heart disease Possible complications Expulsion, perforation, dysmenorrhea and pregnancy – ectopic or IUP Treatment of pregnancy complication – rule out ectopic (2–3% chance), remove IUD ASAP, advise about spontaneous abortion, septic abortion, preterm labor, offer pregnancy termination Technique (1) (2) (3) (4) Teach patient to check tail of IUD Absence or longer tail may mean IUD has been expelled or is in process of being expelled. Pregnancy needs to be ruled out. If the tail is absent or shorter than usual, this could be due to the IUD having migrated or perforated the uterine wall (5) OCPs or some other birth control method for the first month after insertion. Some use second method during ovulation every month (6) Antibiotic given 1 h prior to insertion → doxycycline 200 mg Types of IUDs (1) ParaGard® T 380A is an IUD with copper wire wrapped around it Approved for how many years of use? 10 years Effective for at least how many years? 12 years First-year failure rate in typical use (%) 0.8 Ortho-McNeil offers IUDs free of charge to financially disadvantaged patients if the provider will insert the IUD free of charge Analgesics and an antibiotic Antiseptic to cervix and paracervical placed at 5 and 7 o’clock Sound if < 6 or > 9 cm (do not insert) Patient education – check string and have patient return to office after menses A levonorgestrel intrauterine system can protect against endometrial hyperplasia and endometrial proliferation (2) Progestasert® is an IUD that releases progesterone at rate of 65 µg /day Approved for how long of use in United States? 1 year Approved for use how long in France? 18 months 225 INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RESTRICTION (3) Mirena (Berlex) is an IUD that releases levonorgestrel at Approved for how many years of use? Effective for at least how many years? First-year failure rate in typical use (%) Berlex information line is 1-866-647-3646 20 µg /day 5 years 7 years 0.1 INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RESTRICTION Small for gestational age (IUGR/SGA) What % of pregnancies? 7–10% Type I symmetric (viral infection, chromosomal or congenital anomaly). Restricted AC and HC Type I IUGR begins early in gestation, entire fetus proportionally small all 20% abnormal Ponderal index is Normal Head, abdominal circumference, length and weight all < 10% Type II asymmetric (increased B/P, DM, PIH, plac abnl, renal disease, multiple gestation). Restricted – AC only Type II IUGR begins later in gestation, preserving the head and femur 80% Decrease in abdominal circumference only Intermediate type probably occurs in middle phase of growth (less common than type I+II) Intermediate type may result from lupus, nephritis, vasculitis and is increased in diabetic mothers FL/AC normal ratio Abnormal ratio Effective for asymmetric IUGR What is the single parameter that is most predictive of IUGR with accurate knowledge of dates? Ponderal index 0.22 0.23 AC Closely related to perinatal morbidity than is birth-weight percentile The perinatal mortality is higher in IUGR compared to normal pregnancies by 5–10 times normal Etiology of IUGR Maternal Placental Fetal Pre-eclampsia Abnormal presentation Chromosomal abnormalities Chronic hypertension Chronic villitis Multifactorial defects Chronic renal disease Placenta infarcts Infections Connective tissue disorder Placenta hemangiomas Multifetal pregnancies Diabetes with vascular lesions Placenta previa Sickle cell anemia Circumvallate placenta Cardiac disease Class III or IV Severe malnutrition Smoking Alcohol ingestion Infection Screening and diagnosis of IUGR Antepartum screening methods to detect IUGR fetus include: (1) Careful serial measurement of uterine fundal height (2) Progressive weight gain of the month 226 INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RESTRICTION (3) Growth profile by ultrasound scanning (a) Progressive growth of biparietal diameter, fetal limb length, head circumference (b) Amniotic fluid volume (Oligohydramnios is a common finding in IUGR) 90% of cases may be the earliest sign detected on ultrasound (c) Head to abdominal circumference HC/AC ratio in a normal growing fetus is: 1 > before 32 weeks 1 = at 32 to 34 weeks 1 < after 34 weeks In fetus affected by asymmetric growth restriction, the HC remains larger than that of the body. The HC/AC ratio is then elevated (d) Femur to abdomen ratio Femur length is minimally affected by fetal growth impairment Abdominal circumference which is the most affected measurement FL/AC remains constant after 20 weeks. FL/AC is 22 at all gestational ages from 21 weeks to term FL/AC ratio greater than 23.5 suggests IUGR (e) Doppler wave form analysis. S/D ratio of umbilical artery. The development of Doppler ultrasound has provided the obstetrician with a new tool for the assessment of IUGR fetus The researchers found that the negative predictive value of a normal S/D ratio (normal S/D < 3) was 95% The positive predictive value of an S/D ratio greater than 3.0 was 49% An exciting possibility of Doppler examination is that it may be useful in making the critical distinction between the fetus that is small and healthy (SGA) and the one that is truly growth retarded. The majority of SGA babies have normal S/D ratio Reversed end diastolic flow in the umbilical artery reflects severe fetal compromise and is an ominous finding. It is associated with 50–64% mortality rate, so delivery of the fetus is recommended when reversed end diastolic flow is detected Management Remote from term (1) Intervention to improve intrauterine environment (2) Avoid smoking, alcohol, drugs (3) Control maternal disease (4) Adequate maternal nutrition (5) Decrease physical activity (bed rest) (6) Fetal surveillance (a) NST Depending on the clinical circumstance the frequency of NST testing varies from once every week to every day Daily NSTs are indicated for patients with severe IUGR and with S/D ratios above 6 (b) Contraction stress test (CST) (c) Biophysical profile (BPP) – (b) and (c) may be used to follow abnormal NSTs – delivery of the baby is the best management when the back-up test suggests fetal compromise (d) Ultrasound every 2–3 weeks for internal growth (e) Fluid volume This evaluation should be performed every week and the frequency of NST testing should be increased if the amount of fluid decreases. Delivery may be indicated if severe oligohydramnios develops INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RESTRICTION 227 Close to term or during delivery (1) Close monitoring during labor (2) Because of the high incidence of intrapartum asphyxia, labor and delivery in IUGR babies should be managed aggressively. The liberal use of Cesarean section is advised (3) Direct fetal monitoring using scalp electrode and uterine pressure catheter should be initiated as early as possible (4) Amnioinfusion should be performed early in labor if the amniotic fluid volume is decreased (5) Even mild signs of distress should be followed with scalp stimulation or fetal scalp pH sampling (6) The second stage of labor, with its well-known tendency toward low pH values, should be kept to a minimum (use of forceps or vacuum when the vertex is well below plus 2 station) (7) The best choice for pain relief during labor is epidural anesthesia (8) The placenta of an IUGR baby needs careful examination by a competent placental pathologist (9) Pediatrician should be present at the time of delivery 228 INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RESTRICTION Identification of patients at risk using: Medical and obstetric history Poor dates Inadequate uterine growth Identification of small fetuses using: BPD HC AC EFW Identification of malnourished fetuses using: HC/AC ratio FL/AC ratio Umbilical Doppler Small and healthy Follow with movement count Delivery at term IUGR Follow with NSTs and fluid volume S/D ratio Delivery when lungs are mature NST becomes abnl Reversed end diastolic flow 229 IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME INTRAVENOUS FLUIDS NS ½ NS D5NS – How much dextrose does it contain in 1 liter? 0.9 NaCl 0.45 NaCl 5% or 50 g RL IN VITRO FERTILIZATION Pronuclei (of sperm and egg) fuse to form zygote (haploid 23 to diploid 46) on day 1 Zygote goes from 2 cells to 4 cells (blastomeres) on day 2 The blastomeres become a compact 16-cell morula on day 3 Syngamy is the last stage of the mingling process in which morula becomes blastocysts on days 4–5 The trophectoderm (outer cell of blastocysts) invades uterine wall between days 5–7 Embryogenesis begins between days 15–16 Pre-embryonic stage lasts until what day after fertilization? 14 Fertilized ovum reaches uterus in 5–7 days The most widely used method of embryo biopsy is cleavage-stage biopsy. The primary reason patients stated they wanted PGD (prenatal genetic diagnosis) was their objection to termination of pregnancy (in what %) 60% Blastomere biopsy results in a hole which is ? % bigger that probably contributes to increased reduction in implantation rates? 50–100% IRON Effects on iron and TIBC Inflammatory disease Aspirin Fe+ deficiency Decreased iron, decreased TIBC Decreased iron, increased TIBC Decreased iron, increased TIBC IRRIGATION Intraperitoneal irrigation with antibiotics is not recommended for use during infertility-related surgery because it may be associated with crystallization and adhesion formation IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME Diagnosis At least 3 months of continuous or recurrent symptoms of: (1) Abdominal pain or discomfort that is: (a) Relieved with defecation and/or (b) Associated with a change in frequency of stool and/or (c) Associated with a change in consistency of stool and (2) Two or more of the following on > 25% of occasions or days: (a) Altered stool frequency (> 3 bowel movements/day or < 3 bowel movements/week) (b) Altered stool form (lumpy/hard or loose/watery) (c) Altered stool passage (straining, urgency or feeling of incomplete evacuation) (d) Passage of mucus (e) Bloating or feeling of abdominal distension Labs: < 50 CBC, LFTs, electrolytes, hemocult, consider sigmoidoscopy > 50 CBC, LFTs, electrolytes, colonoscopy or air-contrast barium enema with sigmoidoscopy Differential Malabsorptive conditions (sprue), dietary factors (lactose intolerance, excessive caffeine intake), infection (Giardia lamblia), inflammatory 230 ISOLATED GONADOTROPIN DEFICIENCY bowel disease (Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis), psychological disorders (somatization, depression), miscellaneous (endometriosis) Lotronex® (alosetron) – IBS especially if prominent symptom is diarrhea. Does not work in men. It is a selective 5-HT3 receptor antagonist. Dose is 1 mg p.o. b.i.d. Lotronex should be used only short term. Risk of intestinal obstruction should be explained Zelnorm® (tegaserod) – IBS especially if prominent symptom is constipation. Dose is 6 mg p.o. b.i.d. Treatment ISOLATED GONADOTROPIN DEFICIENCY Not result of isolated FSH or LH but a failure of these GnRH neurons to migrate successfully from the nasal region of the developing brain. Frequently associated with IGD is anosmia – Kallmann’s syndrome (disease in male but has been referred to in female with anosmia and IGD → less appropriate) KEGEL EXERCISES Pelvic muscle exercises Type I (aerobic) and Type II (anaerobic) muscle types are trained to hypertrophy so symptoms improve in 2–3 months Type I (slow-twitch) – aerobic oxidative metabolism to support Type II (fast-twitch) – anaerobic glycolytic metabolism to support Kegels are less effective in postmenopausal females than premenopausal females 66% Incidence of reduction during 16 week PME protocol, 2 months or longer Written or verbal instructions usually inadequate Errors in technique – contraction of auxiliary muscles (gluteal, thigh) and most seriously – a Valsalva or straining down effort Audio tape: HELP for Incontinent People (1-800-252-3337) 30–80 per day with 10 s relaxation recommended between contractions Quick ‘flick,’ ‘pull’, ‘squeeze’, ‘tighten’, ‘lift’, ‘clench’, ‘contract’ Cones can be purchased to help train pelvic floor FOLLOW-UP: Absence of gluteal or thigh contractions. Digital palpation of pelvic floor during PME – descent of clitoris and inward/up motion of anus – lifting of exam finger by three layers of perivaginal muscle layers Patient guide to prevention or treatment of urinary incontinence Q A What is pelvic muscle exercise? Pelvic muscle exercise (also called Kegel exercise) is the tightening and relaxing of the muscles that support the uterus, bladder and other pelvic organs. Strong pelvic muscles can help prevent accidental urine leakage Q A Why should I do pelvic muscle exercise? Regular pelvic muscle exercise makes these muscles stronger. Women who have a problem with urine leakage have been able to eliminate or greatly improve this problem just by doing pelvic muscle exercise every day Q A How do I do pelvic muscle exercise? The feeling you should have when you are doing pelvic muscle exercise is that all the pelvic muscles are drawing inward and upward. A good way to learn the exercise is to pretend that you are trying to avoid the embarrassing passing of intestinal gas. Think about the muscles that tighten (or contract) to keep the gas from escaping. Bring that same tightening forward to the muscles around your vagina and move the contraction up to the higher levels of your pelvis. There are three layers of muscle to tighten and you can feel them as you move the contraction up to the highest level Continued KEGEL EXERCISES 231 Continued Important tips (1) (2) (3) (4) Each contraction should be as hard or intense as you can make it without tightening your thigh or buttock muscles Work up to holding each contraction for 2 s, then for 4, 6, 8 and 10 s as your muscles become stronger Rest for at least 10 s (longer if you need to) between each contraction, so that each one is as hard as you can make it Each contraction should reach the highest level of your pelvis; you will feel the pulling up and in over the three distinct layers of muscle Q A How often should I do these exercises and how many should I do? If you have some problem with urine leakage, we recommend 30 contractions each day. You can expect to see some improvement after doing regular pelvic muscle exercise for about 6–8 weeks, so don’t be discouraged if you don’t notice results right away. Remembering to contract the muscles prior to coughing, blowing your nose or sneezing will help you avoid leakage. This technique can also help to control sudden urges to urinate Q A Are there any mistakes to avoid with pelvic muscle exercise? The most serious mistake is to strain down instead of drawing the muscles up and in. Trying this will show you what NOT to do: take a breath, hold it and push down with your abdomen. You can feel a pushing out around your vagina. It is very important to avoid this straining down. To keep from straining down while you do pelvic muscle exercise, exhale gently and keep your mouth open each time you tighten the pelvic muscles. You can also keep your hands on your abdomen while you tighten your pelvic muscles. If you feel your stomach pushing out against your hands, you are straining down. Do not continue with pelvic muscle exercise until you check with your physician to learn how to do it properly Avoid tightening thigh and buttock muscles. This takes away from the effectiveness of your pelvic muscle exercise. If it seems impossible not to tighten the thigh and buttock muscles, concentrate first on full relaxation and then try gentle ‘flicks’ of the pelvic muscles; for example, ‘flick, relax, flick, relax’. After gaining confidence, try a second flick on top of the first and then a third – ‘flick flick, flick, relax’ – working the muscles to higher layers with each flick Keys to success It is a challenge to work any new health habit into your everyday life. Here are some things that other women have found helpful in making pelvic muscle exercise a regular part of their self-care: (1) Think about your usual day and pick a time (about 15 min) when you will be able to do your pelvic muscle exercise every day. Maybe when you first wake up is a good time or maybe afternoon or evening is better (2) Decide on a way to remind yourself to do pelvic muscle exercise. You might put a note on your bathroom mirror or plan to do your exercises during a TV program that you watch every day. Just think of something that happens every day that will remind you to do it (3) Reward yourself for exercising each time you do it. You might get some special small candies and treat yourself to one each day that you remember to do pelvic muscle exercise. Or you could draw a small flower on your calendar to mark each day you exercise and get yourself a real bouquet of flowers when you have drawn 10 flowers. Any small reward that you know will keep you working on this new habit is fine (4) Monitor your progress, especially if you have a problem with urine leakage. You might want to keep a daily diary of whether you have had an accident and how many times it happened. Over the weeks, you will be able to measure your own progress. Another way is to see whether you can slow or stop your urine stream when you are going to the bathroom. We recommend that you try this no more than once a week. As your pelvic muscles get stronger, you will be able to stop the stream more quickly Good luck on your program of pelvic muscle exercise! Please call your physician if you have any questions about this program to strengthen your pelvic muscles 232 LABIAL AGGLUTINATION LABIAL AGGLUTINATION Prevalence in white females Prevalence in black and Hispanic females 20% < 5% Etiology (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Inflammatory reaction – anestrogenic state Recurrent UTI E. coli – primary bacteria Can be sexual abuse History of new occurrence → differential diagnosis to rule out: (a) Müllerian agenesis (b) Androgen insensitivity syndrome (c) Hermaphroditism (d) Ambiguous genitalia of adrenogenital syndrome (e) Imperforate hymen Treatment Asymptomatic – leave alone → usually hormonal + pH changes cause spontaneous resolution Symptomatic: (1) Perineal hygiene (Sitz baths) (2) Treatment consists of estrogen cream b.i.d. for 7–10 days Separation usually occurs in 1–4 weeks (3) Do not forcefully separate (4) Do not surgically incise – adhesions will form if incised (5) If recurs – treat only if symptomatic LABIAL CYSTS – BARTHOLIN’S CYST Etiology – obstruction of duct due to inflammation, trauma or cancer Symptoms – rapidly develop in 2–4 days Symptoms consist of pain, dyspareunia and pain with ambulation Signs – mass, erythema, tenderness, edema, cellulitis Treatment (1) (2) (3) (4) Asymptomatic < 40 years of age No treatment Asymptomatic > 40 years of age Excise Acute adenitis or abscess Antibiotics and Sitz baths Symptomatic Develop fistulous tract (a) Word catheter – place under mucus epithelium, use saline not air (b) Marsupialization – mucus epithelium to be sutured back to open (c) Excision – if persistent deep infection or multiple recurrences or to rule out adenocarcinoma in age > 40 Caution: branches of pudendal artery to be avoided so as to avoid postop vulvar hematoma Excision if recurrent, multiple recurrence or patient age > 40 LABOR Cardinal movements Engagement, descent, flexion, internal rotation, extension, external rotation, expulsion Montevideo units Labor 80–120 MV units Three contractions in 10 min each of 50 mmHg intensity 150 MV units Contractions palpable only after intensity reaches > 10 mmHg Prior to C-section for dystocia, uterine activity should reach at least 200–275 MV units It takes 30–40 min for the full effect of an increase in oxytocin dosage to be evident LABOR MEDICATIONS IVFs RL – better for pre-major conduction anesthesia (Infusing any solution containing dextrose at high rates may result in osmotic diuresis and consequent dehydration) 233 LAPAROSCOPY Pain Sublimaze (fentanyl) 1–2 cc IV q. 1–2 h p.r.n. pain Demerol 50–100 mg, Phenergan 15–50 mg = IM every 3–4 h or dec dosages IV Stadol 1 mg IV or 1–2 mg IM every 4 h (Do not use if delivery anticipated within 4 h) Nubain® 5–20 mg IV or 10–20 mg IM every 2–4 h (Maximum daily dose is 160 mg) Sedation Nembutal® 100–200 mg p.o. Seconal® 100–200 mg IM Demerol 100 mg IM Morphine 10 mg IM Antacid 30 ml of 0.3 M sodium citrate with citric acid (Bicitra®) before anticipated general anesthesia to protect against aspiration pneumonitis Hypertension Apresoline® 5–10 mg IV bolus every 15–20 min until diastolic 90–100 Normodyne® 20, 40, 80 mg then 80 mg thereafter at 10-min intervals (max of 300 mg) Adalat®, Procardia® 10–20 mg p.o. every 20–30 min Ripening/augmentation Prepidil Gel intracervical every 6–8 h no more than 3 in 24 h Prostin 2.5 mg suppository intravaginal every 3–6 h Cervidil tampon intravaginal 12–15 h prior to induction Cytotec 25 µg intravaginal every 3–6 h Pitocin 0.5–1 mIU/min with inc to 1–2 mIU/min at 30–60-min intervals 2 mIU/min with inc to 2 mIU/min at 30–60-min intervals 6 mU/min with inc to 6 mU/min at 20-min intervals Induction ‘DrT’ Pitocin protocol Augment: 1 mu/min IV then inc by 1 mu/min IV every 30 min Active I: 6 mu/min IV and inc by 1 mu/min every 30 min Active II: 6 mu/min IV and inc by 6 mu/min every 15 min 36 mu/min is maximum unless ordered to increase by MD Diabetic management Regular insulin 50 units in 500 ml of NS Shake well – run out 50 ml waste to ensure absorption of surfaces Continuous pump rate of 0.5 units/h or > with increments of 0.5–1 unit/h to obtain necessary glucose levels Patient should also receive D5LR ml/h to avoid starvation during labor Check glucose values every hour with finger stick test strips Adjust infusion p.r.n. LAPAROSCOPY Skill at open laparotomy does not necessarily transfer to skill at minimally invasive techniques. (Figert PL, Park AE, Witzke DB, et al. Transfer of training in acquiring laparoscopic skills. J Am Coll Surg 2001; 193:533–7) Main reasons laparoscopists get sued (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Inexperience Defects in eye–hand coordination Ignorance of three-dimensional anatomy Equipment and technique failure Infection Improper patient selection Repositioning patients during surgery Failure to plan and be prepared for foreseeable complications Complications Surgeons in solo practice or those with a variable surgical assistant were how much more likely to have a complication? 7.74 and 4.8 × (1) Verres needle stick into stomach Rx with observation if no leakage. If leakage, bleeding or suspect posterior injury then 2-layer closure, NG tube and H2 blockers 0.03% 234 LAPAROSCOPY (2) Perforation of small or large bowel @ 1% Incidence of injury to small bowel not really known. Incidence of laparoscopic bowel perforation and abrasion is 0.2% and 0.6%, respectively What % of injuries are not recognized at time of surgery? 69% What % of injuries require laparotomy? 80% What are some of the first presenting signs and symptoms of an unrecognized laparoscopic bowel injury? (a) Persistent focal pain in a trocar site (b) Abdominal distention, diarrhea, leukopenia (c) Free air not reliable due to retention of CO2 under diaphragm (@ 40% patients will have more than 2 cm of free air at 24 h) Repair – majority of trocar punctures require suture reapproximation – needle punctures usually can be managed conservatively and do not require any treatment – burn injuries require resection of 1–2 cm of viable tissue around injury site to ensure undamaged tissue (3) Perforation of vessel Most common site of vascular injury is the inferior epigastrics Avoid epigastrics by placing trocar lateral to the rectus muscles and/or transillumination of the lower abdominal wall CT scans found that lateral trocar should be placed 8 cm from the midline and at least 5 cm above the symphysis to minimize risk of vessel injury (4) Burn injuries (a) Direct coupling – monopolar electrosurgery injury due to conductive injury touch with other structures (b) Capacitative coupling – if ‘return’ to dispersive electrode is blocked by insulation (avoid hybrids) (c) Insulation defect – type of direct coupling injury (d) Dispersive electrode injury – when pad becomes partially detached → increases current density → skin burn (5) Uterine perforation (6) Subcutaneous emphysema (7) 2% 0.5% 1% Bladder injury < 1% (a) Minimize this by making certain the bladder is empty and that placement of secondary trocars are under direct visualization (b) If recognized – suture at time of surgery (c) If unrecognized – patient usually presents with urinary ascites, abdominal pain and distension with fever, chills, oliguria, nausea and vomiting. BUN and creatinine will be elevated and patients will respond to aggressive hydration and bladder drainage. Cystoscopy is rarely indicated and these type of injuries will heal spontaneously and do not require surgical repair At laparoscopy with usual insufflation flow rate of gas of 1 liter/min, abd pressure should not be > 20 mmHg Air embolus at time of laparoscopy is from Trendelenberg position, not laparoscopy Delayed recognition of bowel injury is an independent predictor of death from laparoscopic entry injuries Newer instrumentation – Endoscopic Floating Ball (TissueLink Medical, Dover, NH) Laparoscopic ‘Plasma’ Forceps and ‘Plasma’ Dissector (Gyrus Medical Inc., Maple Grove, MN) Capio Suture Capturing Device (Boston Scientific, Urology/Gynecology, Natick, MA) LigaSure Atlas (Valleylab, Boulder, CO) for sealing + cutting LigaSure Lap (Valleylab) – 5 mm sealer single use replaces Klepenger 235 LEIOMYOMAS LATE DECELERATIONS Exhibited prior to acidemia. Variability of baseline disappears as acidemia develops Lates can occur in Maternal hypotension (epidural) Increased uterine activity (oxytocin stimulation) Placental dysfunction (maternal hypertension, DM, collagen-vascular disorders, abruption) Action for concern Observe labor if pH Repeat pH within 30 min if pH Recheck STAT on way to OR if pH If low pH again – C-section Treatment D/C Pitocin. Give terbutaline. Turn patient on her side. Increase IVFs. Give O2. R/O prolapsed cord. Correct any decreased B/P due to epidural Why bradycardia with hypoxia? Hypoxia affects the chemo + baroreceptors, which triggers a cascade of events that cause vagal stimulation which ends in bradycardia and is eventually directly hypoxic to the fetal cardiac muscle No single fetal heart rate is associated with neurological injury Pearls for managing (1) Reduce aorto-caval and/or cord compression = change patient positioning (2) Restore intravascular volume = administer intravenous fluid bolus (3) Reduce uterine activity = d/c oxytocin drip and give tocolytic Rx (4) Enhance oxygen delivery to fetus = give supplemental oxygen (5) Resolve hypotension = administer vasopressor therapy (ephedrine) (6) Resolve oligohydramnios and cord compression = perform transcervical amnioinfusion Prolonged decelerations Fetal bradycardias and prolonged decelerations are 2 distinct entities; the first usually does not warrant immediate intervention > 7.25 7.2–7.25 < 7.20 LEEP LEEP = LLETZ = LETZ Important points to remember (1) Long-term sequelae of LEEP can be cervical stenosis and cervical incompetence (2) Complications of LEEP include infection and bleeding (3) Most cases of ASCUS regress spontaneously and therefore do not require LEEP (4) Use caution when performing LEEP in the luteal phase. The luteal phase of the cycle is characterized by increased vascularity of the endometrium and underlying tissue, which may account for more bleeding than procedures done in the follicular phase LEGAL TERMS Important terms to remember Fiduciary beneficence – obligation to act for the benefit of the patient Patient autonomy – right of patient to make informed decisions regarding her health care Justice – extent to which an adequate level of health care is made equally available and accessible to all LEIOMYOMAS Chromosomes Bleeding is reason for what % of hysterectomies? Pain and pressure is reason for this % of hysterectomies This % of hysterectomies are done for myomas 1, 6, 7, 12, and 14 33% 33% 30% 236 LEIOMYOSARCOMA Most common pelvic tumor in females. Seen in what % of reproductive women? Most frequent non-random cytogenic abnormality Labor – asymptomatic if fibroid can cause PTL, pain, abruption, C-section if fibroid can cause obstructed labor if fibroid Degeneration of fibroid – See Red degeneration 20% del (7)(q21) < 3 cm > 3 cm > 6 cm LEIOMYOSARCOMA How many mitoses per 10 HPF should be seen to diagnose leiomyosarcoma? > 10 How many mitoses per 10 HPF with moderate to severe cellular atypia should be seen? 5–10 What % recur when > 10 mitoses are seen with 10 HPF? 50–75% What % recur when 5–10 mitoses are seen per 10 HPF? 33% Doxorubicin chemo for extrauterine or distant metastases if these are found. Follow-up exams should be done at 3-month intervals LEMON SIGN US finding for NTD which can be decreased by routine folic acid given 3 months prior in dose of Give this dose after an occurrence or recurrence The specific image seen on US is ‘frontal notching’ The banana sign is associated with cerebellar changes 0.4 mg 4 mg LICHEN SCLEROSUS The treatment for lichen sclerosus is clobetasol (Temovate®) b.i.d. × 2–3 weeks then q. hs till gone Some prefer testosterone 2% cream between courses of clobetasol This % of patients with lichen sclerosus develop squamous cell hyperplasia This % of patients with lichen sclerosus develop intraepithelial neoplasia This % of patients with lichen sclerosus develop vulvar cancer 0.05% 27–35% Etiology Unknown Histology White, thinning epithelium, loss of rete pegs, dermal homogenization Symptoms Itching, dyspareunia, subepithelial hemorrhages Dyspareunia and decreased coitus found in • Most often in PMP patients but can occur in extragenital sites and in children – can be confused with child abuse What % of lichen sclerosus cases occur in children? Treatment` Temovate 0.05% × 2–3 weeks then q. h till gone 2% testosterone propionate in white petroleum is optional during treatment with clobetasol For persistent vulvar pruritis – intradermal injection of steroids and subcutaneous injection of absolute alcohol. Massage evenly Potential side-effects Intense vulvar itching, urinary retention There is no good evidence that women with lichen sclerosus face a higher risk for vulvar carcinoma 5% 4% 80% 15% LI–FRAUMENI SYNDROME Mutation of p53 tumor-suppressor gene on chromosome Autosomal dominant malignancy that occurs by age 17 30 237 LUTEAL CYSTS Breast, adrenocortical, brain ca, soft tissue and osteogenic sarcomas. Leukemias. Rhabdomyosarcomas + osteosarcomas in children. Breast and other tumors in their mothers LUNG MATURITY Development of fetal lungs Indirect methods Direct tests Glandular period (pulmonary tree) Canalicular period (bronchioles) Terminal sac period (alveolar) Amniocentesis is not warranted for pulmonary maturity prior to Can (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) be performed to determine elective delivery such as: FHTs documented by non-electronic fetoscope by FHTs documented by Doppler for + hCG by a reliable lab for US measurement of C–R length ≥ 39 weeks done US measurement supporting clinical age of 39 weeks done 3–16 weeks 16–24 weeks 33 weeks 20 30 36 6–11 weeks weeks weeks weeks 12–20 weeks To determine fetal maturity are derived testing products of type II pneumocytes: L/S (centrifuge + freeze) 2–3.5 Affected by blood and meconium PG present FSI (meconium and blood interferes with silicon tube) ≥ 47–48 Fluorescence polarization > 55 OD at 650 mm ≥ 0.15 Lamellar body counts @ 30 000–50 000 Ultrasound BPD/FL 9.2/7.3 LUPRON See Depo-Lupron LUPUS During the crisis, the complement levels are decreased Suspect female with recurrent DVT, cerebrovascular stroke or coronary thrombosis. Suspect if labs show false + VDRL, abnormal ptt or decreased platelets LUTEAL CYSTS Follicular Most common Frequently multiple Most are asymptomatic. Transient tenderness if symptomatic Normal follicle becomes follicular if diameter Etiology (1) Dominant follicle fails to rupture or (2) Immature follicle fails to undergo atresia Treatment (1) 2 mm–1.5 cm ≥ 2.5–3 cm Conservative – observe. Most reabsorb or silently rupture @ 4–8 weeks (2) Surgery if (a) Mass prior to puberty or after menopause (b) Solid mass at any age (c) Cystic mass > 8 cm (d) Cystic mass 5–8 cm for over 8 weeks duration (3) Transvaginal ultrasound – differentiate simple from complex cyst, serial measurements • Surgery is cystectomy (usually laparoscopic) Recurrence rate after laparoscopy is @ Tissue sample p.r.n. – not cytology of fluid 2% 238 LUTEAL PHASE DEFICIENCY Corpus luteum Most asymptomatic Unilateral lower abdominal pain usually R-sided Delayed menses. Intra-abdominal bleeding (minimal to massive) possible Holban’s classic syndrome – delay in normal period – spotting and unilateral pain – small, tender adnexal mass Most rupture @ days Differential diagnosis (1) Ruptured corpus luteum (2) Ectopic (3) Ruptured endometrium (4) Torsion Diagnosis hCG, vaginal ultrasound, culdocentesis Treatment (1) Conservative – observe if unruptured or ruptures with small amount of fluid with minimum to moderate pain (2) Surgery – (cystectomy – operation of choice) if ruptured with hemoperitoneum or severe pain Rate of recurrence after laparoscopy is @ 3–4 cm 66% 20–26 14% Theca lutein cysts Least common, most asymptomatic Bilateral, almost always large and massive Etiology Prolonged stimulation, arise from increased ovarian sensitivity Associated with: (1) Molar pregnancy (2) Choriocarcinoma (3) Third-trimester conditions (twins, diabetes, Rh sensitivity) (4) Infertility, ovulation-induction meds (5) Hypothyroidism (rare) Symptoms Vague symptoms – ascites, increased abdominal girth Torsion and bleeding rare @ Diagnosis Palpation – ultrasound confirms Treatment Observation – usually regresses. Handle delicately – do not drain – risk hemorrhage 50% 10% 1% LUTEAL PHASE DEFICIENCY Diagnosed with two endometrial biopsies late in cycle @ how many days prior to menses? 2 The biopsy is usually out of phase with stromal edema, fully secretory glands with secretions in lumen and no decidual formation yet at @ day # 22 Diagnosis suspected if increase in BBT lasting 10 days or < Endo bx histology out of phase by > 2 days Should be documented in two successive cycles for diagnostic validity LYNCH I SYNDROME Hereditary colon cancer – not associated with breast or ovarian cancers LYNCH II SYNDROME HNPCC syndrome – hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer 239 MAMMOGRAPHY All family members at increased risk for proximal colon cancer, cancers of stomach, urinary tract, small bowel and bile duct. Females at increased risk of endometrial and epithelial ovarian cancer Criteria (1) Individual should be diagnosed < 30 years old (2) Successive generations are affected (3) Relatives with histologically verified colorectal cancer What % of HNPCC families do not meet the Amsterdam criteria? Cause of Lynch II syndrome – germline mutations in the ‘mismatch repair’ genes 20% hMSH1 hMLH1 hMSH2 and hMLH2 Management Colonoscopy to cecum q. 1–3 years beginning at age 20–25 years Annual screening for endometrial cancer with transvaginal US and endometrial biopsy to begin at age 25–35 years Prophylactic colectomy and TAHBSO – controversial MACROSOMIA Definition Birth weight greater than 4000 g What % of pregnancies have over 4000 g infants? 10–14% What % of pregnancies have over 4500 g infants? 2.5% What is the breakdown of races having macrosomic infants? W/B/A 12%/4%/5% How much weight does an average human fetus near term gain per week? 250 g Fetal weight CANNOT BE ACCURATELY determined! See below Ultrasound predictability > 4000 g has an average predictability error > 300–400 g All methods of predictability have comparable sensitivities of no more than 60% Therefore, PREDICTABILITY OF SHOULDER DYSTOCIA IS LIMITED Shoulder dystocia occurs in 5% of deliveries in gravidas whose infants weigh 4000–4250 g Risks of macrosomia Increase with maternal diabetes, post-term pregnancies, pregnancy weight gain > 35 #, abnormal GTT (esp. 1 h), obesity, maternal height > 5 ft 3 in, AMA > 35 years old, multiparity, male fetus, white race The finding of an extremely low MSAFP level should alert the physician to possible fetal macrosomia. (Baschat AA, Harman CR, Farid G, et al. Very low second-trimester MSAFP: association with high birth weight. Obstet Gynecol 2002;99:531–6) Fetal weight is usually decreased with chronic maternal hypertension, PIH, maternal tobacco abuse, increased altitudes MAGNESIUM SULFATE Therapeutic mag levels Loss of patellar reflex Respiratory depression Respiratory arrest Cardiac arrest 4–7 mEq/l 8–10 m Eq/l 10–12 mEq/l ≥ 12 mEq/l 30–35 mEq/l Magnesium sulfate is contraindicated with myasthenia gravis, renal disease and hypocalcemia MAMMOGRAPHY Detects microcalcification of tumor @ what size? Tumor has grown how many years prior to detection by mammogram? 1 mm (0.1 cm) 6–8 years 240 MANEUVERS Mammography can still detect lesion @ how many years prior to clinical exam? 2 What % of improvement in breast cancer survival has mammography provided? 30% Mortality is decreased by how much if female screened annually after age 40? ½ What is the false-negative rate for diagnosing malignancy with mammography? 10–20% MANEUVERS Brandt Woods Marceau Pinard Scanzoni Ritgen McRobert’s Prague Bracht Prevents inversion of uterus ‘Corkscrew’ to extract impacted shoulder Delivery of after-coming head with fingers in maxilla Delivery of lower extremities with Frank breech (knee from midline) Rotation of head with forceps with a pelvic curve Extension of head with elevation of chin via rectum Flexion of hips to disimpact shoulder Managing persistence of the fetal spine directed toward the maternal spine (sacrum) by using two fingers to grasp shoulders of back down fetus while other hand draws feet over mother’s abdomen Breech allowed to deliver spontaneously then body held against maternal symphysis MASTALGIA Treated with GnRH, bromocriptine, danazol, oil of evening primrose, tamoxifen. Switch from MPA to micronized progesterone or norethindrone. Ultrasound or appropriate biopsy if continues Mastalgia (mastodynia) is confined to the breast tissue and may be cyclic or non-cyclic and diffuse or localized. All women presenting with mastalgia deserve a complete evaluation including: breastoriented history, complete breast examination, mammography (if over age 25) and fine-needle aspiration of any palpable dominant breast mass If no significant abnormality is discovered, the patient can be reassured that there is no evidence of breast cancer and that her symptoms are common to many women – probably physiologic (end-organ sensitivity) Fewer than 15% of women with breast cancer present with pain as a chief complaint. Breast cancer pain is usually localized, non-cyclic and associated with a palpable mass Treatment More than 75% of women presenting with mastalgia, after complete breast evaluation, will be satisfied with, and appropriately treated by reassurance. If further therapy is required, it should be tried in a step-wise fashion starting with: (1) Mechanical measures: changing to a brassiere with good support, no wires and no pressure points; heating pad or hot towels; massage (2) Physiological measures: ventilation of any acute stress caused by exposure to breast cancer patients or information (3) Dietary measures: weight reduction if obese; premenstrual salt restriction (4) Pharmacologic measures: (a) 1/35 monophasic oral contraceptive therapy (b) Danazol – 100 mg twice a day until the mastalgia is controlled. In menstruating women, danazol treatment should begin during menstruation to avoid the possibility of pregnancy, a contraindication to danazol. The dose can be increased incrementally up to 400 mg a day (c) Oil of evening primrose 241 MASTALGIA After the breast symptoms have been controlled for at least a month, the dose of danazol can often be reduced incrementally to as low as 50 mg per day. The patient should be maintained on the lowest effective dose for at least 6 months. As many as 50% of women will experience return of their mastalgia within 6 months after cessation of therapy. In these cases, danazol therapy can be repeated Effective non-hormonal contraception should be practiced during danazol treatment. Side-effects of treatment include: irregular menstrual bleeding and masculinization Breast pain Breast-oriented history Complete bilateral breast exam Mammography (if over age 25) Palpable dominant breast mass Fine-needle aspiration Mastalgia findings Reassurance Mechanical measures Physiological measures Dietary measures Oil of evening primrose OCP Danazol 242 MASTECTOMY MASTECTOMY Segmental (lumpectomy), simple, modified radical, radical and extended radical Segmental – excision of a quadrant or lumpectomy Simple – removal of entire breast but leaves nodes Modified radical – en block removal of breast, pectoralis major FASCIA and axillary lymph nodes Radical – en block removal of breast, pectoralis major muscles and axillary lymph nodes Extended radical – radical including removal of INTERNAL MAMMARY nodes MATERNAL–FETAL RELATIONSHIP • Pregnant patient may refuse a diagnostic procedure, medical therapy or surgical procedure intended to enhance or preserve fetal well-being • If patient refuses, the obstetrician may request involvement of the court • Obstetrician should involve ethical principle of beneficence MATURATION INDEX Superficial (‘wafer-thin’ cytoplasm) cells – estrogen + Parabasal (thick cytoplasm) cells demonstrate decreased estrogen – Ovulation has 40% intermediate cells and with increase ERT, the superficial cells make up Postpartum and postmenopausal periods have no superficial cells but parabasal cells comprise 60% 100% McENDOE PROCEDURE Operation to create a vagina. Dissect where vagina should be. Skin graft placed on foam rubber mold, ‘inside of graft on outside’. One week later, pull form. Need to keep foam rubber form in for 3–4 h per day as skin can retract. Must continue for rest of patient’s life MEASLES Rubeola – sixth to seventh largest killer among infectious diseases Pathology Fomites, fever, URI, red spots with bluish to white centers on buccal mucosa (Koplik’s spots). 1–2 days after the above 2-week incubation period – RASH begins on head and descends to trunk and limbs Diagnosis Multinucleated giant cells. IgM antibodies in acute serum taken 2–3 days after the onset of rash. IgG antibodies in later samples. PCR (polymerase chain reaction) Virology RNA virus – morbillivirus Complications Can exacerbate tuberculosis Diarrhea 9% Bacterial or viral otitis and pneumonitis 7% Encephalitis 20–40% Mortality 20% Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE) can occur 5–7 years after. Personality change, intellectual decline, deterioration, seizures, death. Rate is 0.5–2 per 100 000 cases Pregnancy Maternal mortality – 3 × that of non-pregnant patient. High rate of fetal loss and prematurity 243 MEDICINES COMMONLY PRESCRIBED Vaccination Management in pregnancy Contraindicated in pregnancy or those with egg allergy What % of those vaccinated develop a temp of 103°F or higher ? What day after vaccination does this % usually begin temps? 45% 42 days Children born to mothers who have measles in last week of gestation or first week postpartum, should be treated with immune globulin 0.25 ml/kg IM MEDICINES COMMONLY PRESCRIBED Broad-spectrum antibiotics Augmentin® 250 mg, 500 mg or 875 mg Amoxil® 250 mg, 500 mg or 875 mg ENT Lower URI Skin infection UTI GC, acute urethritis One tablet p.o. q. 8–12 h 500 mg q. 12 h or 875 mg q. 12 h 875 mg q. 12 h or 500 mg q. 8 h 500 mg q. 12 h or 875 mg q. 12 h 500 mg q. 12 h or 875 mg q. 12 h 3 g as single oral dose Cardiac prophylaxis Ampicillin 2 g IV @ 30 min to 1 h prior to surgery or labor, then 1 g q. 4–6 h while in labor or 1 dose 6 h postop with gentamicin 1.5 mg/kg IV preop then repeated 8 h later Genital Bacterial vaginosis Metronidazole Metrogel® Clindamycin 2% cream 500 mg p.o. b.i.d. Apply 5 g hs × 5 nights 5 g intravaginally × 7 nights Candidiasis Agent Brand name Dosage ® Butoconazole 2% cream 5 g intravaginally × 3 days Femstat ® Clotrimazole 1% cream Gyne-Lotrimin Mycelex®-7 5 g intravaginally × 7–14 days 5 g intravaginally × 7–14 days Clotrimazole vaginal tablets Gyne-Lotrimin® vaginal inserts Mycelex-7 vaginal inserts Mycelex-G vaginal tablets One 100 mg insert × 7 days One 100 mg insert × 7 days One 500 mg tablet Fluconazole oral tablets Diflucan® tablets One 150 mg tablet Miconazole 2% cream Monistat® 7 5 g intravaginally for 7 days Miconazole suppositories Monistat 7 Monistat 3 One 100 mg suppository × 7 days One 200 mg suppository × 3 days Terconazole 0.4% cream Terazol® 7 5 g intravaginally × 7 days Terconazole 0.8% cream Terazol 3 5 g intravaginally × 3 days Terconazole suppositories Terazol 3 One 80 mg suppository × 3 days Tioconazole 6.5% vaginal ® Vagistat -1 5 g intravaginally once Trichomonas – metronidazole Lower respiratory tract Skin and skin structures Levaquin® Zithromax® 1 g p.o. once 500 mg p.o. daily 500 mg p.o., then 250 mg p.o. daily × 4 days Doxycycline 100 mg p.o. q. 12 h Tetracycline 250 mg and 500 mg tablets (1 g in 2–4 daily divided doses then 125–500 mg daily after improvement) Traveler’s diarrhea 1 tab p.o. daily or Prevention – TMP 160 mg/SMX 800 mg (Septra® DS) doxycycline 100 mg p.o. b.i.d. then daily Treatment – Cipro 500 mg p.o. b.i.d. and Loperamide two tablets then one tab after each loose stool not > 8/day and HYDRATION Upper respiratory tract Amoxicillin Ceftin Augmentin Biaxin® Levaquin Vantin® 500 mg p.o. t.i.d. × 3 days for first-line therapy of sinusitis 250 mg p.o. b.i.d. 875 mg p.o. b.i.d. 500 mg p.o. b.i.d. 500 mg p.o. q. daily 100–200 mg p.o. b.i.d. 244 MEIGS' SYNDROME Urinary tract infections Coughs/colds Gastrointestinal Septra DS (TMP/SMX DS) Macrobid® 100 mg For recurrent cystitis – treat with quinolones Levaquin Tequin® Flu Tamiflu Relenza® One tablet p.o. b.i.d. × 3 days One tablet p.o. b.i.d. × 3 days 500 mg p.o. daily or 400 mg p.o. daily 75 mg 1 capsule b.i.d. for 5 days (Category C) Two puffs b.i.d. for 5 days (Category B) Constipation MiraLax® (polyethylene glycol 3350) or (PEG 3350) Ducolax® tablets and/or suppositories 2 tablets and 1 suppository Diarrhea Lomotil® or Imodium® 1–2 tablets initially followed by one tablet every 6 h or after each loose stool GERD or heartburn – See Heartburn of pregnancy Irritable bowel syndrome – See Irritable bowel syndrome Ophthalmologicals Neosporin® ophthalmological solution 10 cc Opthaine® (local anesthesia) Otics Auralgan® otic solution ½ ounce Debrox® 1 ounce Pain relief Morphine 8–10 mg IM or 2 mg IV then MS continue 30 or 60 mg tablets p.o. q. 12 h (Good for fractures, postop pain, etc.) Ketoralac (Toradol®) 30–60 mg IM then 15–30 mg p.o. q. 6 h (Excellent for kidney stones, postop pain, watch for bleeding) Meperidine (Demerol) 25–100 mg IM or IV then Mepergan® fortis p.o. q. 3–4 h (Caution with patients > 60 years old) Sublimaze® (fentanyl) 1–2 cc IV or transdermal 1–2 cc/h (Very good for short acting, labor or postop outpatient) Oxycodone (Percocet 5, Lorcet Plus, etc.) One tablet p.o. q. 4 h Dilaudid 1, 2, 3 or 4 mg IM, p.o., IV or rectal suppositories B & O Suppositories – available in 16-A and 15-A suppositories (The 16-A is the most commonly used and consists of 60 mg of opium and 16 mg of belladonna extract. This works very well to relieve rectal pain such as hemorrhoidectomies, post. repair etc.) Sedation/sleep Ambien® Sonata® Placidyl® (chloral hydrate) Morphine Nembutal Scopolamine (rarely used anymore) Stat ‘disaster’ mix Isoprel 1 cc Atropine 2 cc (0.8 mg) Neosynephrine 1 cc (10 mg) Put all of the above into 20 cc sterile water → give 5 cc STAT IV for unknown type of cardiac arrest. This is a last resort – otherwise do not attempt using this mixture Urinary incontinence Detrol LA 4 mg p.o. daily or 2 mg p.o. b.i.d. Ditropan XL 10 mg p.o. daily or 5 mg p.o. b.i.d. These meds and more are for detrusor incontinence. See Urinary incontinence 1–2 gtts q. 2–3 h b.i.d. to q.i.d. 1 gtts. q. 1–2 h till no pain 5–10 gtts b.i.d. × 3–4 days 10 mg p.o. q. hs 10 mg p.o. q. hs 500 mg p.o. hs 15 mg 100–200 mg gr1/100, second dose 1/200 MEIGS’ SYNDROME Fibroma, ascites and hydrothorax Fibroma is a benign, solid, ovarian neoplasm that comprises what % of benign neoplasms? What % are malignant? 5% 1% 245 MENOPAUSE What % are unilateral? What % of fibromas present with Meigs’ syndrome? What % have ascites if the tumor is over 6 cm in size? What % of hydrothorax is found in the right pleural space? Incidence of ascites is directly proportional to the size of the tumor 90% < 5% 50% 75% Remember, most patients with preop ascites and solid tumor have ovarian cancer! MELANOMA Melanoma of the vulva Of all primary vulvar malignancies, represents Second most common vulva malignancy Staging: 2–4% Clark’s levels Chung Breslow Histologic types Superficial spreading melanoma most common type Lentigo malignant melanoma flat freckle Nodular melanoma – tends to penetrate deeply and metastasize widely. Most aggressive Diagnosis Excise or biopsy unless present and unchanged for some years. Take from center of lesion – no evidence that biopsy ‘spreads tumor’ Treatment < 1 mm invasion – radical local excision > 1 mm invasion – en block resection and regional lymph nodes Treatment is radical wide excision with how much lateral margins? Prognosis 2 cm Poor but behavior is unpredictable 5-year survival rate 20–50% ≤ 1 mm have excellent prognosis but as depth increases so does mortality Prognosis is so poor for patients with + lymph nodes that there does not appear to be any value in performing lymphadenectomy. Chemo and immunotherapy for vulvar melanoma have been disappointing Clark’s levels (five) – deeper the worse prognosis: (1) Intraepidermal (2) Papillary dermis (3) Fills papillary dermis (4) Reticular dermis (5) Enters fat layer Melanoma of cervix Overall prognosis is poor. 5-year survival rate usually Only 26 published cases of primary cervical melanoma How many cases of female genital melanoma at Duke? Vulva – vaginal – cervical Diagnosis Biopsy/LEEP +S-100, HMB 45, melanoma antigen Treatment Radical hysterectomy, partial vaginectomy, pelvic and para-aortic lymph node dissection. Radiation. Chemotherapy (Melphalon, interferon, TNF). Immunotherapy (intralesional high-dose interferon) < 50% 43 30 – 9 – 4 MENOPAUSE Definition Cessation of menses for minimum of 6 months due to inadequate follicular development and waning estrogen production Osteoporosis Bone loss in first 5–7 years after menopause is Hip fractures/year in women This % of white women fracture their hips This % of black women fracture their hips 20% 250 000 33% 25% 246 MEN (MULTIPLE ENDOCRINE NEOPLASIA) This % of white women fracture their spines What % of hip fracture patients die in first 3–4 months? 25% 16% HRT increases spine BMD in compliant patients by Continuous regimen better than ERT alone or cyclic therapy HRT decreases fracture risk by 3.5–5% 50% Bisphosphonates increase BMD by Decrease fracture risk by 6% 50% SERM increased BMD by Decrease vertebral fracture risk by 1–2% 40% Fluoride increases BMD by 10% Cardiovascular ERT/HRT reduce risk of future events and death by How? Lipid-dependent and -independent mechanisms New data from WHI (Women’s Health Initiative) showed that combined estrogen and MPA (medroxyprogesterone acetate) may increase the risks of heart attacks, stroke, breast cancer and blood clots, but still reduce colorectal cancer and hip fractures 50–90% Alzheimer’s Reduction in relative risk for AD in women who used ERT by How? Stimulates axonal regeneration and production of neurotransmitters (acetylcholine and serotonin), protects neurons from amyloid toxicity and increases cerebral blood flow 40–60% Other benefits of ERT or HRT Dermatologic, improved sleep patterns, + effect on urinary incontinence, reduced risk of hip fractures and protective against colon cancer Risks of HRT Relative risks (first pregnancy after 30 years to delayed menopause for risk of breast cancer) 1.48–1.36 Current use of HRT and risk for breast cancer 1.12 See Hormones and hormone replacement therapy MEN (MULTIPLE ENDOCRINE NEOPLASIA) MEN I – autosomal dominant (parathyroid, anterior pituitary, pancreatic islet tumors). Chromosome MEN II – (medullary thyroid cancer, pheochromocytoma and parathyroid/adenomas). Chromosome Medullary thyroid Pheochromocytoma Parathyroid and adenomas 11q 10q 95% 50% only 15–30% DNA diagnosis at age 6 – prophylactic thyroidectomy MENSTRUAL CYCLE Proliferative (follicular) Growth. Pseudostratified epithelial nuclei (late) Secretory (luteal) Subnuclear vacuoles around day Stromal edema seen about day Spiral arterioles seen about day Leukocyte infiltration seen by day What causes menstruation? Sloughing of the endometrium as a result of withdrawal of the requisite hormonal support (estrogen and progesterone) Normal volume < 80 ml Average 30 ml Normal interval 28 days Normal length 2–7 days MENSTRUAL MIGRAINE See Headache 16 21 23 27 247 MONITORING METROMENORRHAGIA Definition Blood loss over or over Normal menstrual blood loss is between 80 cc 7 days 30–35 cc MIGRAINE HEADACHE Headache lasting 4–72 h, unilateral, pulsating, N&V, photophobia Treatment Somatotropins Example – Imitrex 20 mg NS, 6 mg SC or 25–50 mg p.o. Amerge 2.5 mg p.o. (can be repeated in 4 h). Category C Zomig 2.5 mg p.o. Prophylaxis Propanolol 40–240 mg /day Atenolol 50–120 mg/day Fluoxetine 10–80 mg/day Amitriptyline 10–25 mg q. daily Verapamil HCl (240–720 mg/day) See also Headache 20 mg t.i.d. 80 mg p.o. t.i.d. MISOPROSTOL (CYTOTEC®) PGE1 – more stable and less expensive than other PGs Dosage q. 3 h Dosage associated with increased rate of uterine tachysystole Currently not approved (by FDA) for induction of labor. Administered in tablet form into posterior fornix. It is FDA-approved for use in peptic ulcer disease. ACOG does not recommend for cervical ripening in patients who have had prior C-section or major uterine surgery 25 µg 50 µg MOLLUSCUM CONTAGIOSUM Pox Virus – ‘Volcanos’ Dxn: Wright’s or Giemsa stain Rx: Local injection, evacuate casious material, curette-rx base 85% TCA MONDOR DISEASE Superficial thrombophlebitis, acute pain with erythema usually in upper lateral portion of the breast. Diagnosis is made on characteristic linear, tender, erythematous mass. Superficial thrombophlebitis in the thoracoepigastric vein which drains the upper outer quadrant of the breast MONITORING Percent of patients receiving epidurals that demonstrate uterine hypertonia with decels 9–12% BTB variability (long-term) Absent 0–2 Minimal 3–5 Average 6–10 Moderate 10–25 Marked > 25 Average and moderate beat-to-beat variability is seen in normal healthy fetuses Short-term variability can only be determined by internal monitoring Ob patients with NO risks First-stage labor evaluate and record FHR every Second-stage labor evaluate and record FHR every BPM BPM BPM BPM BPM 30 min 15 min 248 MONITORING Ob patients with increased risks First-stage labor evaluate and record FHR every Second-stage labor evaluate and record FHR every 15 min 5 min Ob patients with increased risks and continuous monitoring First-stage labor evaluate and record FHR every Second-stage labor evaluate and record FHR every 15 min 5 min Amnioinfusion Room temperature, normal saline Bolus at rate of Continue × 1 h at rate of followed by maintenance dose of 800 ml 10–15 ml/min 10 ml/min 3 ml/min Epidurals Following the administration of an epidural, one might see decreased beat-to-beat variability, late decelerations or a combination of these Approximately what % of patients receiving epidurals demonstrate uterine hypertonia with resultant decelerations? 9.9–12.5% FHR at term gestation Usually ranges from Periodic changes in FHR Are common in labor. These changes occur in response to contractions or fetal movement and include accelerations and decelerations Non-reassuring pattern Degree to which decels are non-reassuring depends on their depth and duration but most importantly the frequency and progression of recurrence Consider fetal scalp electrode If decelerations are persistent and progressively worsening (those considered non-reassuring) Not a substitute for informed clinical judgment Intrapartum fetal assessment by FHR monitoring is only one parameter of fetal well-being. It involves evaluation of the pattern as well as the rate, but it is not a substitute for informed clinical judgment Prolonged deceleration FHR levels below the baseline lasting Fetal baroreceptor regulatory mechanism Cord compression/cord prolapse – activates FBRM causing stimulation of vagal center which is part of parasympathetic nervous system Autonomic nervous system Parasympathetic – decreases heart rate Sympathetic – increases heart rate Bradycardia < 120 BPM lasting 10 min Early decelerations Head compression – stimulation of vagus nerve Uniform – ‘upside down contraction’ – rarely Occurs during vaginal exams, pushing, vertex, after ROM, CPD 120–160 BPM 60–90 s < 110 BPM Variable decelerations Cord occlusion, nuchal cord, late labor, compression, prolapse. No consistent shape – may assume any shape. Variable onset and offset depth and duration. Not associated with acidosis unless severe Mild – < 30 s duration or not less than 80 BPM Severe – < 70 BPM and > 60 s duration Atypical – fetal hypoxia, biphasic, decreased variability, continues with lower baseline Late decelerations Uteroplacental insufficiency Usually occurs with: (1) Blood disorders (anemia, SSD, Rh isoimmunization) (2) Bleeding disorders (abruption, placenta previa) (3) Hypertensive disorders (PIH, chronic hypertension) (4) Placental dysfunction (post-term, IUGR, etc.) (5) Disorders of blood vessels (DM, ASHD) (6) Hypotensive (supine hypotensive syndrome, dehydration, anesthesia) (7) Uterine hyperstimulation (Pitocin augmentation or induction) (8) Cardiac disease 249 MYASTHENIA GRAVIS External fetal monitoring Advantages Disadvantages Anytime Convenient Non-invasive Minimal training All time-fetoscope not needed Frequency of contractions Difficult to read if obese Sometimes many artifacts FHR can be lost if positional change Patient on back but no other FHR variability NOT available No info on quality or quantity of contractions Baseline tone of uterus cannot be determined Changes in FHR detected No fetal or maternal comp Internal fetal monitoring Advantages Allows patient to move Accurate measurement of contractions FHR variability can be assessed Reveals baseline tonus of uterine contraction Cultures can be obtained No artifacts (unless there is a dead fetus – make sure pulses are different) Disadvantages Requires some dilatation and ROM Requires skills of examiner Uncomfortable application Requires sterile, disposable equipment If fetus low – IUPC difficult to place Increased maternal/fetal morbidity MUCINOUS CYSTADENOMA Huge, bluish-white-gray, translucent usually no significance bilateral cysts. Interior – many discrete septa. Serous cyst are bilateral only Micro – tall epithelium with basal nuclei + goblet cells Scopes are contraindicated if suspicious for malignancy. Always schedule for possible laparotomy. Treatment depends on age, exam and ultrasound What % of all ovarian neoplasms? What % of ovarian cancers? 10% 20% 8% MUCUS Poor quality is thick and tenacious. ‘Shaking’ pattern in nonprogressively motile sperm – sperm Rx of poor mucus includes low-dose estrogen and/or robitussin ABs x 1 week MÜLLERIAN AGENESIS What % are associated with urinary tract abnormalities? See Amenorrhea 50% MYASTHENIA GRAVIS What is the incidence in pregnancy? 1/20 000 Deficiency of nicotinic postsynaptic acetylcholine receptor protein at motor end-plate of skeletal muscle usually decreased @ 25% Symptoms of diplopia, dysphagia and weakness (ptosis and diplopia in most patients). Extremities, diaphragm and neck extensors may be affected. Generalized weakness found in 85% What % of patients have spontaneous remission during first 2 years? 25% 250 MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION In pregnancy, 41% have exacerbations, 29% have remissions, 32% have no change Treatment Anticholinesterase agents, pyridostigmine (Mestinon®) usually 60 mg every Neostigmine (15 mg oral dose = 60 mg dose of pyridostigmine) Timespan is a sustained-release form of pyridostigmine used to get through a night without meds or at party without droopy eyelids or slurred speech CellCept® 500 mg 2 h after or 1 h prior to meals 4–6 h Steroids × 2 weeks then decrease dosing. If no improvement after 4 weeks – plasmapheresis Corticotropin (corticosteroids, azathioprine, cyclosporine) for crisis. Other treatments include azathioprine (antimetabolite) and plasmapheresis Must treat any infection (including UTI) because these may predispose to exacerbations. If gravid patient in labor, be ready to perform operative assisted vaginal delivery as patient may tire easily in the second stage. Full respiratory support should be available. A 0.5-mg IV or 1.5-mg SC dose of neostigmine is equivalent to a 15-mg oral dose of neostigmine or a 60-mg oral dose of pyridostigmine Vaginal delivery is preferred and C-section should be reserved for Ob indications Regional anesthesia is the ideal choice for vaginal and C-section delivery. Avoid ester-type local anesthetics (such as tetracaine and chloroprocaine) as the metabolism depends on plasma cholinesterase, which is diminished. If there is significant respiratory compromise or bulbar involvement, general endotracheal anesthesia is recommended as airway management, oxygenation and control of secretions are made easy. Atracurium, mivacurium, propofol and/or sodium thiopental may be used to induce anesthesia SICU should be considered for postop with frequent AB gases and airway secretion management MAG SULFATE CONTRAINDICATED Other drugs that exacerbate MG are aminoglycosides, polymyxins, tetracycline; β-adrenergic drugs; succinylcholine or curare: narcotic analgesics, sedatives, tranquilizers; lithium; quinidine, quinine, quinacrine; tetracaine or chloroprocaine Neonatal myasthenia gravis (NMG) A transient condition usually begins 24–72 h after birth Develops in what % of myasthenic mothers? Most common clinical features of NMG are feeding difficulties and generalized hypotonia 10–15% MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION Anesthesia-associated fatalities account for GREATEST RISK not immediately postop but postop days EKG – ST changes – creatinine phosphokinase if EKG changes 10–30% 3 and 4 MYOMAS Most common pelvic tumor in females. What % reproductive women? 20% Most affected chromosomes 1, 6, 7, 12 and 14 Most frequent non-random cytogenic abnormality del 7 q21 Monoclonal – contain non-random cytogenic abnormalities in what % of cases? 45% Histology Overproduce collagen which causes pale color and firmness % hyalinized % with areas of hemorrhage % with calcium % that undergo cystic degeneration Most have < 3 mitoses per 10 HPF 60% 11% 10% 4% 251 MYOMAS > 5 with cellular AND atypical nuclei per HPF or > 10 per 10 HPF = leiomyosarcomas By suppression of estrogen and progestogen receptors in premenopausal females, volume decreases by 50% Depends on myoma size, number and location Affects – abruption, PTL, C-section, retained placenta, PPH, fetal malposition This size myoma does not significantly affect pregnancy This size myoma can cause increase PTL, pain, placental abruption and necessitate C-section This size myoma increases the risk of obstructed labor Types (1) (2) (3) See Symptoms Most asymptomatic. Depends on size, number and location • Abnormal bleeding • Pelvic pressure or pain Rectal symptoms. Infertility. Recurrent pregnancy loss. Enlarged midline mass > 3 cm > 6 cm Submucosal Intramural Subserosal Figure 5 on page 152 Diagnosis Absolute – removal at time of pathology Presumed – pelvic US, HSG, saline infusion sonography, hysteroscopy and/or MRI Treatment (1) Expectant management (2) Hormone therapy Advantages – shrinks, decreases EBL, corrects anemia, atrophic endometrium Disadvantages – delays final diagnosis, expense, bone loss, vaginal hemorrhage in (3) Surgery MIVH, TVH, LSH, LAVH, HALS, TSLH, TAH, myomectomy, hysteroscopy (Versapoint 4-mm wire loop), laparoscopy or bilateral oophorectomy? Key points to hysteroscopic myomectomy include: (a) The goal of hysteroscopic myomectomy is complete removal of the fibroid without trauma to normal uterine tissue (b) Patients with Type 0 and Type I fibroids often require only 1 surgery; patients with Type II fibroids should be advised that 2 surgeries may be needed to remove the entire fibroid (c) Adjuvant preoperative hormonal therapy facilitates surgical scheduling, helps prevent further blood loss in patients already suffering from anemia, and reduces distention media intravasation (4) Uterine arterial embolization According to Spies and colleagues (Spies JB, Ascher SA, Roth AR, et al. Uterine artery embolization for leiomyomata. Obstet Gynecol 2001;98:29–34): (a) Complaints of menorrhagia improved for more than 80% of 85% of the 200 consecutive patients in the study that bled prior (b) Uterine volume was reduced by 27% at 3 months and 38% at 12 months following the procedure (c) The dominant fibroid volume was reduced by 44% at 3 months and 58% at 12 months Pain remains biggest postop problem especially during the first 24 h is NOT trivial. What is needed is a prospective, randomized trial comparing uterine artery embolization to hysterectomy for treatment of uterine leiomyomas Hysterectomy vs myomectomy < 3 cm Hysterectomy – decreased recurrence 33% 33% 3% 252 NAEGELE'S RULE decreased blood loss infection/bleeding complications Myomectomy – recurrence increase in blood loss adhesion rate higher 2% 50% Hysterectomy is performed in a ratio to myomectomy The recurrence rate after myomectomy is Myomectomy adhesions are common (posterior/anterior uterus) Myomectomy increases risk of uterine rupture Avoid myomectomy during pregnancy if at all possible due to increased bleeding 10 : 1 50% 94%/56% First day of last period – subtract add Calculation of EDD 3 months 7 days NAEGELE’S RULE NECROTIZING FASCIITIS High mortality rate of 12–60% Rapid progression with vessel thrombosis → tissue necrosis Bacteria – staphylococci, streptococci, Clostridium, hemolytic streptococci Predisposing conditions – diabetes, immune suppression, radiation, fever, tach, devascularized skin, hem bullous inflammation + edema Evaluate first 24 h every 3h Treatment Aggressive excision, debridement, pack wounds, do not close, antibiotics Circulation and tissue oxygenation – hyperbaric O2 p.r.n. NEEDLESTICK Injury rate in gyn surgery 2–10% Chance of HIV conversion after HOLLOW needle (not solid) 0.3–0.4% Double gloving decreases incidence. Prophylaxis with ZDV is optional Check HIV status baseline then 6 weeks, 3 months and 6 months NEONATAL LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSIS Skin lesions seen 50% Congenital heart block 1/20 000 births Skin lesions and heart block 10% Liver disease and thrombocytopenia Heart block and skin lesions associated with Sjögren’s syndrome A antibodies anti-SSA or Ro and syndrome B antibodies anti-SSBs or La Affect cardiac system – complete heart block – external pacing needed for AV node Some need pacing also for SA node NERVE INJURIES Femoral Too much flexion on retractor or flexion of thighs too far back against abdomen at TVH or increased risk of injury in thin patient with low Pfannenstiel incision using self-retaining retractors by lateral blades during TAH Symptoms – difficulty climbing stairs, inability to flex thigh, decrease of sensation on the inner thigh, anterior hip pain, decrease knee jerk. Unable to lift or support foot 253 NEURAL TUBE DEFECTS Best prevention – placing a lap pad between the abdominal wall and the retractor Femoral nerve innervates – quadriceps, sartorius, iliacus, pectineus Most effective therapy – tincture of time (1–24 weeks functional) Lateral femoral cutaneous Too much retractor pressure No motor weakness – lateral aspect of thigh is numb Genitofemoral nerve Found on belly of psoas muscle. Sensory to anterior vulva and anterior thigh Obturator nerve Loss of adduction. Numbness over medial aspect of thigh but no muscle weakness Sciatic nerve If knees too far out to sides in lithotomy position Leg numbness, difficulty with walking, decreased sensation to posterior and lateral surfaces of leg and foot, inability to dorsiflex the foot Peroneal nerve Damage during normal SVD in lithotomy. Causes footdrop Pudendal Injury most likely during SSLF. Numbness to vulva. Loss of urinary or fecal continence NEURAL TUBE DEFECTS Types Spina bifida Anencephaly Encephalocele Meningocele – opening in lumbosacral vertebrae Meningomyelocele – meningocele that contains neural element Meningoencephalocele – defect in skull in which part of brain protrudes into sac Anencephaly – failure of closure of cranial end of neural tube Encephalocele – extrusion of brain tissue through skull defect, generally covered by overlying skin Etiology Multifactorial but there is an abnormal gene that is a variation of the gene that produces the enzyme, 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase that is critical for folate use Folic acid decreases incidence by 50–70% No identifiable risks noted in what % of patients? 90% Neural tube normally closes 3rd + 4th week Second most common fetal malformation behind heart defects Most NTDs are multifactorial 85% Incidence in the USA 1/1000 Hydrocephalus is present in what % of NTDs? 80% Increased AFP and AChE (acetylcholinesterase) suggest open fetal defect 99% Increased AFP and normal AchE suggest fetal defect other than NTD. AchE is found in blood cells, muscles, nerves Increased MSAFP and normal US are at risk for LBW, fetal death and oligohydramnios MSAFP detects what % of open NTDs? MSAFP detects what % of all open NTDs? MSAFP is elevated in what % of black females? MSAFP is elevated in what % of insulin-dependent DM? MSAFP doubles in twins. Most common reason for false-positive or elevated MSAFP is underestimation of gestational age Ultrasound findings BPDs smaller with spina bifida, scalloping of frontal bones, banana sign, lemon sign, downward displacement of cerebellum, varying degrees of ventriculomegaly US will have some type of cranial anomaly (‘lemon sign’ – frontal notching or ‘banana sign’ – cerebellar changes, small BPD, ventriculomegaly, ‘Arnold–Chiari malformation’ – obliteration of cisterna magna) in what % of cases of NTD? 80% 80–85% 10% 15% 99% 254 NEURAL TUBE DEFECTS Risk of normal Risk of Risk of Risk of Risk of chromosomal anomaly in pt < 35 with decreased MSAFP and US NTD if affected parent NTD if one previously affected child NTD if two previously affected children NTD if positive family history Diagnosis MSAFP, ultrasound, amniocentesis, targeted ultrasound and amnio Prevention 0.4% folic acid daily 3 months prior through first trimester which reduces incidence by How much folic acid is given to a patient with a previously affected child or patient with epilepsy? What is the daily folic acid requirement or recommendation for twin pregnancy? Treatment Open spina bifida – atraumatic, unlabored C-section with intact membranes What % of patients with NTDs have no identifiable risks? Parents with previously born child with NTD have what chance to deliver a subsequent child? The recurrence rate is < 1% 5% 2% 6% 1% > 70% 4 mg 1 mg 90% 10 × 1–5% Figure 17 Ultrasound of an anencephalic fetus NEUROLOGICAL (NEONATAL) SEQUELAE Evidence includes – seizures, coma and hypotonia AND one or > of the following: Cardiovascular Gastrointestinal Hematologic Pulmonary Renal system dysfunction 255 NORPLANT® NEURO-OBSTETRICS Early labor Late stage of labor Pseudotumor cerebri T11 and T12 T10, T11, T12, L1 Increase or decrease in CSF. Increased risk to obese pts and pts who have recently gained weight. Symptoms: H.A. diplopia, visual disturbances, papilledema. First trimester or first month postpartum Most common symptom is headache 95% Then diplopia with blurred vision 75% Commonly found in obese or those who recently gained weight Complicates pregnancy 1/1000 This is the recurrence rate 30% Rx: Repetitive lumbar punctures to PREVENT BLINDNESS. Also acetazolamide, furosemide and dexamethasone Carpal tunnel syndrome Experienced by this % of pregnant women Bilateral Treat with splint p.r.n. Patients require surgery only 25% 80% 10% Spinal cord injuries Autonomic hyperreflexia Cough reflex impaired – check pulmonary function Painless labor with injury above T5–6 T10 T12 Chorea gravidarum Occurs in association with rheumatic fever what % of time? Recurrence common, mostly primagravidas This % of lupus patients demonstrate chorea 2/3 2% Bell’s palsy Isolated facial nerve palsy involving cranial nerve Symptoms: (1) Acute onset of pain in ear (2) R- or L-sided facial pain or tightness (3) Inability to close eye (4) Metallic taste in mouth How much more common in pregnancy? Occurs in third trimester Occurs in first and second trimester Occurs postpartum Etiology – exposure to cold, fluid retention, hormone changes or hypercoagulability Treatment – symptomatic to provide prevention of corneal abrasion, as the eyelid does not close. The use of steroids is controversial. Most cases resolve spontaneously Prognosis – good. Usually spontaneously resolves within weeks to months 7 3× 75% 15% 10% 90% NIPPLE DISCHARGE Milky galactorrhea Physiologic, breastfeeding, pregnancy, postpartum, prolactin excess or pituitary adenomas Multicolored, sticky, green-yellow, serous – ductal ectasia Purulent, infected – bacterial infection Clear, watery – ductal carcinoma Yellow, serous – fibrocystic disease Pink, serosanguinous – fibrocystic disease or ductal papilloma Bloody, sanguinous – fibrocystic disease or ductal papilloma See also Breast NORPLANT® What % USA women use these? 1% Six capsules are used each containing how much levonorgestrel? 36 mg The total dose of levonorgestrel is 216 mg It provides contraception for how many years? 5 Subtherapeutic doses after removal within how many days? 3 Ovulation resumes after removal within 2–4 weeks 256 NUTRITION IN PREGNANCY Pregnancy rate for first year is Five-year cumulative pregnancy rate is The failure rate increases to what % in patients taking phenytoin, phenobarb, carbamazepine? Mechanism of action 0.09% 1.1% 20% Initially ovulation is suppressed in what % (then over time ovulation resumes) but cervical mucus is thick (impenetrable) then endometrial atrophy Release rate Per day for first 9 months Per day for next 18 months Per day for 60 months Side-effects Spotting, irregular bleeding or both Amenorrhea or oligomenorrhea Regular withdrawal bleeding but decreased flow Other possible side-effects include headache (r/o papilledema), weight change, acne, mood change, vaginal dryness, change in libido, dyspareunia, mastalgia, risk of ectopic Contraindications to long-acting progestins Active thrombophlebitis or thromboembolic disorders, unexplained abnormal genital bleeding, pregnancy, active liver disease, breast malignancy, allergy Norplant (in particular) – patient with idiopathic intracranial hypertension (r/o headache) DMPA (in particular) – patient with cardiovascular accidents Relative contraindications to all hormonal methods – use of rifampicin and griseofulvin Other implants Implanon Approved by FDA for a duration of Documented duration of use 80% 85 µg 50 µg 35 µg 50% 20% 25% A single rod implant 3 years 16 years NUTRITION IN PREGNANCY Recommended carbohydrates Recommended protein Recommended fat Food sources for necessary vitamins in pregnancys Vitamin A – dark yellow vegetables, milk Vitamin C – strawberries, broccoli, tomatoes Vitamin D – fortified milk, fish liver oil Vitamin E – vegetable oils, wheat germ Folic acid – orange juice, liver, legumes, nuts Recommend omega-3 Children of mothers who had taken cod liver oil during pregnancy scored higher on the mental processing sections of the K-ABC than did children whose mothers were in the corn oil group. Intelligence test scores and visual acuity/functioning are improved with omega-3 fatty acids. Therefore, studies prompt providers to recommend omega-3 supplementation during both the latter half of pregnancy and breast-feeding. Consumption of refined fish oil and “safe” oily fish is similarly associated with increased DHA levels during pregnancy and breast-feeding Calcium helps prevent PIH New studies confirm that calcium consumption of @ 1500 mg daily during pregnancy: (1) can reduce risks of hypertensive complications including preeclampsia in women with low calcium intake and (2) may reduce the risks of young mothers giving birth prematurely. Milk provides about 70% of the calcium for most Americans, but other sources include fortified orange juice, cereals, tofu, soy products, green leafy vegetables, as well as fish (especially sardines and salmon). Calcium tablets are also available Calcium to prevent PTB Folate to prevent NTDs Folate supplementation in pill form needs to be started preferably before conception to be marginally effective. It takes 3 months to achieve steady state folate levels using vitamin supplementation. Spinal cord completes fusing at 8–9 weeks’ gestation, so starting folic acid at the first prenatal visit will not reliably prevent NTDs 60% 20% 20% 257 OBSTRUCTION (BOWEL) Mercury and seafood warning Pregnant women are advised to avoid the most contaminated species (tilefish, swordfish, king mackerel, and shark) and to limit the consumption of other fish to no more than 12 oz/wk of species with low mercury concentration and 6 oz/wk if the mercury content in a species is not known. Mercury may cause neurological problems in developing fetus OBESITY Defined as BMI equal to or over BMI = Wt (kg) / Ht (m2) Overweight Ideal Incidence Women overweight (BMI 25–29.9) Women obese (BMI ≥ 30) Of all adult Americans, those who are overweight or obese Risks 1-point increment in BMI increases risk of heart failure by 30 25.1–29.9 kg/m2 19–25 kg/m2 Being overweight in women, increases risk of heart failure by Obesity increases risk of heart failure by Overweight and obesity is associated with increased diabetes, hypertension, coronary heart disease and left ventricular hypertrophy 33% 16% 67% 7% 50% 90% Treatment Diet and exercise Impact of exercise is less in women compared to men by how much? 30–40% Why? Because women have a lower resting metabolic rate due to: (1) Smaller surface area (2) Smaller body mass (3) Greater % of body fat Xenical® 120 mg – blocks what % of fat reabsorption? 30% DO NOT USE Dexfenfluramine (Redux) and fenfluramine (Pondimin) – FDA withdrew from market Fen-phen (fenfluramine + phenteramine) – FDA never approved Caused valvular heart disease and pulmonary hypertension Phenteramine (alone) – remains available, not associated with serious side-effects Effexor® XL (SSNRI) 75 mg p.o. daily for depression. Potent inhibitor of serotonin and norepinephrine on postsynaptic receptor sites (blocks reuptake) Surgical considerations Adding a closed drain did not improve outcome beyond that achieved by subcutaneous closure. In obese women having a C-section, closure of the subcutaneous layer reduces risk of wound complications such as seroma, hematoma, incisional abscess, and fascial dehiscence. Drains should not be used in high risk women having cesarean delivery OBSTRUCTION (BOWEL) Adhesions are the most common cause of obstruction: SBO Colon Previous Gyn surgery is most common cause of SBO in women – after benign surgery After radical surgery what % develop obstruction? Symptoms Intermittent pain mixed with pain-free intervals. Periods of intense cramping. Borborygmi – high pitched metallic sound. Usually presents between 5th and 7th day postop. Vomiting with abdominal distension. Profuse NG drainage Flat plate Air fluid levels like ‘stepladder’. Gas proximal to obstruction Treatment Expectant therapy is successful in Decompress with NG or Miller-Abbott tube. IVFs, serial WBCs and X-rays Surgery p.r.n. 80% 20% 2/1000 8% 60% 258 OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS TO PREGNANCY Major cause of morbidity and mortality Delay in diagnosis causing peritoneal irritation, fever, increased WBCs, increased sepsis and increased distention Ileus vs obstruction Know the difference! Adynamic ileus Bowel obstruction Small and large bowel distended in proportion to each other Small bowel obstruction with dilated small bowel proximal to site of the obstruction Gas scattered throughout the GI tract Air fluid levels are common, at different levels in the bowel with a “stepladder” appearance Air fluid levels in small bowel are rare, but if present are at the same levels OCCUPATIONAL HAZARDS TO PREGNANCY Stressors during pregnancy (1) Standing more than 3 h – increase in prematurity; no effect on birth weight (2) Lifting more than 12 kg – no studies show any effect on birth weight or PTL (3) Strenuous work – most studies show no effect on birth weight or PTL Physical agents (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Heat ≥ 38.9°C Increases the rate of spontaneous abortions or birth defects (mostly neural tube) Women with early hyperthermic episodes – counseled and AFP + US studies Radiation Preimplantation “All or None” phenomenon Greatest effect during late first and early second trimester < 5 rads – no intervention recommended > 5 rads – counsel; offer sonogram screen for microcephaly Video display terminals No known effect. Increased CTS – place keypad Chemicals See chart below regarding “Developmentally toxic exposures in humans”. If necessary, contact CDC in Atlanta, GA (404) 639-3311 Hairstylists Minimize by use of gloves. Dermatitis. Mutagenic but not teratogenic. Minimize exposure in first trimester Painters/artists Lead salts are of concern associated with increased spontaneous abortions, infant cognitive impairment, stillbirth rates in humans, CNS abnormalities. Women at risk should be monitored prior to conception. Lead concentration >10 mg/ml – remove from exposure and consider chelation before pregnancy. No consensus how to manage after pregnancy (increased lead from bone stores and the chelating agent calcium edetate may be developmentally toxic, probably decreased zinc stores) Solvent workers Ethylene glycol, toluene or gasoline, etc. similar to EtOH syndrome An excess of MR, hypotonia, microcephaly Pesticide workers Carbaryl and pentachlorophenol. Animal studies demonstrate impaired reproductive success or cause skeletal and body wall defects If ethylene glycol, toluene, gasoline, carbaryl or pentachlorophenol are suspected, blood or urine levels along with liver function tests can be obtained and, if abnormal, increased fetal monitoring of fetal development is recommended 259 OLIGOHYDRAMNIOS Developmentally toxic exposures in humans Aminopterin Androgens Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors Carbamazepine Cigarette smoking Cocaine Coumarin anticoagulants Cytomegalovirus Diethylstilbestrol Ethanol (≥1 drink/day) Etretinate Hyperthermia Iodides Ionizing radiation (>10 rads) Isotretinoin Lead Lithium Methimazole Methyl mercury Parvovirus B19 Penicillamine Phenytoin Radioiodine Rubella Syphilis Tetracycline Thalidomide Toxoplasmosis Trimethadione Valproic acid Varicella OLIGOHYDRAMNIOS Oligohydramnios is defined as an AFI of ≤ 5 cm Dysmaturity syndrome – post-term gestational assessment with thick meconium, deep decels AFI marginal = 13 × inc perinatal mortality 57/1000 Severe oligohydramnios = 47 × increases perinatal mortality 188/1000 Second-trimester oligohydramnios 43% W/ lethal pulmonary hypoplasia 33% Anhydramnios (no fluid) 88% lethal outcomes Severe, long-standing oligohydramnios inhibits lung growth and promotes limb defects (club foot, arm contractures) Principal diagnosis with oligohydramnios (1) PROM (2) Placental insufficiency (a) Chronic abruption (b) Maternal hypertension (c) Placental crowding in multiple gestation (d) Autoimmune disease (lupus, antiphospholipid syndrome) (3) Urinary tract anomaly (a) Polycystic or multicystic dysplastic kidneys (b) Renal agenesis (c) Ureteral or urethral obstruction (1) Try to r/o ROM (2) US fetal renal systems – do amnio if cystic kidneys and renal pelvic condition (assess with trisomy 21 + 18) (3) R/o IUGR – abd circ legs behind head High vas resistance or uterine Doppler studies corroborate oligo due to placental insufficiency Hospitalize if diagnosed 26–32 weeks – amnio – mature? – deliver (4) Consider pulmonary hypoplasia (lung area ratio should be > 66%) Diagnostic adjuncts Amnioinfusion – infection Dye infusion to r/o membranes Furosemide test to visualize fetal bladder Management Continual antepartum testing Inc rates of meconium; fetal distress and C-section Intrapartum amnioinfusion – improved but over-distended uterus Maternal hydration – effective Amniotic fluid volume normally diminishes after 35 weeks’ gestation Post-term patients are 5 times more likely to develop oligohydramnios in 3–4 days after a normal AFI, as compared to term patients Therefore, post-term patients should have semi-weekly amniotic fluid volume assessment, with pockets < 3 cm being considered normal 260 ONCOLOGY ONCOLOGY Cervix Cervical lymph nodes Cervical nerve supply CIS Confined to cervix Microscopic No deeper than 3 mm, no wider than 7 mm (CKC or hyst ok) 3–5 mm depth or ≤ 5 mm depth ≤ 7 mm horizontal (radical hysterectomy or radiation) Lesion > IA2 No larger than 4 cm Larger than 4 cm Upper vagina but not lower 1/3 No parametrial involvement Parametrial involved Lower 1/3 of vagina No extension to pelvic wall Extension to pelvic wall or/and hydronephrosis Beyond true pelvis or mucosa of bladder or rectum Spread to adjacent organs Distant spread 0 I IA IA1 IA2 IB IB1 IB2 II IIA IIB III IIIA IIIB IV IVA IVB Parametrial, paracervical (ureteral), obturator, hypogastric, external iliac, sacral nodes Distant secondary group: common iliac, inguinal, para-aortic Nodes are positive in Stage I Nodes are positive in Stage II Nodes are positive in Stage III Stage I have + para-aortic nodes 20% 40% 50% 6% Includes sympathetics merging at Frankenhauser’s plexus and S2, S3, S4 Treatment IA1 – CKC or simple hysterectomy is okay IA2 – IIA Radical hysterectomy with bilateral pelvic and periaortic lymphadenectomy. Radical hyst includes supporting ligaments of uterus and upper 25% of the vagina. Lymph node dissection includes ureteral, obturator, hypogastrics and iliacs IIB–IVB radiation 4000 WP 6000/h brachytherapy Chemotherapy Cisplatin Fallopian tube Similar to ovarian staging Ovary Limited to ovaries One ovary Two ovaries One or two ovaries but with ascites, ruptured capsule and/or tumor on external surfaces Pelvic extension To uterus and/or tubes To other pelvic structures IIA or IIB with ascites, ruptured capsule or tumor on external surfaces Positive nodes and/or implants outside pelvis Negative nodes but microseeding Negative nodes but with seeding < 2 cm Positive nodes and/or seeds > 2 cm or retroperitoneal /ing nodes Distant metastasis Diagnosis of ovarian cancer remains elusive. CA-125 and/or transvaginal ultrasound found a large number of false-positive women; therefore these modes are not recommended for routine screening but may be helpful during regular screening in women with strong family histories of ovarian or breast cancers. BE AWARE of complaints of abdominal pain and swelling that may mimic digestive problems. (Ova Check is a simple blood test that is easy to perform and highly effective in identifying women with ovarian cancer, but is not yet approved by FDA and some scientists question the design and results of the original studies.) Basically THERE IS NO RECOMMENDED TEST FOR DIAGNOSIS OF OVARIAN CANCER I IA IB IC II IIA IIB IIC III IIIA IIIB IIIC IV 261 ONCOLOGY There are, however, four serum protein markers that Mor and colleagues at Yale University identified that, when used together, achieved a sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive value of 95%, with a negative predictive value of 94%. The markers are leptin, prolactin, osteopontin, and insulin-like growth factor-II. They successfully detected 23 of 24 patients with stage I and II disease. These markers, however, have not yet met the stringent requirements for population-based screening 80–85% Epithelial tumors Serous (CA-125, psammoma bodies, ciliated tubal epithelium) Malignant Mucinous (CEA + 40%, Pseudomyxoma peritonei, colum) Endometrioid (CA-125, pseudoxanthoma cells, glands). Malignant Clear cell (CA-125, Hobnail cells, mesonephric tissue) Brenner’s (Walthard cell rests, transitional epithelium) 20% 15% 95% 98% 2% 10–15% Germ cell tumors Teratoma mature (Rokitansky prominence) Most common neoplastic ovarian lesion of female reproductive age Bilateral 25% Strumo ovarii (monodermal teratoma) % teratomas 2–3% What % strumo ovarii develop thyrotoxicosis? < 5% Strumo carcinoid – rare, usually unilateral Malignant transformation rare with mature teratoma (usually squamous) Most frequent complication is TORSION occurring what % 16% If torsion is recent – untwist and perform cystectomy Teratoma immature (AFP, CA-125). Malignant 100% Neural rosette is used to grade these tumors Dysgerminoma (“bacon & eggs” tumor, LDH, radiation sensitive, fibrous septae + lymphocytes, most common malignant ovarian tumor in pregnancy, “polka-dots”). Malignant 100% Gonadoblastoma (CALCIFICATION is extensive, frequent germ cells with pale cytoplasm). Malignant only if dysgerminoma elements are present ? Endodermal sinus tumor (AFP; Schiller–Duval bodies, which are blood vessels surrounded by tumor cells within a space surrounded by more tumor cells). Malignant 100% Embryonal tumor (AFP AND hCG, syncytiotrophoblastic cells) 100% Non-gestational choriocarcinoma (hCG) Germ cell tumor markers Neoplasm Marker AFP CA-125 hCG LDH CEA Endodermal sinus tumor Increased Usually up Maybe up Usually up Maybe up Immature teratoma Maybe up Maybe up Maybe up Maybe up Maybe up Dysgerminoma 0 Rarely up Rarely up Usually up 0 Choriocarcinoma 0 0 Increased 0 0 Treatment of germ cell tumors VAC (vincristine, actinomycin D, cyclophosphamide) VBP (vinblastine, bleomycin, cisplatin) Stage IA1 germ cell tumors are cured by surgery alone 100% Stage II, III, IV endodermal and embryonal cell tumors = bleomycin, etoposide + cisplatin × 3 doses Percent recur if no postop Rx is given = 85% Bleomycin, etoposide and cisplatin cure what % of cases? 95% Treatment of germ cell tumor in teenager (1) Most are unilateral (except dysgerminoma = @ 10–15% bilateral) (2) 85% patients with endodermal sinus (yolk sac) will die (even stage I) IF NO postop treatment is given so GIVE 3 cycles of bleomycin, etoposide and cisplatin. This will cure > 95% (3) Toxicities Bleomycin – pulmonary fibrosis, skin hyperpigmentation Cisplatin – ototoxicity, neuro and nephrotoxicity, Raynaud’s phenomenon and ischemic heart disease 262 ONCOLOGY 3–5% Gonadal–stromal tumors Granulosa cell tumor (Call–Exner bodies – degenerative spaces filled with eosinophilic and cellular debris, inhibin, estrogen production – associated with acute hemorrhage, incomplete precocious puberty, ‘coffee beans’ – nuclear grooves). Malignant Unilateral Stage I at diagnosis < 5% 95% 90% Chemotherapy: actinomycin D, 5-FU, cyclophosphamide Fibrothecoma (seen with MEIGS’ SYNDROME – ovarian fibroma, ascites, hydrothorax usually on right but rare in < 5% fibroma “Nats” – looks like fibroid, vacuolated spindle cells). Malignant < 5% Meigs’ – associated with ascites directly proportional to size of tumor > 6 cm 50% Usually unilateral tumor 90% Sxs: pressure and abdominal enlargement. Rx: remove tumor. Thecoma element can produce estrogen. Fat stain shows abundant lipid material Sertoli–Leydig cell tumor (crystals of Reinke) Testosterone production can cause heterosexual precocious puberty. (Androblastomas, arrhenoblastomas. Tubular pattern micro). Cystic + hem degen. Ca+ can be present. Malignant < 5% Chemo Rx; VAC (vincristine, actinomycin D, cyclophosphamide) Lipid cell tumor (testosterone production). Malignant 30% Gynandroblastoma (testosterone production). Malignant 100% Metastatic tumors Krukenberg tumor SIGNET-RING CELLS, these tumors usually originate from GI tract or breast most often, bilaterality is a clue that tumor may be metastatic. Glary appearance due to mucin Small cell carcinoma of the ovary – associated with hypercalcemia Borderline ovarian tumor (Low malignant potential) (1) Epithelial proliferation but no evidence of stromal invasion (2) Extraovarian implants present in 30% of patients! (3) 1/3 patients with Stage I or II ovarian cancer will have more advanced, so STAGE (4) Less than 10% with lymphatic mets have enlarged nodes (5) Treat conservatively: (a) Omentectomy (b) Peritoneal biopsies (c) Selected pelvic and para-aortic lymph node biopsies Molecular targeted therapy Oregovomab (OvaRex) targets CA-125 in ovarian cancers. This is a monoclonal antibody-based treatment. (CA-125 is expressed on the surface of more than 80% of epithelial ovarian cancers) “Second-look” lap for ovarian carcinoma Advantages: (1) 50% patients after chemo will have advanced disease at second-look surgery (2) Opportunity to resect (controversial). Theoretically – reduces residual tumor Disadvantages: (1) Major surgery (most common complication – prolonged ileus) (2) Investigational procedure Uterus Confined to uterus Endometrium < 1/2 myometrium > 1/2 myometrium Spread to cervix Endocervix glandular involvement only Cervical stromal invasion Invades serosa and/or adnexa and/or + peritoneal cytology Vaginal metastasis Lymph nodes (mets in pelvic or para-aortics) Bladder and/or bowel mucosa Distant metastasis (including intra-abdominal and/or ing nodes) Treatment of grade I endometrial carcinoma is TAHBSO with cytology (cytology is + what % ABC) I IA IB IC II IIA IIB IIIA IIIB IIIC IVA IVB 15% 263 ONCOLOGY Treatment of grade II endometrial carcinoma is TAHBSO with lymphadenopathy Add radiation therapy according to grade and depth of invasion Invasive cancer – treatment is TAHBSO nodes and radiation Upper vagina Whole pelvis Risk of nodal involvement if invasion < ½ is Risk of nodal Involvement if invasion > ½ is 6000 5000 < 5% 25% Blood supply to uterus is from hypogastric to uterine artery. Ovarian artery also supplies some. Uterine vein empties into internal iliac vein. Collateral circulation to pelvis after hypogastric ligation is by lat and medial circumflex femoral artery and middle sacral artery. Diagnosis is highly suspicious if patient is having abnormal bleeding, especially if obese, hypertensive, diabetic and/or has thickened endometrial stripe per transvaginal ultrasound. Confirmation is made with endometrial biopsy and/or D&C Lymphatics Lower uterine segment and cervix drain to iliacs and hypogastrics Corpus drains to internal iliacs, hypogastrics, ovarian and para-aortics Nerve innervation to uterus is hypogastric plexus by sympathetics merging at Frankenhauser’s complex Uterus (sympathetics of) Cervix and upper vagina Perineum Endometrial biopsy is the preferred method of diagnosis of endometrial cancer Stromal tumors of uteri See Stromal sarcoma Vagina CIS Treatment is surgery (laser vap or radiotherapy) Vaginal wall Treatment is radical surgery. (Hyst, vaginectomy and pelvic lymph) Subvaginal Extension to wall (including pubic bone) Treatment of II and III is radiotherapy Beyond pelvis Bladder and rectum Distant metastasis Treatment is exenteration with Ext 5000 rads to whole pelvis and interstitial implants Blood supply is from internal iliac artery to vaginal artery with the following branches: Cervicovaginal branch of uterine to Inferior vesical arteries to Middle rectal and internal pudendal to Lymphatics from vagina: Iliacs, obturators drain Internal iliacs (hypogastrics) drain Inguinal (femoral) drain Nerves to vagina Pudendal (more sensitive) Work-up for vaginal cancer includes CXR, IVP, cystoscopy and proctoscopy VAIN – mostly upper 1/3 and multifocal (treatment is local excision, 5-FU or laser) to what size? Adenosis – Mat DES prior to 18th week of gestation – treat with laser or Vulva CIS Vulva or perineum < 2 cm Vulva or perineum > 2 cm Spread to urethra, vagina and/or anus Unilateral regional lymph node spread T11–T12 S2–S4 Pudendal 0 I II III IV IVA IVB upper 1/3 middle 1/3 lower 1/3 upper 1/3 middle 1/3 lower 1/3 lower 1/3 1.5 mm 5-FU 0 I II III 264 ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE PILLS Urethra, bladder mucosa, rectal mucosa, pelvic bone and/or bilateral nodal metastasis Distant metastasis including pelvic lymph nodes Blood supply is from pudendal artery. Internal pudendal artery to perineum. Inferior rectal and posterior labial arteries are branches Lymphatics Inguinal (femoral or sentinel nodes) If lesion is < 2 cm the % + nodes is If lesion is > 2 cm the % + nodes is IVA IVB 15% 38% Where is Cloquet’s node located? Answer: In the femoral triangle medial to the femoral vein What are the borders of the femoral triangle? Answer: inguinal ligament, pectineus m and iliopsoas m Nerves to vulva Pudendal nerve mediates along S2, S3, S4 Complex arrangement of Meissner’s corpuscles most dense at clitoris Where does the femoral nerve lie in relationship to the femoral triangle? Answer: Outside the triangle. The artery and vein lie inside it NAV ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE PILLS What % pts switched brands due to BTB? 33% What increased % for BTB is found in smokers taking OCPs? 47% Estimated OC dose that eliminated excess risk of MI 3–35 µg Pregnant women have what chance of thromboembolism? 10/1 million OCPs protect against (1) Benign breast disease (2) Fe+ deficiency anemia (3) Ovarian cysts Treatment for osteopenia in reproductive females – OCPs and calcium Treatment for acne – triphasic norgestimate and ethinylestradiol Treatment to decrease menstrual blood loss, duration of menstruation and dysmenorrhea – 30 µg ethinylestradiol OCPs and symptomatology and management (1) If patient with acne on OCs – decrease progestin (2) Hyperplasia or bleeding – increase progestin (3) Severe acne – CPA 2 mg (Diane® 35) (4) Chloasma – decrease estrogen (but avoid BTB) and avoid UV light (5) Mood swings – progestin-only injectables (6) Early-cycle bleeding – increase estrogen (7) Amenorrhea – increase estrogen See Contraception ORTHOSTATIC INTOLERANCE (1) Most common disorder of B/P regulation after essential hypertension (2) Characterized by orthostatic tachycardia (> 30 BPM increase heart rate on standing), is also frequently characterized by light-headedness, dizziness, palpitations, exercise intolerance, near-syncope, occasionally syncope and orthostatic tachycardia, but unusually with sustained orthostatic hypotension (3) May also be associated with MVP, chronic fatigue syndrome, primary hypovolemia, lower body venous pooling, decreased plasma volumes, prolonged weightlessness or inappropriate sinus tachycardia OSTEOPOROSIS Associated with accelerated bone loss in postmenopausal women primarily from trabecular bone Type I 265 OSTEOPOROSIS Associated with slow progressive loss in men and women leading to hip and vertebral fractures Type II Lifestyles that influence bone mass: (1) Cigarette smoking or excessive use of alcohol (2) Hormones (3) Medications (glucocorticoids, anticonvulsants, heparin, thyroxine) (4) Diseases – Cushing’s, hyperthyroidism, anorexia, amenorrhea, (5) Nutrition – vitamin D + Ca+ (6) FMH No guidelines for screening (BMD testing) but might offer to women who: (1) Refuse or decline HRT (2) Are aged 65 and older (3) Have risk factors (other than being white, postmenopausal, and female) such as being on long-term medications such as corticosteroids, lithium, GnRH agonists, anticonvulsants, tamoxifen, TPN, DEPO, or diseases such as COPD, eating disorders, spinal cord transaction, thalassemia, weight loss, MS, multiple myeloma, s/p gastrectomy, etc. (4) Have suffered a fracture to confirm diagnosis and determine severity of disease. Diagnose with DXA Bone mass values measured in g/cm2 Sex and age-matched reference population Z-score Bone mass relative to mean peak bone mass T-score If a T-score is between 0.0 and −0.9 then bone mass is normal to low normal If a T-score is between −1.0 and −1.4 then bone mass is 10–15% below normal and the risk of spine and hip fracture is 2.3 and 2.6 times greater If a T-score is between −1.5 and −1.9 then bone mass is 15–20% below normal and the risk of spine and hip fracture is 3 and 4 times greater If a T-score is between −2.0 and −2.4 then bone mass is 20–25% (osteoporotic) and the risk of spine and hip fracture is 5 and 7 times greater If a T-score is −2.5 or lower then bone mass is more than 25% below and risk of spine and hip fracture is 8 and 11 times greater These T scores are compared with a healthy young adult female with a T-score of 0.0 Osteoporosis is standard deviation of BMD ≥ 2.5 Osteopenia is standard deviation of BMD between 1–2.5 Two basic characteristics of osteoporosis: reduced bone mineral density (BMD) and poor bone quality For every decrease of 1 SD in lumbar-spine BMD, the risk of vertebral fracture is approximately doubled DXA – dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (measures spine, hip, or total body) QCT – quantitative computed tomography (measures spine) DPA – dual photon absorptiometry (measures spine, hip, or total body) Pearls of peripheral measurement pDAX – peripheral dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (measures wrist, heel, or finger) SXA – single energy X-ray absorptiometry (measures wrist or heel) QUS (quantitative ultrasound) uses US to measure density at heel, lower leg, or patella pQCT – peripheral quantitative computed tomography (measures wrist) RA – radiographic absorptiometry (X-ray of hand; BMD compared to metal wedge) SPA – single photon aborptiometry (measures wrist) Peripheral bone mineral density can be used to assess fracture risk, with one exception (hip fracture risk), which is best assessed with direct 266 OSTEOPOROSIS measurements of hip density – hence the reluctance to promote the machines that measure peripheral bone density. However, peripheral machines do a good job, with the method that uses a finger doing the best (due to the ability to immobilize a finger in a standard fashion, minimizing variability). Peripheral measurements have a predictive value very similar to that of central measurements. Finding a low BD by any method indicates a high risk of fracture within the following year. A fracture means osteoporosis unless ruled otherwise. (Siris ES, Miller PD, Barrett-Connor E, et al. Identification and fracture outcomes of undiagnosed low bone mineral density in postmenopausal women: results from the National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment. JAMA 2001;286:2815–22) Other methods of diagnosis Pearls Cortical (outer shell) bone makes up what % of bone? Trabecular (spongy, inner) bone makes up what % of bone? (vert + pelvis) Peak bone mass peaks at age What % bone is lost after age 30 per year? After menopause how much cortical bone is lost per year? After menopause how much trabecular bone is lost per year? Prevention of bone loss 75% 25% 30 0.4% 2% 5% Fluoride increases BM but not architecture What increases both BM and architecture but not preventive? PTH Alendronate (Fosamax®) – 5 mg daily to prevent and 10 mg daily or 70 mg weekly to treat Risedronate (Actonel®) – 5 mg daily or 30 mg (Paget’s dose) per week now available in 35 mg per week dose and FDA-approved Ibandronate (Boniva) – 150 mg per month. In the MOBILE study, the 150-mg monthly dose of ibandronate was superior to daily use in terms of lumbar spine bone density Raloxifen (Evista®) 60 mg orally daily Raloxifen has no time limit Tamoxifen (Nolvadex®) – presently used in breast cancer prophylaxis Estrogens, exercise, calcium, vitamins ERT reduces lifetime fracture risk by more than half HRT’s greatest benefit is obtained if started shortly after, menopause (1) Reduces Colles’ fractures by @ 50% (2) Reduces incidence of vertebral deformities by @ 90% (3) In low BMD of forearm, bone loss was slowed by exercise alone or in combination with calcium but ONLY with combined use of HRT and exercise was bone loss reversed and bone mass increased Bone density does not necessarily define the whole story in prevention of fractures in that raloxifene produces a smaller increase in vertebral bone density compared to estrogen and alendronate, yet the three agents are associated with essentially identical reductions in vertebral fractures. Studies of combined therapies not yet available at time of this publication Treatment of osteoporosis Alendronate (Fosamax) – 10 mg daily or 70 mg per week: 50% reduction in all Risedronate (Actonel) – 35 mg orally per week dose: Vertebral >40%, other >30% reduction Ibandronate sodium (Boniva) – 150 mg orally every month Calcitonin (Miacalcin®) NS – 200 mg nasally per day. May have anesthetic properties for fractures and be useful in nursing homes where patients are bedridden (cannot sit up to take bisphosphonates): 21–54% reduction in vertebral fractures only Raloxifene (Evista) – 60 mg daily. Vertebral: 40% reduction Basic Four (1) HRT or ERT (estrogen replacement therapy) 30–40% reduction (2) Calcium 1200–1500 mg daily (500 mg t.i.d. or 600 mg b.i.d.) 30% reduction (3) Vitamin D 400–800 mg daily. Probably as effective or better than calcium 267 OSTEOPOROSIS (4) Exercise: – – – – weight bearing stimulates osteoblasts to form new bone maintains bone mass increases strength and coordination As to when to intervene, one should rely on a constellation of factors, not just numerical bone-density value. To prevent fractures, one cannot simply wait until women have osteoporosis to treat them. For instance, the absolute fracture risk of a 50-year-old woman with a T score of –3 is exactly the same as that of an 80-year -old woman with a T score of –1 For treatment of advanced osteoporosis Human parathyroid hormone →Teriparatide (Forteo) 20 µg SC daily for 18–24 months Parathyroid hormone injections have significant effects on fracture risks in osteoporotic patients (Neer RM, Arnaud CD, Zanchetta JR, et al. Effect of parathyroid hormone (1-34) on fractures and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med 2001;344:1434–41) 65% reduction in vertebral and 54% in other fractures Menopausal women on ERT need how much calcium per day? 1000–1200 mg Menopausal women not on ERT need how much calcium per day? 1500 mg Adolescents need how much calcium per day? 1200–1500 mg Calcium citrate is more soluble and better absorbed than calcium carbonate. Calcium citrate should be recommended to patients who are taking H2-blockers or proton pump inhibitors, as well as elderly patients with occult achlorhydria who are unable to absorb calcium from calcium carbonate supplements. Human monoclonal antibody →Denosumab 6, 14, or 30 mg SC q. 3 months or 14, 60, 100, or 210 mg SC q. 6 months increases BMD and decreases bone resorption in postmenopausal women with documented low bone mass. Denosumad is a new and highly specific, fully human antibody against receptor activator of NF-kappaB ligand (RANKL). RANKL acts as an endogenous activator of osteoclastogenenesis and osteoclast activity and its inhibitor, osteoprotegerin (OPG). According to one study, of asymptomatic conditions requiring preventive treatment, osteoporosis has one of the poorest adherence rates. Compliance with treatment over a long period of time is the single most important factor in osteoporosis prevention. The advantage of denosumab is not only its comparative increase in bone mineral density over alendronate and others, but also its ease of compliance since it is given by SC injections at 3- to 6-month intervals. (McClung MR, Lewiecki EM, Cohen SB, et al. Denosumab in postmenopausal women with low bone mineral density. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 821–31) Strontium ranelate Strontium ranelate is a new therapy proposed for the treatment of osteoporosis. It has anabolic and antiresorptive qualities and acts by increasing collagen and no-collagen protein synthesis, inhibiting osteoclast differentiation, reducing osteoclast function, and enhancing pre-osteoblast differentiation. Studies in postmenopausal women show that it is effective in treating and preventing osteoporosis Other treatments include calcitriol, other bisphosphonates (etidronate, pamidronate, tiludronate, zoledronic acid), sodium fluoride, and tibolone Combination therapies Alendronate and estrogen or alendronate plus a SERM have been shown to be superior than either single agent. The same has been shown when treatments are combined with testosterone Androgens to reduce risk of fracture Adding an androgen to ERT or HRT may offer greater skeletal benefit than estrogen alone. Androgens decrease SHBG (one of the independent factors for increased risk of osteoporosis), i.e. low levels of E2 or DHEA-S or high levels of SHBG or PTH Low androgen concentrations in premenopausal women have been linked with bone loss 268 OSTEOPOROSIS Estratest® vs CEE showed similar decreases in urinary excretion of bone resorption markers (deoxypyridinoline, pyridinoline, hydroxyprolene) The CEE showed decreases in the serum markers of bone formation. Estratest showed increases in all bone-formation markers. Levels of SHBG increased with CEE alone and decreased with E/A (Estratest). E/A therapy was associated with a significant increase in spinal BMD as compared with baseline (Watts NB, Notelovitz M, Timmons MC, et al. Comparison of oral estrogens and estrogens plus androgen on bone mineral density, menopausal symptoms and lipid-lipoprotein profiles in surgical menopause. Obstet Gynecol 1995;85:529–37) E2 implants, 50 mg alone vs E2 50 mg plus testosterone 50 mg, were administered three times yearly. BMD (total body, vertebra and hip) increased earlier and to a greater degree in the E/A group Micronized progesterone and medroxyprogesterone acetate did not add to the bone-protecting effects of ERT, although norethindrone acetate (an androgenic progestin) has been shown to have an additive effect in BMD when compared with those treated with ERT alone Androgen-deficiency syndrome Symptoms can include decreased libido (less desire, less frequency, and less sexual pleasure), bone loss, fatigue and lack of well-being Androgen levels can decrease by almost half during menopause and when a woman’s ovaries are surgically removed androgen loss is much more dramatic with testosterone levels dropping 80% Statins Associated with a 71% significant reduction in fracture risk Soy products Basic research indicates that dietary soy products may have definitive effects in protecting estrogen-deficient animals from the development of osteoporosis and osteopenia. However, there is little clear evidence that these products will work in treatment of already established osteopenia in humans. It should not be detrimental to increase the consumption of these products in the Western diet. The American Heart Association recommends 20–50 g/d of soy protein. Isoflavone supplements should contain about 50 mg/d and should not exceed 100 mg/d. IP is administered as 200 mg t.i.d., and if used should be combined with both calcium and vitamin D supplements. • Parathyroid hormone analog builds new bone. Estrogen, bisphosphonates, and SERMs retard resorption Trials MORE (Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation) trial – showed the prevalence of fractures (not rate) is far greater with osteopenia Rotterdam trial – 12% of nonvertebral fractures were in women with normal BMD NORA (National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment) trial – of postmenopausal women who suffered a new fracture within 1 year, 82% had osteopenia. Four top predictors of fracture The (1) (2) (3) (4) four top predictors of fracture within 1 year are: Previous fracture, regardless of T score T score worse than –1.8 Poor health Poor mobilitiy 269 OSTEOPOROSIS Figure 18 Osteoporotic vs normal bone with arrow pointing to fracture in the osteoporotic bone Osteoporosis treatment algorithm Menopausal woman Woman begins HRT or SERM Woman continues HRT/SERM Continue primary preventive care efforts Offer hormone replacement therapy (HRT) or SERM Woman declines HRT Woman stops HRT or SERM and declines to continue Woman with established osteoporisis Recent bone density measurement Evaluate for osteoporosis therapy Woman with risk factors Diagnostic/baseline bone density measurement recommended Bone mass normal Yes No Woman with no risk factors Observe for changes Bone mass below normal (osteoporosis) Observe for changes Consider treatment with bisphosphonate or calcitonin 270 OVARY OVARY Blood supply Ovarian artery (branch of aorta). Left ovarian vein drains to left RENAL vein. Right ovarian vein drains to inferior vena cava Lymphatics Para-aortic nodes Nerve supply Sympathetic plexus Theca cells are involved with androstenedione production and are responsive to Granulosa cells synthesize estrogen and are responsive to Embryology and physiology of ovary Germ cells multiply to form how many oogonia by 16–20 weeks? 6–7 million How many oocytes are present at birth? 2 million Adult ovary contains @ how many follicular units? 300 000 About how many will reach full maturation and ovulate? 300–400 Inhibin and follistatin secreted by granulosa cells suppress FSH Activin augments FSH Ovulation occurs how many hours after LH surge? 34–36 Ovulation occurs how many hours after LH peak? 10–12 Ovulation occurs how many hours after estradiol peak? 24–36 What dose of radiation to the ovary would have no effect? (in rads) ≤ 60 What dose in rads to the ovary would result in 100% sterility? 800 Genes known to be expressed exclusively in oocytes ZP3 Treatment of choice for BORDERLINE ovarian cancer in infertility patients is cystectomy. Borderline tumors demonstrate epithelial proliferation but no evidence of stromal invasion Extraovarian implants are present in borderline tumors in what %? Recurrence of borderline tumor (not associated with disease spread elsewhere) is What % of borderline tumors make up epithelial tumors? Unilateral S&O is option for stage IA and residual disease TAHBSO is treatment for perimenopausal and postmenopausal patients Intraop: Bxs, washings, partial omentectomy, lymphadectomy Postop: semiannual follow-up Prophylactic oophorectomy LH FSH Cancer prevention Risk of cancer According to SEER, lifetime risk of ovarian cancer is If 300 000 oophorectomies were done, how many cases of ovarian cancer could be prevented Prophylactic oophorectomy cannot prevent the development of peritoneal carcinomatosis. There is essentially no screening method for ovarian cancer. There are some useful adjuncts to screening high-risk patients such as: (1) Vaginal ultrasound (three-dimensional US possibly better) (2) Serum CA-125 (3) LPA (plasma lysophosphatidic acid) detected 9 or 10 patients with stage I ovarian cancers and in all with higher stages Oral contraceptives decrease risk of ovarian cancer (when taken for 5 years or more) by Why take ovaries (at time of hysterectomy)? (1) Cancer risk (2) Family history of epithelial ovarian cancer (3) Family member or friend had reoperation (4) 5–20% patients have reoperation for pathology involving ovaries (5) Patient’s desire to have ovaries removed 30% 5–10% 15% 1/70 1/58 1.71% 1000 50% Individualize, HRT compliance important, genetic risk What % of endodermal or embryonal tumors will recur if no postop treatment is given? Germ cell tumors IA1 are cured with surgery alone in what %? If stage II, III or IV – chemotherapy should be bleomycin, etoposide and cisplatin × how many doses? 85% 100% 3 271 PAIN The chemo Rx of bleomycin, etoposide and cisplatin cures what % of cases? 95% What % of granulosa cell tumors are stage I at time of diagnosis? 90% What % of granulosa cell tumors are unilateral? 95% “Second-look” lap for ovarian cancer – advantage is that this % of patients will have advanced disease at second-look surgery 50% The other advantage is there is the opportunity to resect (controversial) and theoretically reduce any residual tumor. The disadvantage is major surgery/prolonged ileus (investigational procedure) Suboptimal disease (IIIC) is residual disease > 1–2 cm Suboptimal disease has a poor prognosis of 5-year survival rates @ 10–15% Treat with Taxol® (paclitaxel) and Platinol® (cisplatin). Median survival is > 3 years Whole radiation treatment only for patients with no gross residual disease Lifetime current risk of ovarian cancer associated with BRCA1 germline mutation is 30% Lifetime current risk of ovarian cancer associated with BRCA2 germline mutation is 10% Oral contraceptive use may reduce a woman’s risk of ovarian cancer as much as 50% Risk of primary peritoneal cancer after prophylactic oophorectomy in increased risk patients is 2–15% PAGET’S DISEASE OF VULVA Symptoms Pruritis, soreness, superficial, red to pink, velvety, eczematoid lesion Diagnosis Keyes punch 3–5 mm Histology “Percolating to the surface” Eosinophilic Paget’s cells at epithelium Treatment Wide excision Frozen section Radical bilateral inguinal–femoral lymphadenectomy p.r.n. Milk line lesions comprise what % of lesions? Adenocarcinoma or squamous carcinoma is present in what % of Paget’s? Wide local treatment with how many cm beyond margin? If underlying adenocarcinoma, rad vulvectomy or hemivulvectomy with femoral–inguinal lymphadenectomy IV fluorescein allows visualization of margins: Pos predictive value Neg predictive value Survival rate in all > 2 cm 15% 5–20% 1–2 97.4% 99.9% 90% Paget’s disease of the vulva often recurs, especially when the initial lesion is large. PAIN Chronic pelvic pain Pelvic pain differential Best relief of pain associated with endometriosis is GnRH – % of patients with pain relief? Progestin (Provera) – reported to be as effective as GnRH agonist but comparison has not been done. OCPs – (continuous fusion) but not as good as GnRH. Adhesiolysis and/or cervical dilatation – neither shown to help History of sexual abuse seen in what % of chronic pelvic pain? Laparoscopy reveals this % of pelvic abnormalities incidentally What % of these patients are undergoing laparoscopy for sterilization? PID/infection, dysmenorrhea, ovarian cyst (rupture), adenomyosis, endometriosis, appendicitis, cystitis, diverticulitis, mesenteric adenitis, kidney/bladder stone, pelvic adhesions, leiomyomata, ectopic pregnancy, torsion, tubal syndrome 75–90% 50% 60–80% 30% 272 PAIN (after tubal), hydrosalpinx, lower lobe lung process, pyelonephritis, Meckel’s diverticulum, viral bacterial GI syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis and/or psychosomatic Pain medication (1) Morphine – best, well known, inexpensive (2) Ketorolac (Toradol®) – NSAIDs, GI ulceration, bleeding 5 days (3) Meperidine (Demerol) – Short duration 2.5–3.5 h Metabolite (normeperidine). CNS stimulation (dysphoria, agitation, seizures). Avoid in elderly (4) Methadone – more expensive than morphine sulfate, longest acting. Reserve for those who cannot tolerate morphine (5) Sublimaze® (fentanyl) – short acting. Patches require additional dosing and can cause increased respiratory depression (6) Oxycodone – oral dosing only. Requires frequent dosing. Caution to avoid acetaminophen toxicity (7) PCA (patient controlled anesthesia) – better than IM dosing. Increased expense. Associated with increased urinary retention 273 PAIN Chronic pain management Initial screening (history, physical exam, laboratory studies, X-ray, psychologic evaluation) Treatment successful Etiology clear Etiology unclear Treat etiology Further evaluation, including diagnostic nerve blocks Treatment failure Etiology identified Review diagnosis Alternate treatments; more invasive therapies; psychologic support Etiology unknown Symptomatic treatment Pain persists Pain controlled 274 PAP SMEAR PAP SMEAR Introduction of Pap smear was by Papanicolaou and Traut in Since 1947, the incidence of cervical cancer went from 34 per 100 000 to 7.7 per 100 000 in How to perform a Pap smear 1943 1996 Collect before bimanual exam. Collect before testing for STDs. Ectocervix is scraped using spatula and rotated 360° two times. Ectocervix is obtained before the endocervical brush is used. Do not use lubricants during collection of specimen Upper two-thirds of epithelium show some evidence of change but lower third lacks evidence CIN I Abnormal changes involve the lower two-thirds of the epithelium CIN II Full thickness and mitotic figures CIN III Early stromal invasion of small foci less than ? from basement epithelium invading BM < 1 mm Microinvasive carcinoma involves what depth/what horizontal spread? ≤ 3 mm/≤ 7 mm Occult invasive carcinoma is what depth of invasion? > 500 mm3 (5 mm) Mortality from cervical cancer has decreased by what % since Paps introduced? 70–90% False-negative rate for single Pap test is 10–25% What % LGSIL spontaneously resolve? 60% What % LGSIL progress to HGSIL? 15% Evaluate high-risk premenopausal patient with ASCUS on a Pap smear with colposcopy What % of women with ASCUS have a high-grade dysplastic process? 5–13% High-risk patients requiring frequent Pap screening: Females with multiple partners Females who began intercourse at an early age Females whose male partners have had sexual partners with cervical cancer Smokers and abuses of other substances including alcohol Management for a patient with a high-grade lesion that involves the endocervical canal is CKC or LEEP Manage AGUS that is highly suggestive of an endocervical lesion on Pap with CKC or LEEP THIN PREP is monolayer prep approved by FDA that increases sensitivity of Pap due to increased diagnosis of LGSIL and residual fluid can be saved without calling pt back but cost how much more? $35 Washes debris $15–20 more than conventional Pap PAPNET – normals are rescreened and computer selects how many of the most abnl cells? 128 These cells are re-examined and original slide re-examined p.r.n. Cost is how much more? $45–50 Paps prepared in the normal manner Paps read as NORMAL are RESCREENED. Re-examined by cytotechnologist or pathologist. The original slide is re-examined if necessary. Disadvantage = + 3–7 more days to get result and more expensive AUTOPAP – conventional Pap is reviewed by a computer program. (Identifies 5 × more false-negatives) Adds cost of $45–50 Endocervical cells absent on Pap. If no risk (with 3 nl Paps + normal with only absence) then repeat 12 months If risk factors present, repeat Pap at patient’s convenience PAP SMEAR Screening Pap smears LOW RISK GROUP – Monogamous or – Previous hysterectomy and – 3 consecutive Paps within HIGH RISK GROUP – Sexually active – H/o sexual activity – >18 yrs old – H/o HPV/HIV – Smoking – Multiple sexual partners normal limits BENIGN CELLULAR CHANGES SQUAMOUS DYSPLASIA GLANDULAR DYSPLASIA Inflammation ASCUS Reactive LGSIL Treat organism Treat cause (E2/Abx) Repeat Pap 3–4 months HGSIL SCCA Endo cells (benign) Repeat Pap 3–4 months Repeat PAP 3–4 months WNL WNL WNL Rtn to screening Pap Refer to Gyn/ONC AIS Colpo CKC +/– Endo Bx +/– Endo Bx Adeno ca Gyn/ONC ABNL Repeat Pap 3–4 months Repeat Pap 3–4 months Colpo AGUS ABNL Premenopausal Postmenopausal Regular screening Endo Bx/ D&C/ H-scope Colpo Colpo Repeat Pap 3–4 months WNL Rtn to screening Pap 275 276 PARASITES Pap test frequency Begin Paps with onset of sexual activity and continue every 3 years or more frequent with increased risks After hysterectomy for bleeding with mild dysplasia q. 12 months After hyst for severe cervical dysplasia after cone q. 6 months Pelvic pain with three consecutive normal Paps None indicated Hyperspectral diagnostic imaging of the cervix, using UV light generated by a mercury vapor lamp, is able to discriminate CIN from normal tissues (but with difficulty differentiating squamous epithelium from squamous metaplasia) in a matter of how many seconds? 12 Local excision of CIN after Pap and colposcopy evaluation (1) Cryo – nitrous or CO2. Double-freeze technique helpful – extends 4–5 mm beyond edge of probe (2) CO2 laser vaporization – Depth 7 mm effective for 99%. Power density ≥ 1000 Watts/cm2 (3) LEEP – Depth 7–8 mm. Extend 4–5 mm beyond affected area • If a woman has an ASCUS finding on cytology but is HPV-negative, rescreening is preferable over immediate colposcopy PARASITES See chart on next page Infection Organism Giardiasis Pinworms Symptoms Route of infection Diagnoses Pregnancy effects Placental trans Drug of choice (FDA) Alternate drug Drug (if not pregnant) Giardia lamblia Watery, bulky diarrhea; abd pain; flatulence; nausea, wt loss; malaise Fecal–oral Trophozoites in stool Secondary maternal disease None Humatin® (paromomycin) 30 mg/kg/day in 3 doses for 5–10 days (B) Flagyl (metronidazole) 250 mg t.i.d. ×5 days (B) (last two trimesters) Atabrine HCl (quinacrine) 100 mg/day ×5 days (C) Enterobius vermicularis Intense perineal and anal itching particularly at night Autoinoculation Demonstration of None known worms on adhesive tape None Antiminth®, Combantrin® (pyrantel pamoate) 10 mg/kg – max 1 g (base) after 1st trimester. Repeat dose 2 weeks later Clothing/bedding to be washed in hot water and chlorine bleach Hookworms Ancylostoma duodenale Necator americanus Anemia Skin penetration of larvae from soil Eggs in fecal smears Secondary to maternal anemia None Iron Pyrantel 11 mg/kg × 3 days Amebiasis Entamoeba histolytica Asymptomatic or 10–50%; Sxs of colicky lower abd pain Fecal–oral E. histolytica in stool or sigmoidoscopy Secondary to maternal disease None Humatin 30 mg/kg/ day in 3 doses ×7 days. Give Flagyl 750 mg p.o. t.i.d. × 10 days then Humatin for severe infections If severe, give dehydroemetine 1.5 mg/kg/day ×5 days CDC (404) 6393670 Malaria Plasmodium ovale vivax Non-resistant P. falciparum Chloroquineresistant P. falciparum High fever/chills, abd pain, nausea vomiting, delirium Anopheline mosquito Plasmodium parasites in stained peripheral blood smears Secondary to maternal disease 1–4% congenital malaria documented Aralen® (chloroquine) 1 g then 500 mg at 6, 24, and 48 h then weekly till after delivery; then primaquine 15 mg daily × 14 days postpartum (screen for G-6PD) Larium® Parental quinine gluconate for life(mefloquine) threatening infections P. falciparum Rx for resistant P. falciparum is quinine 650 mg. t.i.d. ×3–7 days plus pyrimethamine/ sulfadoxine, 3 tabs on day 3 of tx Pediculosis pubis (Crab louse) Phthirius pubis Pruritus and itching Close contact usually sexual Visualization of adult lice or nits (eggs) under magnification None Permethrin 1% cream applied × 10 min then washed off Pyrethrins Piperonyl butoxide ×10 min then washed off PARASITES PARASITIC INFECTIONS IN PREGNANCY Vermox® (mebendazole) Equizole® Mintezol® Thibenzole® (thiabendazole) Iodoquinol or emetine 277 Lindane 1% ×4 min then wash 278 PARVOVIRUS PARVOVIRUS Incidence 1/400 pregnancies Maternal parvovirus is transmitted to the fetus in @ what % of cases? 30% Fifth disease (erythema infectiosum) is caused by parvovirus B19, a single-stranded DNA virus. It was called fifth disease because it was 5th pink-red rash – following scarlet fever, measles, rubella and roseola – to be described by physicians. ‘Slapped cheek’ is seen Spontaneous abortion may result from maternal infection in the first trimester 10% Parvovirus diagnosed in the late second and third trimesters carries a risk of stillbirth and hydrops fetalis Non-immune hydrops is caused from the anemia caused by the virus Diagnosis The ELISA and Western blot analysis appear to be the most reliable methods for detecting IgG and IgM antibodies in maternal serum What % of adults are immune? (Have IgG antibodies) 50% If IgG and IgM are both negative, repeat titers in 3–4 weeks Management Weekly ultrasound examinations for 8–10 weeks after diagnosing parvovirus in the gravida. If hydrops seen on ultrasound, cordocentesis (PUBS) is done Complication rate of PUBS is 1% Blood is sent to lab for MCV, Hct, leukocyte and platelet count When intrauterine RBC transfusion is performed in presence of hydrops and anemia, fetal survival rate ranges from 60–80% Without treatment, rate drops to 15–30% PATERNAL AGE Predisposes fetus to mutations associated with mutations in X-linked genes through carrier daughter (“grandfather effect”) Hemophilia A or Duchenne muscular dystrophy or predisposes fetus to mutations in autosomal dominant diseases Increased risk rises exponentially instead of linearly Examples Neurofibromatosis, achondroplasia, Apert syndrome or Marfan syndrome PEAKS What week gestation does fetal AFP peak? What week gestation does maternal AFP peak? What week gestation does maternal hCG peak? 15 30 10–12 PEDIATRIC DISCHARGE What % of pediatric discharge is non-specific? 75% What % of cultures will identify organism? 25% Think in descending order of incidence: Infection Foreign body Tumor Usually no need for anesthesia – use Huffman vagiscope or test tube with otoscope but not otoscope alone Use with care if nasal speculum is used Why susceptible? Exposed to more bacteria Lack estrogen Neutral pH Poor perineal hygiene Lacks glycogen, lactobacilli and sufficient antibodies Scratch–itch cycle Symptoms Pain, pruritis, irritation, dysuria 279 PELVIC EXAMINATION Differential diagnosis Foreign body (especially if bloody discharge present) Pin worms (especially if primary symptom is itching at night) Ectopic ureter Child abuse Diagnosis KNEE CHEST POSITION Remove any foreign body with small female urethral swab or irrigate. Local trauma most common cause. Others – infectious, neoplastic, hormonally mediated, etc. Treatment Improve hygiene, Sitz baths, clean, D/C bubble baths and soft soap, apply 0.5% hydrocortisone if intense itching. Use Vermox for pinworms. Irrigation or removal of foreign body. Estrogen to vulva – not vagina. Antibiotic p.r.n. for 10–14 days PEDIATRIC GYNECOLOGY Congenital uteri Uterine unicollis Rudimentary horn Bleeding, pain. Remove blind horn Uterine didelphis Slender cavities – Jones/Tompkins Septate uterus Hysteroscopic dissection Blind vagina (Müllerian remnant) Lateral to vagina – open vaginally Arcuate uterus Exposed to estrogen in utero Imperforate hymen Cruciate incision (10 to 4; 2 to 8) Congenital absence of vagina See Frank and McEndoe procedures Ambiguous genitalia Reassure – “genitals not developed yet”. Rule out CAH – inability to produce cortisol. Get buccal smear and order karyotype. Raise as male if functioning phallus and Y chromosome, otherwise it is easier to surgically repair and raise as a female See Ambiguous genitalia Fusion of labia Atrophic – thin black line. Treat with estrogen cream b.i.d. 4–6 weeks Abnormal bleeding Vaginitis Trauma UTI or GI track Hormone activity Tumor (granulosa cell tumor – precocious puberty – nuclear grooves) Condyloma – sexual abuse Hymenal tags Sarcoma botryoides (rhabdomyosarcoma) Clear-cell adenocarcinoma Urethral prolapse – treat with estrogen Vitiligo – chronic irritation PELVIC EXAMINATION Vulva Mons, labia majora and minus – scars or lesions? Clitoris – cylindrical? Body and glans of normal size and/or shape? Hymen – annular, septate, cribiform? Absent with porous introitus? Vaginal orifice Patulous with adequate rugae? No lesions of the urethral meatus? Skene’s or Bartholin’s ducts? Uterus Position, size, shape, mobile, tender? Adnexa Enlarged, mobile, tender? 280 PELVIC INFLAMMATORY DISEASE (PID) PELVIC INFLAMMATORY DISEASE (PID) Lower abdominal pain is present in what % patients with PID? Mucopurulent cervical discharge? Sed rate > 15 mm/h WBC > 10 000 90% 75% 75% 50% Diagnosis Abdominal, cervical, AND adnexal pain plus one of the following: Temperature > 100.4⬚F WBC > 10 500 Sed rate > 15 Mass Cul-de-sac evidence of WBCs or bacteria. Evidence of GC or Chlamydia Treatment Outpatient Ceftriaxone (Rocephin) Doxycycline p.o. b.i.d. × 14 days or Cefoxitin 2 g IM plus probenecid 1 g orally Doxycycline 100 mg b.i.d. ×14 days or Ofloxacin p.o. b.i.d. × 14 days Metronidazole p.o. b.i.d. × 14 days 250 mg IM 100 mg 400 mg 500 mg Inpatient Cefotetan (Cefotan) IV q. 12 h 2g Doxycycline IV q. 12 h 100 mg or Cefoxitin 2 g IV q. 6 h Doxycycline 100 mg IV or PO × 72 h then oral doxycycline 100 mg twice daily for a 14-day course or Clindamycin IV q. 8 h 900 mg Gentamicin IV q. 8 h 2 mg/kg then 1.5 mg or daily in dose of 5–7.5 mg/kg Treatment failures for outpatient therapy Treatment failures for inpatient therapy Re-evaluate patients getting outpatient therapy in Hospitalize: (1) Outpt rx not improved after 48–72 h (2) Adolescents (3) Adnexal or pelvic abscesses (4) Diagnosis of PID in question (5 Pregnancy patients with acute PID See also Sexually transmitted diseases 10–20% 5–10% 48–72 h PELVIC MASS Best screening is regular exams Patient’s AGE is MOST IMPORTANT factor for determining potential for malignancy Premenarchal and postmenopausal – both highly abnormal ages to find a mass Reproductive age – most masses occur in this age; most are benign Tumor markers Germ cell tumors CEA is elevated in what % of ovarian cancer especially mucinous but also in PUD, diverticulitis, bronchitis and cigarette smokers? Immunodiagnostic for serous tumors Ultrasound findings of malignancy AFP + hCG 40% CA-125 Multiloculated with septations. Irregular border with papillations. Internal complexities rather than clarity Size Ascites present?? > 8 cm 281 PELVIC MUSCLE EXERCISE (PME) Cysts and masses Benign tumors Malignant tumors Smooth walled Irregular border Cystic Solid or semisolid Mobile Fixed Unilateral Bilateral (increase risk 2.6 ×) < 8 cm > 8 cm Associated with nodules in cul-de-sac or associated with ascites Surgical evaluation Ovarian cystic lesion > 5 cm after 6–8 weeks without regression. Any solid ovarian lesion. Any ovarian lesion with papillary vegetation on cyst wall. Any adenexal mass > 10 cm. Ascites. Palpable mass in premenarchal or postmenopausal patient. Suspected torsion or rupture Colonoscopy, IVP PELVIC MEASUREMENTS Diagonal conjugate must be ≥ 11.5 cm Obstetric conjugate must be ≥ 10 cm Midpelvis Interspinous diameter AP diameter 10 cm 11.5 cm Outlet AP diameter Transverse diameter Posterior sagittal diameter Biischial diameter (fist) Caldwell + Maloy Gynecoid pelvis in what % females? Oval, round, arch wide Android (worse) Spine prominent, sidewalls converge Anthropoid (OP is common). What % females? Blacks Whites AP diameter greater than long transverse Platypelloid (OT is common). What % females? Short AP, wide transverse 1/3 1/4 1/2 1/4 3% is elv te juga l con ete ro ona Diag 50% idp n co ate te onjug c OB a jug cm cm cm cm Sym e Tru 9.5–11.5 11 7.5 8 fm Inlet A– Pd iam P P, sacral promontory Sym, symphysis Figure 19 Pelvic conjugates PELVIC MUSCLE EXERCISE (PME) See Kegel exercises The Colpexin sphere, an intravaginal device for women with advanced genital prolapse that supports the prolapse above the levator musculature and helps patients strengthen their pelvic floor muscles, can also serve as a test to objectively assess pelvic floor muscle contractility and strength 282 PENTALOGY OF CANTRELL PELVIC PAIN See Chronic Pelvic Pain. PENTALOGY OF CANTRELL Omphalocele Lower sternal defect Anterior diaphragm defect Deficiency of diaphragmatic pericardium Intracardiac abnormality PERIMENOPAUSE Diagnosis of exclusion. Draw TSH. Rule out thyroid disease. Inhibin levels may be helpful as these decrease as perimenopause is initiated. FSH and estradiol levels not helpful. Increased FSH level on cycle day 3 indicates poor prognosis for pregnancy. Inhibin which is made in granulosa cells of ovary suppresses pituitary FSH Luteal phase inhibin responsible for early recruitment of dominate follicle for next cycle is inhibin Follicular phase inhibin may explain the short follicular phase in the perimenopausal pt – inhibin A B Hormone profile of perimenopausal woman Increased FSH and LH, fluctuating and decreasing E2 levels and decreased progesterone androstenedione and testosterone Perimenopause is defined clinically by menstrual irregularities especially shortening of the menstrual cycles Anovulation and bleeding are key symptoms Progesterone measured @ 1 week prior to menses = diagnosis of anovulation if serum level < 300 ng/dl Anovulation with DUB @ with proliferative or hyperplastic endometrium (no atypia) = MPA 5–10 mg × first 10 days of each month × several months Follow-up aspiration curettage after 3–4 months on MPA. If histological regression not seen, do D&C If hyperplasia with atypia is noted – hysterectomy is treatment of choice due to high risk of invasive ca Progestins are not believed to be associated with an increased risk of VTE Hot flushes – incidence of premenopausal flushes 10–25% Other causes of hot flushes: cancer, carcinoid, leukemia, pheochromocytoma, psychosomatic, stress, thyroid disease Cause – ? originates in hypothalamus – declining estrogen. FSH, TSH, estradiol Treatment Estrogen, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are very effective OCPs – 20 µg formulation has no significant impact on the measurements of clotting factors, even to smokers. Benefits also include decreased endometrial cancer, ovarian cancer, endometriosis, fibroids, benign breast disease, rheumatoid arthritis, ovarian cysts and increased bone density, regular menses, protection against atherosclerosis (possibly) Conventional HRT is not the best option for perimenopausal women because it may not suppress ovulation, and therefore provide neither contraceptive benefit nor control of menstrual irregularity. Women should be counseled to use contraception until after the onset of menopause to prevent unwanted pregnancy When to change from OCP to postmenopausal HRT: Begin FSH level at age 50 (6–7th day of pill-free week – Friday) When FSH > 20 IU/l, it is time to change (2 weeks pill free more accurate but not practical – some empirically change after age 50) or one can switch from OCs to HRT = when there is an increased FSH and/or decreased E2 levels after an off-pill interval of 2 weeks Average age of onset Age of onset for 95% of women Average duration Duration for 95% of women 45.1–47.5 39–51 5 2–8 years years years years 283 PERIMENOPAUSE When patient is no longer ovulating Anovulatory bleeding Control acute episode OC q.i.d. x 5 days Bleeding stops No Yes Curettage Bleeds 2–4 days later Need for contraception No Yes 10 mg MPA ×12-day cycle or Micronized progesterone ×12-day cycle OC 21/7 days off cycle 284 PERINATAL DEFINED Patient who is taking HRT Anovulatory bleeding No Yes Systemic disease? Abnormal pelvis Menstrual calendar Evaluate: OC 21/7 days 10 mg MPA × 12 days HRT–combined continuous Lab tests Ultrasound Expected bleeding Yes No Endometrial thickness >5 mm Observe No Yes Biopsy Hysteroscopy Curettage PERINATAL DEFINED Perinatal period is from 20–22 weeks’ gestation through how many completed days of life? Neonatal period is from birth to how many days of completed life? Early neonatal is first Late neonatal period is days 8 through Death is expressed in hours if infant under Death is expressed in completed days of life if infant over Live birth is one that shows ANY evidence of life at delivery Fetal death (formerly ‘stillbirth’) shows NO sign of life at delivery USA International Threshold of viability (23–25 weeks’ gestation or < 750 g) 23 weeks or 500–600 g survival rate 24 weeks or 600–700 g survival rate 25 weeks or 700–800 g survival rate Most common serious morbidity is RDS in infants under What % children < 750 g experience moderate to severe disability including blindness + CP C-section for extremely premature infants is beneficial PERIURETHRAL INJECTIONS Use with ISD and decreased mobility of urethra and/or higher risk for surgical procedures 28 28 7 days 28 24 h 24 h 500g 1000 g 15–20% 41–54% 59–65% 750 g 50% 285 PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA Collagen – requires allergy testing and is not permanent Durasphere – microscopic carbon beads, thick substance. No allergy testing required, permanent and can be seen radiologically Procedures are performed cystoscopically, require a PIN number to order and bulking agents are injected at urethrovesical junction PESSARIES Indications (1) Temporary or delay measure until surgery for pelvic prolapse (2) Use preoperatively to help heal erosions (3) Use for young women with prolapse to defer surgery until after childbearing is complete (maintenance of childbearing ability) (4) Diagnostic aid to clarify if pelvic or back discomfort are symptoms of pelvic prolapse (5) Unmask latent stress urinary incontinence (following insertion of pessary, if new onset or worsening of SUI, suspect ISD) (6) Avoidance of surgery (high-risk, failed previous procedure) (7) Interim or permanent symptom control (8) Patient preference for conservative management Selection Advanced prolapse with large genital hiatus Gellhorn Moderate cystoceles Rings with support Vault prolapse (first choice) Ring with and without support Rigid pessaries No longer recommended Cystoceles and rectoceles Gehrung Retroversion of uterus Lever pessaries (Hodge and Smith) Close follow-up needed due to possible severe vaginitis Cube Fitting Most common sizes are 3 to 5 Similar to diaphragm fitting Fit, have patient bear down on table, ambulate and sit on toilet in attempt to expel – if expels – too small. If it is uncomfortable or if there is urinary obstruction, the pessary is too large. If vaginal atrophy present, use topical estrogen, antibacterial cream or an estrogen ring above it Patient follow-up After initial fitting, patient should return in If patient cannot remove and clean her own pessary Follow-up visits can be increased to Remember to follow-up cubes much more frequently Contraindications Severe erosions Active vaginitis Pelvic inflammatory disease Non-compliant patient. (Severe complications can include vesicovaginal or rectovaginal fistula or impacted pessaries in neglected cases) Anti-incontinence devices See Urinary incontinence 1–2 weeks q. 2–3 months q. 6 months PEYRONIE’S DISEASE Treatment Vitamin E 1000 mg daily Verapamil 80 mg tablet daily Isoptin®? Cream? Radiation therapy Surgery Potaba® pills (6 pills 4 times per day) PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA Although a rare cause of hypertension and/or hot flushes, pheochromocytoma is ultimately correctable Diagnosis P-MET (plasma metanephrines) should be the first test of choice Highest sensitivity tests are: P-FMET (plasma-free metanephrines) and U-FMET (urinary fractionated metanephrines) 286 PHYLLODES TUMOR Highest specificity tests are: U-VMA (urinary vanillylmandelic acid) and U-TMET (urinary total metanephrines) PHYLLODES TUMOR What % of phyllodes tumors contain some characteristics of malignant process? Diagnosis Stromal proliferation with cellularity of connective tissue Treatment Total wide excision with wide margin of healthy tissue 10% PITOCIN How to mix and calculate milliunits of Pitocin 10 U in 1 liter D5W 10 U in 1000 or 10 000 mu in 1000 or 10 milliunit per 1 cc or 1 milliunit per 0.1 cc to be given over 60 min or 6 cc per min or to be given at rate ? (Start at 1–2 mu/min) and/or 6 mu/min (Dublin) Double at increased flow rate by 0.5–6 q. 15, 20 or 30 min until good labor pattern seen. STOP STAT for severe decels or tet contractions > 60 s How does Pitocin work? It has properties identical to oxytocin of the posterior lobe of the pituitary. It has selective action on smooth muscle of the uterus stimulating, increasing the frequency or raising the tone of the contractions of these muscles by causing the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Pitocin is category A PITUITARY MACROADENOMA WITH HYPERPROLACTINEMIA Cabergoline (Dostinex®) is long-acting dopamine agonist with long half-life, fewer side-effects than Parlodel, dose is what weekly? Transphenoidal resection – recurrence rate for hyperprolactinemia can be as high as Within how many years of surgery? 1–2 × 80% 3 PLACENTA ACCRETA Incidence Accreta, increta, percreta 78%, 17%, 5% After one C-section and previa 23% After multiple C-sections and previa 62% Placenta accreta is the most common indication for peripartum hysterectomy, and likely results from the increase in Cesarean deliveries and uterine curettages. (Kastner ES, Figueroa R. Emergency peripartum hysterectomy: experience at a community teaching hospital. Obstet Gynecol 2002;99:971–5) Types Accreta – attached to myometrium Increta – invades myometrium Percreta – penetrates myometrium Treatment Five procedures: (1) Hysterectomy (most common treatment) (2) Remove and oversew giving Pitocin and liberal use of antibiotics (3) Localized resection (4) Curettage, leaving in situ (5) Methotrexate treatment 287 PLACENTA PREVIA PLACENTA PREVIA Definition A placenta previa is a placenta implanted on the lower uterine segment that prevents descent of the fetus. The degree to which the internal cervical os is covered by the placenta determines whether a placenta previa is classified as marginal, partial or complete: (1) Complete: implantation of the placenta across the cervical os (2) Partial (incomplete): placenta covers part of internal os (or, for incomplete, the placental edge is within 2 cm of internal os but does not cover the os) (3) Marginal (low-lying): placenta just reaches the edge of the internal os (or, for low-lying, the distance from the internal cervical os to the placental edge is between 2 and 3.5 cm) Incidence Per pregnancies (@ 0.4%) or 1/200 Total/partial What % persists until term? Placenta previa is known to have caused what % of death between 1979 and 2002? If asymptomatic until midtrimester, resolution may occur in If symptomatic until 24–36 weeks, resolution occurs in only Increased risk with: (1) Multips/AMA > 35 > 40 (2) Prior C-sections > 1 C-section > 2 C-sections > 3 C-sections (3) Defective decidualization Smokers Cocaine abusers (4) Large placentas (5) Cretas associated 30%/30% 10% 7% 75% 15% 1/100 1/50 1% 2% 4% 2 × increase What % of placenta previas also have cretas? Increased risk of creta if PP and prior C-section of What incidence of fetal congenital malformations are associated with placenta praevia? 5% 25% 2-fold Fetal growth restriction (according to Varma TR. Fetal growth and placental function in patients with placenta previa. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw 1973;80:311–15) is also increased with previa to 16% Maternal mortality is < 1% Perinatal mortality is < 10% Incidence of PTD with placenta previa 50% How much blood loss can occur before most patients become hemodynamically unstable? 25% or 1500 ml Etiology Zygote implants low Symptoms PAINLESS BLEEDING Diagnosis Ultrasound diagnosis per abdominal/transvaginal 70%/97% Transvaginal ultrasound is superior to abdominal and concern for disruption of the placenta with the vaginal probe is unfounded according to multiple studies Accurate diagnosis may be difficult if the uterus is contracting during US imaging Also look for placenta accreta. In women with placenta previa, the risk of placenta accreta was 67% after 4 prior cesarean deliveries. Characteristics that are suggestive of placenta accreta include: (1) Absence of the normal hypoechoic myometrial zone (2) Presence of multiple lakes scattered throughout the placenta, creating a “Swiss cheese” appearance (3) Focal disruption of the uterine serosa bladder wall 288 PLACENTA PREVIA It is difficult prior to delivery to diagnose accreta, but color flow/power Doppler imaging with 2- and 3-dimensional techniques and MRI help improve the chances of diagnosis prior to delivery, but never a guarantee “Migration” can occur in lies that are close 90% In mild bleeding with marginal – head compression decreases bleed Transfusion rate with placenta previa is 30% Mean gestational age at the time of the first episode of bleeding is 29–32 wks Some asymptomatic cases resolve, so do monthly evaluations with U/S Differential Bleeding complicates what % of pregnancies? 6% Placenta previa comprises 7% Placental abruption comprises 13% Other causes (PTL, coitus, etc.) 80% Marginal placenta previa lies within how many centimeters of the os? 2–3 cm HALLMARK of PP is sudden onset of painless bleeding. How many asymptomatic till labor? 10% Treatment Restrict activity only after 30 weeks Transfuse to a hematocrit of at least 30% in women actively bleeding Maintain intensive observation, insert large-bore IV cath, CVP if unstable MgSO4 is agent of choice for tocolysis Stat C-section: Patient at term, in labor or with excessive bleeding regardless of age Incision is usually transverse, but vertical p.r.n. if worried about association with fetal bleeding with anterior placenta previa Risk of creta with anterior placenta is Risk of creta with anterior placenta and history of C-section If there is strong evidence of accrete or percreta at the time of delivery, leave the placenta in situ and perform hysterectomy 4% 16–25% Outpatient treatment If patient has not bled for 72 h, an acceptable alternative IF: (1) Patient is reliable and compliant with medical advice (2) Has adequate transportation to hospital (3) Has the ability to access emergency services from home (4) Lives within a reasonable distance from the hospital (5) Rehospitalize women with recurrent vaginal bleeding during outpatient management. Management (1) Do not perform a pelvic examination until ultrasound report is available (2) If a previa has been ruled out, the following steps should be taken: (a) Do speculum exam to rule out causes of bleeding such as cervicitis, polyps or cervical lesions (b) Look for other placental abnormalities such as placenta abruption (3) If a placenta previa is diagnosed in second trimester, the following steps should be taken: (a) Start intravenous infusion of fluid with 18-gauge needle (b) Obtain a coagulation profile (c) Evaluate fetal viability, advanced labor or uncontrollable hemorrhage – If ultrasound examination shows no heart activity, consider termination. If fetus is alive, manage conservatively (if bleeding is mild to moderate) – If advanced labor or uncontrollable bleeding is present, proceed with C-section (4) Do not do a double set-up examination unless ready to commit to delivery (5) Use of tocolytic agents: (a) Use only when the uterus is contracting and/or vaginal bleeding is not sufficient to cause maternal hypotension (b) Do not use if blood replacement would be unable to keep up with blood loss or the patient is in active labor (6) Provide patient with risk, benefits and alternatives regarding increased incidence of intrauterine growth restriction, need for adequate nutrition and cessation of smoking 289 POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME (7) Repeat ultrasound examination at 35–36 weeks If placenta previa is diagnosed at 35–36 weeks, the following steps should be taken: (1) Complete previa (a) Determine fetal lung maturity (PG or L/S ratio) via ultrasound-guided amniocentesis (b) If fetal lungs mature, delivery by C-section (c) If fetal lungs immature, monitor weekly for maturity, then do C-section (2) Marginal or partial previa (a) Do amniocentesis as above (b) If fetal lungs mature, consider two possible causes: – Double set-up when ready to commit to delivery – Follow with serial ultrasound to see whether placenta moves upward, as long as there is no further bleeding (c) If no longer a placenta previa on ultrasound, treat as a normal pregnancy PLACENTAL SITE TUMORS Locally invasive secondary to cytotrophoblastic cells of placenta Incidence PST are rare but may be found after abortion, mole or normal IUP Diagnosis Increase levels of HPL and hCG Treatment Hysterectomy Not susceptible to chemotherapy PLACENTAL TRANSPORT Xenobiotics Drugs and other chemicals Glucose (Down concentration gradient) Amino acids (Against concentration gradient) Active transport Amino acids, calcium, phosphorus, iron Simple diffusion Glucose, CO2 Facilitated diffusion Glucose Endocytosis IgG Does NOT cross placenta TSH, IgM, T3, T4, thyroxine, insulin, prednisone CROSSES placenta Propylthiouracil, iodine, TRH, LATS (long-acting thyroid stimulator), IgG and propranolol Remember the mnemonic Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion Active transport (TITT TIP) (PIT LIP) POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME Definition An endocrine dysfunction in reproductive age women presenting with two or more of the following symptoms: (1) Menstrual dysfunction (2) Androgen excess (3) Polycystic ovaries (4) Insulin resistance (5) Infertility (6) Obesity Suspect PCO In any reproductive-aged woman presenting with menstrual irregularities combined with hirsutism, infertility, obesity or insulin resistance Pathophysiology Major endocrine manifestations are: (1) Chronic anovulation – occurs as result of ovarian dysfunction secondary to one or more of following: (a) Increased LH stimulation of the theca–stromal cell complex (b) Resulting increased ovarian androgen production interfering with normal follicular maturation 290 POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME (c) Effect of peripheral insulin stimulation of thecal and stromal cells of the ovary (d) Effect of increased somatotropin such as growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) on gonadotropin stimulation of the ovary (2) Hyperandrogenism – increased androgen production primarily from the ovary but also from the adrenal glands (this results from chronic LH stimulation of the theca and stromal compartments) (3) Elevated LH – result of an increased LH pulse frequency of GnRH pulses from hypothalamus (4) Hyperinsulinemia – like NIDDM with peripheral insulin resistance and pancreatic β-cell dysfunction resulting in altered glucose transporter systems resulting in defective insulin signaling mechanism Incidence Prevalence rate in reproductive-aged women is @ Genetics Studies suggest an altered regulation of expression of the insulin gene or an inheritance as an autosomal dominant disorder with reduced penetration Clinical symptoms (1) Presenting symptoms (a) Abnormal uterine bleeding – oligomenorrhea/amenorrhea Oligomenorrhea 85–90% Amenorrhea 30–40% (b) Increased body hair – face, chest, abdomen (slow process) 80% (c) Infertility 40% (d) Obesity – upper-half body obesity 50% (e) Polycystic ovaries – some women with true PCO do not have polycystic ovaries and some normal women have them (2) Physical examination findings (a) Hirsutism (b) Obesity (c) Polycystic ovaries observed with pelvic ultrasound Diagnosis (lab testing) (1) To rule out other pathologies or conditions (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (2) To (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Urine hCG (to rule out pregnancy) TSH (to rule out hypothyroidism) Prolactin (to rule out hyperprolactinemia) 17-Hydroxyprogesterone (to rule out late-onset adrenal hyperplasia) Pelvic ultrasound (to rule out ovarian tumors) substantiate changes compatible with PCOS LH FSH Testosterone, total DHEA-S Glucose (fasting) Insulin, total (fasting) A fasting glucose to insulin ratio of < 4.5 is diagnostic of peripheral insulin resistance 5–10% CPT 81025 CPT 84443 CPT 84146 CPT 83498 CPT 76856 CPT CPT CPT CPT CPT CPT 83002 83001 84403 82627 82947 83525 Pearls • Pulsatility of LH secretion can generally be overcome by drawing two samples at half-hour intervals and either combining the samples or averaging the individual results • Free serum T may be more sensitive test; however, the clinical variance and increased cost make this assay less suitable than total • DHEA-S is exclusively an androgen of adrenal origin and is reported to be elevated in over 50% of women with PCOS • US finding of ten echo-free cysts from 2–8 mm size or an ovarian volume > 5.5 cm2 is compatible with diagnosis of PCOS Management Must be directed toward several areas of care rather than just one. Direct care toward the woman’s presenting complaint and concerns and the prevention of known major long-term complications of PCOS. See Treatment below Diagnosis with hyperandrogenism Increase in total or free testosterone and oligo-ovulation Oligo-ovulation defined as cycle duration or less than how many cycles per year? > 35 days 8 291 POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME Differential Exclude increased prolactin, thyroid dysfunction and/or androgensecreting tumors, etc. (Ovarian – Sertoli–Leydig or adrenal with Cushing’s), late onset 21-OH deficiency – sexual ambiguity?) Iatrogenic? Rapid progressive hirsutism/virilization – ovarian or adrenal tumor. Family history of androgen excess, short statue, mild virilization – suspect late-onset 21-hydroxylase deficiency Features of polycystic ovarian syndrome are oligo-ovulation Hirsutism Polycystic ovaries Decreased SHBG Increased free testosterone LH/FSH ratio > 3 Hyperprolactinemia > 90% 75% 75% 70% 55% 45% 20% Metabolic abnormalities of PCO Insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, increased free fatty acids, non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, android obesity Diabetes evaluation (WHO) Normal FBS 2h Impaired GT FBS Impaired GT 2 h Diabetic FBS Diabetic 2 h Waist/hip ratio Waist measurement = smallest circumference between rib cage and iliac crest Hip measurement = largest circumference between the waist and thighs Android obesity > 0.85 Gynoid obesity < 0.75 More theories of genetics What % of sisters develop PCOS? Paternal transmission Maternal transmission Suggest X-linked dominant or autosomal dominant transmission Insulin resistance (Increased abdominal circumference, acanthosis, hirsutism, etc.) can be treated with metformin in doses of 500–850 mg t.i.d. Hyperinsulinemia is not diabetes but up to what % of PCOS patients will develop NIDDM? 40% Must have glucose intolerance, can eventually develop insulin deficiency diabetes Type I Patient needs to only lose what % weight to show marked improvement in insulin androgens and glucose levels? 5–7% Ovarian anatomy of PCOS Multiple immature follicles and theca cell hyperplasia “Pearl necklace”. Not all with PCOS have US findings What % of normal women will have typical US of PCOS? What % of normal women on OCPs will have US findings typical of PCOS? < 115 mg/dl < 140 mg/dl < 140 mg/dl 140–199 mg/dl > 139 mg/dl x 2 > 199 mg/dl 50% 80% 35% 25% 14% PCOS labs LH/FSH ≥3:1 Prolactin, TSH and T4 If hirsutism + acne draw free testosterone, DHEA-S – increased but < 2 ng/ml and 8 ng/ml If not withdrawing with a progesterone then draw estrogen level If Ashkenazi Jew, then rule out 21-hydroxylase deficiency with 17-OHP Check FBS and 2-h glucose. HbA1C should be < 7% Treatment (1) Obesity (diet and exercise) BMI of this % restores regular menses and fertility BMI = body weight (kg) x height (m) squared Recommend dietary intervention when ideal body weight > 20% as there is a statistically significant increased mortality A BMI that similarly warrants intervention is that of (Nutrition and maintenance of appropriate weight. In: Seltzer VL, Pearce WH, eds. Women’s Primary Health Care. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995:53) MAIR-AN syndrome = extreme manifestation of hyperandrogenism and hyperinsulinism (rare). Triad is hyperandrogenism, insulin resistance and acanthosis nigricans 27% 27.3 292 POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME (2) Androgen excess (and excess body hair) Finasteride and flutamide are teratogenic Finasteride is a 5α-reductase inhibitor (Proscar®) Flutamide is an androgen-receptor competitor (Eulexin®) 5 mg per day 50 mg b.i.d. Spironolactone is an androgen-receptor competitor 50–100 mg b.i.d. Diane (cyproterone acetate) dose is 100 mg/day Give dexamethasone 0.25–0.5 mg hs with OCP if DHEA > 4 mg/ml Give GnRH analogs with OCPs if other options fail May combine electrolysis with medical treatment (3) Hyperinsulinism Metformin (glucophage) 500 mg t.i.d. to q.i.d. Metformin is best tolerated if started as lower dose such as 500 mg or 850 mg daily with slow increase over several weeks to 1500–2000 mg dose. There is a remote risk of lactic acidosis so a renal function test is good idea prior to starting meformin so get serum creatinine Rosiglitazone (also good for hyperinsulinism) 4 mg daily or 2 mg b.i.d. or 4 mg b.i.d. Rosiglitazone is similar to troglitazone, which has caused hepatotoxicity; therefore get liver function test prior to starting it and every 2 months for 1 year and periodically thereafter (specifically alanine aminotransferase (ALT)) Glumetza – once daily. This is a metformin HCl extended release tablet. It eventually releases 2000 mg metformin daily. Ovulation and subsequent pregnancy rates can be enhanced by administration of metformin in patients with PCOS and increased insulin resistance. (Heard MJ, Pierce A, Carson SA, et al. Pregnancies following use of metformin for ovulation induction in patients with PCOS. Fertil Steril 2002;77:669–73) However, according to Moll et al. (BMJ 2006; 332:1485), there is no difference in ovulation rates between clomiphene citrate alone and clomiphene citrate and metformin. Therefore it might be wise to try clomiphene citrate alone in women with PCO then if no success – add multiple therapies (4) Cardiovascular (diet, exercise, insulin p.r.n., anticholesterol drugs) Ideal target for weight loss has been to approach level @ 15% of ideal body weight corrected for height and age (5) Infertility (Clomid, FSH, Clomid + metformin, weight loss) Laser drilling if Clomid fails – ovary cycles postop @ 90% Clomid or Serophene® 50 mg x 5 days starting on cycle day 3 or 5 Rule out other causes such as obstructed fallopian tubes, abnormal semen analysis and presence of pelvic adhesive disease (6) Menstrual disorders (progesterone withdrawal, OCPs, etc.) Duration more important than dose – minimum Provera is 2.5 x 12 There is an increased risk of endometrial hyperplasia and cancer. Use cyclic or continuous progestins or use oral contraceptives (a) Provera (MPA) – 5–10 mg daily for 10–14 days per month (b) Aygestin (norethindrone acetate) – 5–10 mg daily x 10–14 days (c) Micronor (norethindrone) – 0.35 mg daily throughout the month (d) Depo-Provera (MPA) – 150 mg IM every 3 months (e) Lupron (GnRHa) – 3.75 mg IM monthly or 11.25 mg IM every 3 months This method suppresses unopposed ovarian estrogen as well as reducing androgen production. In cases of severe abnormal bleeding, this approach may be useful for extended periods of time along with the use of hormone add-back therapy Remember, long-term use of GnRHa alone is associated with: • Loss of trabecular bone • Defects in CNS such as memory loss and defects in thought processing • Cardiovascular defects including heart attacks • Quality of life issues such as hot flushes, mood changes and sleep disturbances 293 POLYHYDRAMNIOS Add-back therapy` Add-back therapies can include: (1) PremPro – 0.625/2.5 mg or 0.625/5 mg daily or (2) FemHrt – 1 mg/5 µg daily or (3) Progestins already listed above Remember that Lupron is not considered the standard regime for PCOS because of cost. It is reserved for those who do not respond to usual therapies Key points Women with PCOS and insulin resistance are at increased risk for impaired glucose tolerance or diabetes. Hypoglycemic agents can reduce circulating androgen levels, increase sex hormone binding globulin, facilitate weight loss, and induce ovulation Take steps to enhance or induce ovulation. Even women who do not desire fertility stand to gain, because chronic anovulation increases the risk of endometrial cancer Address hirsutism and other hyperandrogenic effects. Treatment of hirsutism is best approached with a combination of medical and mechanical means. Counsel patients that response is likely to be slow and subtle POLYHYDRAMNIOS Associated with diabetes Associated with congenital malformations Associated with twins Definition Significantly increased risks that pregnancy will be complicated by: (1) Maternal diabetes (2) Fetal anomaly (3) PTL (4) PROM (5) Multiple pregnancies Acute Late second or third trimester; poor prognosis; 7:12 perinatal deaths Chronic Slow, early onset; better prognosis. Linked to maternal glucose intolerance, macrosomia, fetal anomalies Physiology Placenta then fetal urine excretion produces fluid. Fetal small bowel/diffusion through amnion/chorion absorbs. Most polyhydramnios is thought to be due to increased fetal urine production Diagnosis Dye methods (inject/draw out dilution) 8% accurate ` TIUV AFI – each quadrant, largest pocket measured in vertical axis. Sum of largest pockets in all four quadrants is AFI. 95th percent of amniotic fluid index during the third trimester is 25 cm (1) Observe weight gain (2) Compare fundal height changes (3) Palpate abdomen (4) Perform ballottement for fetal parts (5) Perform ultrasound – confirm polyhydramnios, detect multiple gestation and obvious structural congenital malformation (a) BPD ventricle-to-hemisphere ratio HC vertebral column (b) Evaluate heart and chest cavity (c) Examine abdomen for ascites, abdominal masses, gastrointestinal atresia, abdominal wall masses, ompholocele or gastroschisis (d) Urinary system (kidneys, ureters and bladder filling) (e) Evaluate skeletal system (f) Evaluate placenta (6) Do 3-h GTT (7) Coombs’ test (screen for irregular antibodies with indirect antiglobulin test) (8) Amnio for karyotype analysis 25% 20% 8% 294 POLYMYALGIA RHEUMATICA Etiology Idiopathic Diabetes mellitus Multiple gestation (twin–twin syndrome) Blood group incompatibility Congenital malformation Management 38 weeks – PG/LS ratio Bed-rest High-protein diet Monitor serum proteins and use amnio to aspirate for SOB Watch for CHF or IUGR Sedation No diuretics – little effect of TV of AF, may be harmful Indomethacin (investigational) 50–100 mg p.o. t.i.d.–q.i.d. Decreased AF production by decreasing fetal urine production Dis: Premature closure of ductus arteriosus Fetal pulmonary hypertension Tricuspid insufficiency 60% 19% 7.5% 5% 8.5% Steps in delivery (1) Obtain fetal maturity studies – ultrasound, BPD, FL, head and abdominal circumferences, fetal lung maturity studies (2) Before induction – amnio p.r.n. to dec AF (3) Type and screen mother’s blood (4) Baseline coagulation studies: platelets, CBC, fibrinogen (5) Controlled amniotomy with slow release of AF (6) Observe for placental separation (7) Observe for postpartum hemorrhage Acute polyhydramnios (24–27 weeks) (1) Erythroblastosis fetalis ? Rx (2) Congenital malformations – term of pregnancy (3) If no cause – therapeutic amniocentesis 500–1000 ml of AF Tocolytics – MgSO4 (3–5 g bolus over 30 min and then 2–5 g/h concentration 4–8 mg/dl), Brethine®, NSAIDs (indomethacin 50–100 mg p.o. t.i.d.–q.i.d.) Locate placenta Hypoproteinemia – will develop; increase protein diet Albumin IV p.r.n. No diuretics Antibiotics are contraindicated – can conceal early amnionitis POLYMYALGIA RHEUMATICA How much more common in women? 2x Usually how often > age of 50? 1/750 Lasts 2–7 years Morning stiffness longer than 30 min Increased sed rate, fever, weight loss, fatigue, depression. Similar to Lyme disease but sero test is negative Treatment is prednisone 15 mg daily using sed rate as a guide POLYPS What What What What What What % % % % % % of polyps do not respond to progesterone? undergo histologic change? undergo malignant change? of women who show abnormal bleeding have polyps? of polyps are solitary? are multiple? 66% 33% 0.5% 25% 80% 20% 295 POST-DATE PREGNANCY The chromosome in stromal cells of polyps is Hysteroscopy is the treatment of choice because curettage removes only this % of polyps 6p21 25% POST-COITAL TEST Perform after how many hours abstinence? 48 Examine cervical mucus within how many hours after coitus? 2–8 Examine mucus how many hours prior to estimated ovulation in order to assess optimal mucus? 24–48 Normal findings are to see how many progressively motile sperm per HPF in clear, acellular mucus? 5–10 How long should the spinnbarkeit be? > 8 cm Failure to penetrate at least what % of the hamster ova of a sperm penetration assay suggests an impairment of male fertility? 10% POST-DATE PREGNANCY Definition True incidence difficult to ascertain as most early studies relied on menstrual dating Pregnancy exceeding 42 weeks post-FDLMP or past how many days past FDLMP? 294 Incidence originally 4–14% So incidence with early menstrual dating of 7.6% Decreased to what % by early ultrasound to 2.6% Further decreased to what % when both ultrasound AND menstrual dating included for diagnosis 1.1% Incidence Meconium stain Macrosomia Dysmaturity Oligohydramnios Perinatal mortality rates double by how many weeks? Increases 4–6-fold by how many weeks? 9% 25% 20% 20% 15% (AFI ≤ 5 cm) 43 44 Complications Postmaturity Placenta maximally developed at 37 weeks May decrease in surface area/function after 37 weeks Increased IUFD rates after 42 weeks (2) Meconium 25–30% of pregnancies ≥ 42 weeks Tends to be thicker secondary decreased AFV Increased risk of meconium aspiration syndrome (3) Oligohydramnios Peak AFV @ 37 weeks (∼1000 cc) Decreases to average 250 cc by 42 weeks Increased incidence of cord compression/acute hypoxia (4) Macrosomia > 4500 g, occurs in 2.5–10% at ≥ 42 weeks Increased risk of maternal/fetal trauma Increased risk of shoulder dystocia Fetal complications Meconium stain incidence with post-dates Macrosomia Dysmaturity Oligohydramnios (AFI ≤ 5 cm) Peak AFV at how many weeks? Declines to what volume by 40 weeks? Maternal complications C-section rate due to macrosomia and fetal distress increases to how many times normal rate? Diagnosis (1) 25–30% 20% 20% 15% 36 800 cc 3–4 x Most commonly an error in dating – Naegele’s rule or quickening 16–20 weeks Fetal stethoscope 18–20 weeks At 20 weeks, the fundus should be at the umbilicus at 20 cm Early exam should be consistent with dates 296 POST-DATE PREGNANCY Correct assessment of gestational age Accuracy indirectly proportional to gestational age at time of assessment (‘the earlier, the better’) Document: (1) Regularity, length, date of last menses (2) Uterine size: first trimester/20 weeks at umbilicus (3) Date of first fetal movement (quickening) 16–20 weeks (4) Fetal heart rate detection (Doppler) 10–12 weeks (5) US dating: first trimester – CRL (error ± 3–5 days) Second trimester – BPD, HC, FL (error ± 7–10 days) Dating: – known LMP most accurate – Naegele’s rule First day of LMP – 3 months + 7 days = EDC Known date of conception – using pregnancy wheel at 2 weeks If LMP unsure – early US Etiology Treatment Multifactorial neuronal and hormonal processes including fetal brain, pituitary gland, adrenal gland hypoplasia, placenta, fetal membranes/ decidua which is rich in Amnion rich in Chorion rich in 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase or Can be secondary to anencephaly, fetal adrenal hypoplasia, abdominal pregnancy, placental sulfatase deficiency (all of these have decreased estrogen production) Induce if Bishop score Otherwise NSTs, BPP or modified BPP (NST + AFI) NST has false-negative rate with weekly testing NST has false-negative rate with twice weekly testing CST has false-negative rate AFI PGF2α PGE2 PGDH >7 semiweekly 3.2/1000 1.9/1000 0.71/1000 oligo <5 borderline 5–8 normal >8 Antenatal surveillance should begin by 42 weeks No single protocol appears superior. No evidence that monitoring improves outcome. Unknown whether expectant rx vs induction is better although recent research indicates that morbidity and mortality associated with expectant management is greater than previously appreciated ACOG guidelines – induce low-risk pregnancy at 43rd week Surveillance strategy (1) NST/AFI Reactive + AFI > 5 = continue surveillance Reactive + AFI < 5 = biophysical profile or cervical ripening Non-reactive and/or significant decelerations – cervical ripening (2) Biophysical profile (optional) > 6 – continue surveillance ≤ 6 – cervical ripening Cervical ripening (1) Intrapartum management (1) Continuous EFM Persistent late decels/fetal intolerance of labor – Cesarean delivery Frequent variables – consider amnioinfusion (2) Suspect macrosomia Avoid midpelvic operative delivery EFW > 5000 g – consider C-section (3) Determine presence of meconium Consider amnioinfusion Aggressive suctioning of infant on delivery of head (wall suction) Prolonged gestation Percent shoulder dystocia: Normal pt with 4000 g infant Diabetic pt with 4000 g infant Normal pt with 4500 g infant Diabetic pt with 4500 g infant Prostaglandin E2 gel 0.5 mg vs. vaginal suppository 2.5 mg q. 4 (or Cytotec 50 µg/25 µg) Check cervix before each dose: Favorable – labor induction/augmentation Unfavorable – repeat prostaglandin application (2) Oxytocin – low-dose cervical ripening at l–2 mu/mtn 10% 20% 25% 50% 297 POST-DATE PREGNANCY Shoulder dystocia can cause Erbs palsy which is injury to nerve roots C5–6 or Klumpke’s palsy which involves C8–T1 Shoulder dystocia is defined as a delay in the delivery of the body after delivery of the head > 60 s How many seconds do you have to deliver the body after the head without compromise? 150 s That is how many minutes? 2½ • Post-term gestation criteria It would be reasonable to follow after 42 weeks with BPP or other However, one could justify induction as a reasonable alternative if the cervix was favorable or there were other mitigating circumstances Post-date pregnancy Check cervix twice per week Macrosomia EFW > 5000 g Unfavorable Favorable Ripening Surveillance C-section NST/AFI Reactive AFI > 5 Prostin E2 Reactive AFI < 5 Non-reactive and/or significant decels Check cervix in 4 h Late decels/ intolerance of labor Unfavorable Biophysical profile >6 ≤6 Labor Induction Favorable 298 POSTMENOPAUSAL BLEEDING POSTMENOPAUSAL BLEEDING Endometrial atrophy 60–80% Endometrial polyps 2–12% Estrogen therapy (unopposed) 8 x increased incidence Endometrial hyperplasia 5–10% (Obesity, exogenous estrogen, estrogen-secreting tumor (ovary)) Endometrial carcinoma 10% ENDOMETRIAL BIOPSY !!!!!!! 90–98% accurate Using transvaginal ultrasound, endometrial thickness on both sides would be rare to be under what measurement with endometrial hyperplasia? < 4 mm How accurate are Pap smears in diagnosing endometrial cancer? 30–50% POSTMENOPAUSAL MASS Incidence of malignant ovarian neoplasm 10% Low-risk patients can be treated with laparoscopy – what size mass would define low risk? ≤ 5 cm Otherwise plan laparotomy with vertical incision, washings, exploration and oophorectomy POSTOPERATIVE NAUSEA • Zofran 8 mg ODT or 4 mg IV pre-op, in Recovery Room, then q. 6 h • Treatment with what amount of oxygen will decrease postop nausea? 80% What % does 80% compared to 30% O2 decrease postop nausea in the first 24 h? 17–30% (Greif R, Laciny S, Rapf B, et al. Supplemental oxygen reduces the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anesthesiology 1999;91:1246–52) POSTPARTUM DEPRESSION See also Psychiatric Symptoms Dysphoric mood Loss of interest in usually pleasurable activities Difficulty concentrating or making decisions Psychomotor agitation or restriction Fatigue Changes in appetite or sleep Recurrent thoughts of death/suicide Feelings of worthlessness or guilt, especially failure at motherhood Excessive anxiety over child’s health 299 POSTPARTUM HEMORRHAGE Dose ranges and side-effect profiles of antidepressants commonly used to treat postpartum depression Side-effects1 Therapeutic range (mg/day) Anticholinergic2 Orthostatic hypotension Arrhythmia Weight gain (> 6 kg) Amitriptyline (Elavil) 75–300 4+ 4+ 3+ 4+ Desipramine (Norpramin) 75–300 1+ 2+ 2+ 1+ lmipramine (Tofranil) 75–300 3+ 4+ 3+ 3+ Nortriptyline (Pamelor) 40–200 1+ 2+ 2+ 1+ Fluoxetine (Prozac or Sarafem) 10–40 0 0 0 0 Paroxetine (Paxil) 20–50 0 0 0 0 Sertraline (Zoloft) 50–150 0 0 0 0 Drug TRICYCLICS SSRIs Citalopram (Celexa) 20–40 + + + +/− Escitalopram (Lexapro) 10–20 + + + +/− 75–150 0 0 + 0 300–1450 2+ 0 0 0 SSNRIs Venlafaxine (Effexor) “NATURAL” REMEDIES St John’s Wort (Hypericum perforatum) 1 0 = Absent or rare, 4+ = relatively common Dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary hesitancy, constipation, drowsiness St John’s Wort can also cause skin reactions, including photosensitization, rash, and itching; gastrointestinal problems; fatigue; restlessness, headaches; dizziness; and dry mouth (as indicated by the +). St John’s Wort has been shown to be effective in short-term mild depression but further studies are needed in regard to more serious long - term and severe depression 2 POSTPARTUM HEMORRHAGE If Pitocin and methergine do not arrest PPH, then Hemabate® (15-methyl-PGF2α) can be dosed 0.25 mg q. 1–2 h (1) Early – within first 24 h after delivery – Uterine atony – caused by overdistention, protracted labor, macrosomia, increased parity, chorioamnionitis – Retained placental fragments – Lacerations, uterine inversion, uterine rupture, coagulopathy (2) Late – after the first 24 h but prior to 6 weeks postpartum – Subinvolution, infection, retained products of conception Management (1) Determine etiology (2) Volume replacement (3) Vital signs and urinary output (4) Check labs to rule out coagulopathy (PT, PTT, platelet count, fibrinogen level) Treat cause with (1) Medical treatment (a) Pitocin, methergine, Hemabate (0.25 mg q. 15–60 min p.r.n.) (b) Antibiotics (c) RL 3 : 1 (1–2 large bore IV lines) (d) Whole blood, PRBCs, FFP, platelets, cryo (2) Surgical treatment (a) Ligation of uterine artery (b) Hypogastric artery ligation (c) Hysterectomy – this is quickest and safest (d) Curettage (especially for late bleeding) (3) Invasive radiology – if time, uterine artery embolization 300 PRECIPITATE LABOR PRECIPITATE LABOR Incidence 2% births in the USA Definition Labor to delivery in less than Short labor defined – for nulliparous is dilation for multiparous is dilation Associated with Short labor is associated with abruption @ Also associated with meconium, postpartum hemorrhage, cocaine abuse and low Apgars Etiology (1) Decrease resistance of soft parts of birth canal (2) Strong uterine and abdominal contractions (3) Absence of painful sensations (rare) Effects Maternal (1) Uterine rupture (2) Lacerations (3) AFE (4) Hemorrhage 3h ≥ 5 cm/h ≥ 10 cm/h 20% Fetal (1) Decreased uterine blood flow and fetal oxygen (2) Head trauma (3) Increased meconium (4) Decreased Apgar scores Treatment Stop any oxytoxic agents PRECOCIOUS PUBERTY Definition Signs of secondary sexual maturation at an age 3 standard deviations below the mean for that population. In North America, this would be secondary sex characteristics before age 8 or menarche before age 9 Evaluation The two primary concerns of the parents are: (1) The social stigma (‘different from peers’) (2) Decreased height due to premature closure of epiphyseal growth centers Subdivided into two classifications: (1) GnRH-dependent (complete, true, isosexual, central) – premature maturation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis. Usually the etiology is unknown. Is the most common (2) GnRH-independent (incomplete, pseudo, isosexual or heterosexual, peripheral) – independent of hypothalamic–pituitary control. The most common cause is an estrogen-secreting ovarian tumor (60% are granulosa cell tumors). McCune–Albright syndrome is a rare triad of café-au-lait spots, fibrous dysplasia and cysts of the skull and long bones Differential diagnosis 75% of precocity in girls is idiopathic Is very important to rule out a serious disease in the CNS, ovary and adrenal gland Diagnostic work-up History and physical – must rule out life-threatening neoplasms of the ovary, adrenal and CNS Record height, weight and Tanner stages Brain imaging studies (CT and/or MRI) Serum estradiol, FSH, LH, TSH, triiodothyronine, thyroxine, prolactin, testosterone, DHEA or DHEA-S, hCG Bone age by hand-wrist films every 6 months to establish the rate of skeletal maturation Abdominal ultrasound and/or CT to evaluate ovarian, uterine or adrenal gland enlargement 301 PREGNANCY Laboratory findings in disorders producing precocious puberty Gonadal size Basal FSH/LH Estradiol or testosterone DHEA-S GnRH response Increased Increased Increased Increased Pubertal ldiopathic Cerebral Increased Increased Increased Increased Pubertal Gonadal Unilater. incr. Decreased Increased Increased Flat Albright Increased Decreased Increased Increased Flat Adrenal Small Decreased Increased Increased Flat From Speroff L, Glass RH, Kasc NG. Clinical Gynecologic Endocrinology and Infertility, 5th edn. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1994:375 Treatment Depends on the cause, extent and progression of precocious signs and whether the cause can be removed operatively Definitely treat: (1) Girls with menarche before age 8 (2) Progressive thelarche and pubarche (3) Bone age over 2 years greater than their chronologic age The drug of choice for GnRH-dependent precocious puberty is GnRH agonists Maintain therapy until the median age of puberty. The drug of choice for McCune–Albright syndrome is testolactone. Both child and her family need intensive counseling PREGNANCY Presumptive evidence Nausea with or without vomiting Urinary symptoms Fatigue Perception of fetal movement Signs – cessation of menses, cervical mucus (ferning), breast changes, Chadwicks’s sign (bluish vagina), skin pigmentation Probable evidence Enlargement of abdomen Change in size, shape and consistency of uterus Changes in the cervix (Hegar’s sign – softening of the cervix) Braxton Hick’s contractions Ballottement Outlining the fetus Pregnancy test positive Positive signs of pregnancy + + + + Increases in pregnancy (partial list) Fibrinogen increases GFR increases O2 consumption increases Total thyroxin concentration Thyroid-binding globulin concentration No change TSH Free thyroxine Decreases DHEA-S, motilin, factors 11 and 13, H&H (< 11 abnl), cortisol, platelets, arterial pressure and vascular resistance Fetal heart rate Fetal movements per examiner Ultrasound recognition of pregnancy X-ray of fetus 50% 50% 25% 302 PREGNANCY-INDUCED HYPERTENSION (PIH) PREGNANCY-INDUCED HYPERTENSION (PIH) Retention of blood vessel wall musculature (due to failure of secondary wave of invasion of cytotrophoblasts into myometrial portion of spiral arteries) → reduced uterine-placental perfusion (1) Increased ratio of serum thromboxane to prostacyclin (2) Increased serum concentration of endothelin (3) Increased serum concentration of glutathione Severe disease is defined by B/P systolic > 160 diastolic > 110 Proteinuria > 5 g/24 h Oliguria < 500 ml/24 h Pulmonary edema and microangiopathic hemolysis. Acute onset of renal failure. Increase in serum creatinine. Grand mal seizures. Eclampsia. HELLP syndrome Thrombocytopenia (most frequent) < 100 000/ml Symptoms suggesting end-organ involvement – visual disturbances, headaches or RUQ painIUGR or oligohydramnios PIH with DIC is diagnosed with thrombocytopenia Low fibrinogen levels Fibrin split products HELLP syndrome is usually antecedent to DIC in what % of abruption or hemorrhage? What % subcapsular liver hematomas? < 100 000 < 300 mg/dl > 40 mg/ml 21–38% 100% Patients with PIH DO NOT have blunted pressor response to infused angiotensin II Plasma volume contraction depending on severity and duration caused the hematocrit to increase Intravascular volume does what if PIH present despite increase total body water? Decreases Antithrombin III levels are what in PIH? Decreased B/P is WNL initially with HELLP syndrome in what % patients? 10–20% Increased liver enzymes are probably secondary to vasospasm and ischemia of PIH Does hyperreflexia correlate with the severity of PIH? No Risk factors for PIH Chronic renal disease Angiotensinogen gene T235 (homozygous) Chronic hypertension Antiphospholipid syndrome Twin gestation Angiotensinogen gene T235 (heterozygous) Nulliparity Age > 40 years Diabetes Black race Treatment Magnesium sulfate levels – therapeutic levels Loss of patellar reflex Respiratory depression Respiratory arrest Cardiac arrest 20 20 10 10 4 4 3 3 2 1.5 4–7 8–10 10–12 ≥ 12 > 25 :1 :1 :1 :1 :1 :1 :1 :1 :1 :1 mEq/l mEq/l mEq/l mEq/l mEq/l Loading dose of MgSO4 is how many grams? (60 ml of 10% MgSO4 in RL or D5NS) 4–6 g Over how many minutes? 15–20 min IM loading dose is 10 g Maintenance dose is 2 g/h IM maintenance dose is 5 g q. 4 h (40 g MgSO4 to 1 liter of D5 0.9 NS or RL at 50 ml/h) Avoid MgSO4 intoxication – ensure prior to each dose that: (1) Urine flow is at least 100 ml/4 h (2) Patellar reflex is present (3) No respiratory depression Alternative to MgSO4 is phenytoin in loading dose of 1000 mg 303 PREMARIN Then give (10 h later) 500 mg How many hours later? 10 While on MgSO4, deep tendon reflexes and vital signs should be checked hourly Intake and output should be checked every 2–4 h I&Os should be at least > 100 ml/4 h To reverse toxic effects of MgSO4, give Ca+ gluconate 1g (Ca+ gluconate 10 ml of 10%) slow IV over 2–3 min Provide O2, intubation and mechanical ventilation Key points; (1) Give MgSO4 at the time of diagnosis to all preeclamptic patients who are to be delivered (2) Administration of MgSO4 for new-onset hypertension and preeclampsia remote from term is controversial (3) Even with therapeutic serum concentrations of magnesium, convulsions are possible (4) MgSO4 should be administered for 24 h after delivery or after the last postpartum seizure (5) Safe administration requires vigilant monitoring of reflexes, respiratory status, and urine output CONTRAINDICATIONS to MgSO4: Myasthenia gravis Hypocalcemia Renal or heart disease Ca+ channel blockers Known allergies If MgSO4 is unsuccessful in treatment of eclampsia, give sodium amobarbital IV in dose of 250 mg and continue for 24 h after delivery – limiting IVFs Hydralazine HCl IV is given in bolus of what dosage every 20 min p.r.n. increased B/P? 5–10 mg Labetalol IV every 10 min can be given as an alternative in dosage of 20 mg To a maximum dose of 300 mg Instead of hydralazine HCl ASA is option for high-risk patients – not normotensive patients in dose of 60–80 mg Ca gluconate 2 g/day possibly decreases risk of PIH by 3x Vaginal delivery is generally preferable to C-section (even in patients with manifestations of severe disease) Epidural anesthesia (pre-load) – had no thrombocytopenia Improvement in intervillous flow Ca+ channel blockers can be used in POSTPARTUM Most frequent finding for criteria for severe PIH is thrombocytopenia with platelets < 100 000/µl Thromboxanes – cause further platelet activation, aggregation and vasospasm Prostacyclins – produced along endothelial cells lining blood vessels, prevent platelet aggregation and dilate blood vessels In PIH → there is increased thromboxane to decreased prostacyclin ASA (81 mg) – disables platelet thromboxane-producing machinery for 1 week lifespan of platelet PREGNANCY TUMOR Represents benign outgrowth of palatal plate Recurrence is common Massive hemorrhage can occur secondary to trauma of this tumor Surgical removal is treatment of choice for this condition PREMARIN Name some of the ingredients of premarin: Estrone, 17α-estradiol, 304 PREMATURE OVARIAN FAILURE Equilin, 17α-dihydroequilin, Equilenin, 17α-dihydroequilinin PREMATURE OVARIAN FAILURE Definition Menopause is considered premature if it occurs before age Normal menopause occurs (on the average) at about the age of POF is when a woman has stopped menstruating for 3 months or more and has high levels of FSH and LH and low levels of estrogen 40 51 Diagnosis Diagnostic rise in FSH to new assays Causes (1) Autoimmune disease (lupus, RA, liver conditions) (2) Autoimmune adrenal disease (Addison’s) LIFE-THREATENING IF NOT TREATED (3) Hypothyroidism, IDDM, ITP, galactosemia, X-chromosomal abnormalities (Turner’s syndrome), radiation or chemotherapy (4) Surgical menopause without hormonal replacement (this is usually very severe) Risks (1) Coronary heart disease (CHD) (2) Osteoporosis (3) Sexual dysfunction Treatmen Consider genetic evaluation if POF < age of 40 (not related to surgery) Hormone replacement therapy – possibly androgen supplementation > 40 mIU/ml >30 mlU/ml 20–55% 10–20% 2.2 times more likely to develop PREMATURE RUPTURE OF MEMBRANES (PROM) What % of patients begin labor with PROM within 24 h? What % of pts with PPROM (< 37 weeks) begin labor within 24 h? within 72 h? Etiology 90% 70% 90% Infection? Weakening of membranes? Diagnosis and management (1) Sterile speculum examination (rule out prolapsed cord) (a) pH (nitrazine is blue – alkaline) and check for ferning (b) Cervical check for dilation and/or fluid coming from os (c) Obtain cultures (streptococcus, Chlamydia, BV, and/or gonorrhea) (d) AVOID DIGITAL EXAMINATION (2) History alone – correct diagnosis PROM > 90% (3) Ultrasound (a) Sometimes confirms diagnosis (b) Confirms presenting part (c) Assesses gestational age (4) Monitor (a) Rule out or in labor (b) Evaluate possible non-reassuring fetal status Expectant management In – – – hospitalization Deliver if develops chorioamnionitis Deliver if non-reassuring fetal status Deliver if PTL or check pulmonary maturity? Induce p.r.n. Evaluation of chorioamnionitis (1) Clinical symptoms – vital signs, uterine tenderness, odor of lochia (2) Lab tests – increased WBC, increased C-reactive protein concentration → interpret labs with caution (3) Amniocentesis – Gram stain, culture of fluid (4) Ultrasound – fetal age, fetal lie, presence or absence of oligo (5) BPP – perform daily and if non-reassuring → increase risk infection 305 PREMATURE RUPTURE OF MEMBRANES (PROM) Treatment of chorioamnionitis (1) If + cultures, treat with antibiotics (2) Prophylaxis with antibiotics if PPROM (prolongs pregnancy and decreases morbidity < 25 weeks with 40% survival) (3) Fetal monitoring continues then daily, transfer p.r.n. Treatment Delivery is the treatment of choice for PROM when gestation is > 36 Prolongation of pregnancy if no labor, infection or cord compression per FHR is treatment for 26–35 If the pregnancy is less than 25 weeks with PROM, the survival is only Steroids should be given if gestation < 32 Steroids can be given with PROM up to 34 Antibiotics to improve perinatal outcome should be given if protocols to be pursued < 35 Steroids given when < 32 weeks’ gestation to reduce RDS, IVH, NE and death weeks weeks 40% weeks weeks weeks Manage conservatively < 30–32 weeks if no maternal or fetal contraindications exist • Tocolysis okay to permit steroids and antibiotics time If the gestational age is less than 32 weeks and the mother and the fetus are stable, expectant management is appropriate. However, if the fetal presentation is unstable or the fetal heart rate tracing is worrisome, the patient should be delivered AVOID DIGITAL EXAMS Fetal fibronectin (FFN) normally increases < 20 weeks in cervicovaginal secretion = + if > 50 mg/dl after 23–24 weeks False positives if sexual activity within 24 h, recent cervical exam and/or vaginal bleeding FFN compares with transvaginal US assessment of cervical length Preterm PROM Review of work-up Monitor and ultrasound (oligo? lie? position? presentation?) Sterile speculum exam Nitrazine for pH Ferning and wet mount for BV Culture for GBBS, GC and Chlamydia AVOID DIGITAL EXAMS 306 PREMATURE RUPTURE OF MEMBRANES (PROM) Premature rupture of membranes Confirm diagnosis Confirm gestational age > 36 weeks Oxytocin induction Observe for labor (12−24 h) 32−35 weeks < 32 weeks Fetal maturity assessment Observation Mature Immature Consider delivery Observation Consider antibiotics, corticosteroids Consider cervical ripening Amnionitis Fetal distress Delivery Reassuring sign Discharge vs. Continued observation 307 PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME (PMS) PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME (PMS) PMS may be defined as the cy=clic recurrence, in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, of a combination of distressing physical, psychological and/or behavioral changes of sufficient severity to result in deterioration of interpersonal relationships and/or interference with normal activities The symptoms of PMS must appear during the luteal phase, which begins with ovulation, and diminish greatly or disappear with the onset of menstruation or shortly afterward. A woman who has symptoms throughout the cycle does not have PMS Diagnosis The diagnosis of PMS is made with at least 2 months of documented ovulation and concurrent record-keeping of symptomatology disrupting lifestyle during the luteal phase. The symptom diary should be recorded daily throughout the month Ask the patient to list three to five symptoms that bother her the most and enter these on a daily symptom checklist for PMS. Have the patient track these symptoms for two menstrual cycles and bring the checklist back to you PMS symptoms Tension Anxiety Mood swings Irritability Depression Confusion Crying Forgetfulness Hypoglycemic episodes Increased appetite Headaches Sweet cravings Weight gain Abdominal bloating Breast tenderness Swelling of extremities Evaluation for PMS should include a history, physical exam and possibly laboratory studies. The history should elicit risk factors that correlate with PMS, sources of stress, medical or psychiatric problems and physical substance/alcohol or sexual abuse. The differential diagnosis of PMS includes molimina, situational stress disorders and chronic affective disorders Molimina are the symptoms that women ordinarily experience premenstrually. They are the same as PMS symptoms, but are experienced to a lesser degree and allow women to continue their normal functions Situational stress disorders result from major life changes such as divorce or a new job. The possibility of such stressors should be elicited in the history The main feature distinguishing PMS from chronic affective disorders is the follicular phase. Symptoms may be exacerbated premenstrually, but these patients have some level of dysfunction throughout the entire cycle The primary difference between the ACOG guidelines for PMS and the PMDD criteria is the number of symptoms required for the diagnosis. PMDD requires at least five of these symptoms, while the PMS guidelines do not require a specific number or class of symptoms. APA symptoms of PMDD (five or more at severe level premenstrually – one must be a CORE* symptom: Markedly depressed mood* Lethargy, fatigue Marked anxiety/tension* Appetite change/food cravings Marked affective lability* Sleep disturbance Decreased interest in usual activities* Feeling overwhelmed Difficulty concentrating Physical symptoms (breast tenderness, bloating, headache) Marked anger/irritability What percentage of women meet the criteria for PMDD? 5% What percentage of women significantly experience PMS but do not meet the criteria for PMDD? 20–25% 308 PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME (PMS) The examiner should be looking for organic disease associated with PMS-type symptoms. These may include galactorrhea associated with hyperprolactinemia or pelvic pathology like ovarian cyst, endometriosis, leiomyomata or pelvic inflammatory disease associated with pelvic pain and distention. Most commonly the physical exam is normal There is no laboratory test to identify premenstrual syndrome or premenstrual dysporic disorder. Some lab tests might be helpful, however, such as thyroid tests that would rule out the cause of fatigue or other similar symptoms. Experience indicates that patient education and support, stress reduction, a healthy diet, regular exercise and vitamin supplementations help many women both to understand and to feel more in control of their symptoms Drug therapies State-of-the-art treatment for PMS is with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). When these do not work, an anxiolytic is usually next choice. A GnRH agonist may be used to suppress the menstrual cycle when symptoms are severe and respond to no other therapy. What percentage of women with severe PMS or PMDD respond to serotonergic anidepressants? 50–60% SSRIs are the first-line treatment at present. These can be administered daily or in the symptomatic luteal phase. If SSRIs are discontinued, symptoms may return swiftly SSRIs Start with half the recommended dosage for depression in order to reduce side-effects. If the patient tolerates this well, increase the dosage to 50 mg daily. See actual dosages below in summary Hold this dosage for one or two menstrual cycles to determine the degree of efficacy Regarding the patient who conceives→ Chambers and colleagues observed a 6.1-fold increased risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension in newborns whose mothers had received SSRIs after 20 weeks’ gestation Anxiolytics If an SSRI does not work, alprazolam (Xanax®) is usually the next choice Start with 0.25 mg t.i.d. and increase as needed to control symptoms to a total of 1–1.25 mg/day Buspirone HCI 10 mg (Buspar®) p.o. t.i.d., taken throughout the cycle, may be effective GnRH agonist GnRH agonist can relieve the symptoms of PMS by producing a medical oophorectomy in patients for whom no other treatments work PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME (PMS) Premenstrual syndrome (Patient’s guide) Coping with PMS For women who suspect premenstrual syndrome (or who don’t, but find that on some days things just don’t go right!), there are several ways of coping that do not require a doctor’s prescription Chart your symptoms Finding out whether or not you are a victim of PMS can make you feel better. If you are a victim, knowing that you are not alone and understanding that the disorder is biochemical and not psychological can provide enormous relief Talk about it Talk about it with your husband, family and even your employer – if necessary. You need their sympathy and support rather than having them tell you to “pull yourself together” – which is exactly what someone with PMS cannot do. Your children also need to understand what PMS entails Eat frequently and properly Good nutrition, with reduced fats and increased complex carbohydrates, is important throughout your cycle, but even more so after ovulation, when it is especially vital to keep blood sugar on an even keel. The change in hormone levels then alters your biochemistry, making you more susceptible to low-bloodsugar reactions – such as irritability, migraines, panic, tears, angry outbursts. Never go for more than 4–5 h without food; a snack at bedtime may help, too Exercise regularly Half-hour aerobic workouts, in which you increase your pulse and work up a sweat, are good mood elevators. You should exercise three times a week all month Cut down on salt Since salt holds water, reducing salt intake should reduce bloating. In addition, do not add salt to your food. Cook with less and avoid high-sodium foods Take vitamin supplements The “B” vitamins – especially B6 – are known to reduce bloating and have an antidepressant effect and they seem to help control carbohydrate cravings. Suggested beginning daily dosage is a B-complex, containing 50 mg of B6 daily, building up to 200–500 mg in a few months. Since B vitamins are water soluble, you will excrete what you don’t need Add bran to your diet Some women become constipated during the premenstrual time and for the first few days of their period. Bran will bind water to itself and aid elimination. Be careful with alcohol. It may take only half your normal amount to make you merry! Cut down on caffeine This includes not only coffee but tea, cola, diet sodas and chocolate as well. A group of substances (xanthines) in these encourages breast cysts: women who reduce intake of xanthines may find breasts are less tender during the premenstrual stage Reduce stress if possible Take things easy just before your period. If you’re working, try to schedule important meetings and deadlines for another time of the month; at home, do not plan a dinner party or invite your cousin and her four kids for the weekend. Set aside some time to nap, listen to music, read or go for a walk Make love Many women find that orgasm helps reduce pent-up tension. While masturbating may not be as good as sex with a loving partner, it also reduces pelvic congestion The above are general recommendations for patients with symptoms of PMS. The actual PMS work-up can become quite complicated. SSRIs can be very helpful in this syndrome 309 310 PRE-OP LABS No lab test to diagnose Summary Diagnose with true cyclicity of symptoms and exclusion of other medical and psychiatric disorders Patients with PMS are symptom-free from what day of the cycle to what day of the cycle? What % of females with PMS have an underlying psychiatric disorder? PMS occurs in what % of females? Average premenstrual weight gain is 4–12 50–60% 20–40% ¼ pound Treatment of PMS consists of regular exercise and: Fluoxetine Sertraline HCl Paroxetine HCl Paroxetine-CR Citalopram Venlafaxine 20 50 10 12.5 or 25 20 mg daily or mg daily or mg daily or mg daily or mg daily or 25 mg b.i.d. Uncontrolled studies have shown caffeine + chocolate elimination to help mastalgia. B6 increased to New formulations of OCPs sometimes help alleviate symptoms Diuretic therapy or alprazolam (monitor) only if very necessary 200 mg PRE-OP LABS Guidelines The following labwork is required for ALL PATIENTS coming to the OR for surgery: Age (years) Men Women Under 40 None Hgb or Hct 40–59 EKG BUN/glucose EKG BUN/glucose Hgb or Hct Over 60 EKG CXR BUN/glucose Hgb or Hct EKG CXR BUN/glucose Hgb or Hct Special notes CXR is good for 1 year assuming no interval change in health EKG is good for 6 months assuming no interval change in health Blood work is good for 1 month assuming no interval change in health These guidelines assume that the patient is otherwise in good health. Complicating factors (i.e. diabetes, hypertension, COPD) should obviously be considered for need to expand on these guidelines PRE-TERM BIRTH Diagnosis Gestational age between Cervical CHANGE needed to treat if cervix If cervix is Treat if 4 contractions noted every or 8 contractions noted every Biochemical markers FDA-approved markers: (1) Fetal fibronectin (FFN) (2) Salivary estriol 20–37 weeks < 2 cm or < 80% effaced > 2 cm or > 80% 20 min 60 min 311 PRE-TERM BIRTH How FFN works FFN normally increases, 20 weeks’ gestation in cervicovaginal secretion. + if 50 mg/dl after 23–24 weeks. FFN compares with transvaginal US assessment of cervical length. There can be a false positive if sexual activity within 24 h, recent cervical exam and vaginal bleeding Draw back to salivary estriol – must wait after eating, chewing or smoking Investigational markers: (1) Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) (2) hCG (3) Prolactin (4) Cytokines (5) Interleukin-1α (6) Interleukin-6 (7) Interleukin-8 Morbidities associated with pre-term birth Anemia, apnea, cerebral palsy, infections resulting from immature immune system, intraventricular hemorrhage, jaundice, mental retardation and learning disabilities, necrotizing enterocolitis, neonatal death, periventricular leukomalacia, respiratory distress syndrome, and retinopathy Treatment Lateral bed-rest, hydration and/or IVFs (why hydrate?) ADH theory Flood gate + similar structure theories from posterior pituitary External monitor Sterile speculum exam – R/o PROM with nitrazine + ferning Culture for GBBS, BV, GC and Chlamydia Ultrasound – EGA, EFW + position, AFV, placenta, anomalies Labs – CBC, U/A + culture, lytes, glucose, creatinine Drug therapies and possible complications • β-Sympathomimetics (ritodrine or terbutaline) 0.25 mg SC q. 6 h Pulmonary edema Hypokalemia Hyperglycemia • MgSO4 – neuromuscular blocking agent 4–6 g x 20 min then 2–3 g Contraindicated with MG Care with renal failure, hypocalcemia • Indomethacin (NSAID) – blocks PG production Increase in IVH, necrotizing enterocolitis, closure of ductus, oligo • Nifedipine – antihypertensive Associated with increase in stroke and/or MI hypotension Chance of having PTD if patient has already had PTD • 17P – 17α-hydroxyprogesterone caproate (HCP) Administration of weekly injections until 36 weeks’ gestation reduced the rate of pre-term birth at: Earlier than 37 weeks Earlier than 35 weeks Earlier than 32 weeks 20–40% 250 mg/ml 32% reduction 31% reduction 39% reduction Infants born weighing less than 2500 g and the admission rate of infants to NICU were also reduced irrespective of mother’s race, number of previous pre-term births, or gestational age of previous preterm births References regarding 17-P Johnson JWC. Progestins in pregnancy. In: Niebyl JR, ed. Drugs used in Pregnancy. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger; 1988:109–16 Schardein JL. Congenital abnormalities and hormones during pregnancy: a clinical review. Teratology 1980; 22:251–70 312 PRE-TERM BIRTH Pre-term labor – Summary Diagnostic criteria for pre-term labor (1) Gestational age between 20 and 37 weeks (2) If the cervix is less than 2 cm dilated and less than 80% effaced, then cervical change is required to initiate tocolytic therapy (3) If the cervix is already > 2 cm or > 80% effaced, then therapy may be initiated when contractions occur with a frequency of four every 20 min or eight every 60 min, despite lateral bed-rest and intravenous hydration Evaluation of pre-term labor The initial evaluation of the patient with possible PTL has the following goals: (1) Confirm the diagnosis of PTL (2) Identify contraindications to tocolytic (3) Select the most appropriate tocolytic A “step-by-step” approach (1) Lateral bed-rest and intravenous fluids constitute care while a thorough obstetric and medical diagnosis is obtained (2) An external monitor assesses contractions and fetal well-being (3) A sterile speculum examination should be done to exclude PROM and cultures of vaginal group B streptococci, cervical gonorrhea, and Chlamydia should be obtained (4) Ultrasound should be performed to confirm gestational age; to assess amniotic fluid volume; and fetal weight and position; to locate placenta and to rule out anomalies (5) Lab work should include a complete blood count and differential, urinalysis and culture, electrolytes and glucose and creatinine levels Contraindications to tocolysis Maternal Fetal Hypertension Cardiac disease Bleeding–abruption Hyperthyroidism Fetal demise or lethal anomaly Amnionitis Fetal distress IUGR Gestational age > 37 weeks Birth weight > 2500 g Cervical Contraindications for specific tocolytic agents β-mimetic agents Maternal cardiac rhythm disturbance or other cardiac disease Poorly controlled diabetes, thyrotoxicosis or hypertension Magnesium sulfate Hypocalcemia Myasthenia gravis Renal failure Nifedipine Maternal liver disease Indomethacin Asthma Coronary artery disease Gastrointestinal bleeding (active or past hx) Oligohydramnios Renal failure Suspected fetal cardiac or renal anomaly Potential complications of tocolytic agents β-adrenergic agents Hyperglycemia Hypokalemia Hypotension Pulmonary edema Cardiac insufficiency Myocardial ischemia Maternal death Magnesium sulfate Pulmonary edema Respiratory depression Cardiac arrest Maternal tetany Profound muscular paralysis Profound hypotension Indomethacin Hepatitis Renal failure GI bleeding Nifedipine Transient hypertension PRE-TERM BIRTH 313 Tocolytic therapy with magnesium sulfate Procedure (1) Loading 4–6 g of magnesium sulfate (10% solution) IV slowly over 20-min period (2) Maintenance Add 40 g of 50% magnesium sulfate solution to 920 cc D5W. Infuse at 2 g/h (50 cc/h). Infusion rate may be increased to 3 g/h if uterine activity has not subsided in 30 min. Magnesium levels should be obtained before and after loading dose and at 2, 6 and 12 h during maintenance therapy. Therapeutic level 5–8 ng/l (3) Monitor (a) Deep reflexes (b) Respiration every 12 min (c) Urinary output 25 cc or more per hour (d) If deep reflexes are absent, discontinue immediately. Obtain magnesium sulfate level every 4 h Calcium gluconate (1 g IV) is the antidote and must be available in labor rooms (10 ml 10% sol IV @ 3 min) Magnesium sulfate infusion should be continued for a minimum of 10–12 h, after cessation of uterine activity. Strict intake and output charting should be maintained as magnesium sulfate does have cardiovascular side-effects Terbutaline sulfate therapy (Brethine) Dosage and administration Subcutaneous (1) Use a 25-gauge subcutaneous needle or 1-cc tuberculin syringe and obtain a 1-mg terbutaline sulfate (2) Administer terbutaline sulfate 0.25 SC initially and repeat every 30 min for a total of five doses (1.25 mg) as long as the maternal pulse rate is less than 120 BPM. Notify physician if heart rate is over 120 BPM (3) If premature labor has not been effectively arrested following initial therapy, terbutaline should be discontinued (4) If premature labor has been effectively arrested, begin maintenance subcutaneous dose as follows Most patients (1) Terbutaline 0.25 mg SC every 6 h for 24 h (2) Maternal BP and pulse taken and recorded prior to each dose (3) Do not administer drug if maternal pulse is more than 120 BPM and notify physician (4) Should uterine activity persist during the maintenance therapy, administer a start dose (0.25 mg) and increase dose scheduled to 0.25 mg every 4 h for the remainder of 48-h period as per physician’s order. Should this regime become ineffective, therapy should be discontinued Certain patients Certain patients may be candidates for “treat and release” therapy. These will be patients with mild, poorly felt contractions without cervical changes who may be deemed to be in questionable or mild premature labor and whose contractions ceased within 6 h of initial therapy Calcium channel blocking therapy (nifedipine) Not recommended due to potential maternal hypotension, thus increased uteroplacental perfusion Prostaglandin inhibitor therapy (sulindac or indomethacin) Not recommended due to associated neonatal morbidity Adjunctive therapy Corticosteroids should be considered for the induction of fetal lung maturity. All women between 24 and 34 weeks of pregnancy at risk for pre-term delivery are candidates for antenatal corticosteroid therapy Betamethazone 12 mg IM in two doses 24 h apart or Dexamethazone 5–6 mg q. 12 h for total of up to four doses 314 PREVENTIVE CARE PREVENTIVE CARE Tetanus–diphtheria booster is needed once every 11–16 years Cholesterol testing begins at age 45 Cholesterol testing is then repeated every 5 years Fecal occult blood testing should begin at age 50 Tetanus booster is required after age 19 every 10 years Leading cause of death for females is ACCIDENTS between ages 19–39 Leading cause of death for females is CANCER between ages 40–64 Leading cause of death for females is HEART DISEASE after age 65 Influenza vaccine should be given annually to women after age 50 Pap tests should start when a woman is sexually active or at age 18 PROGESTERONE Principal source during pregnancy is the placenta Corpus luteum produces at rate of 22–43 mg/day Progesterone responsible for: (1) Prepares endometrium for implantation (proliferative to secretory) (2) Inhibits contractions of uterus (3) Increases viscosity of cervical mucus (4) Stimulates breast glandular development (5) Raises basal body temperature Progestin potency MPA Is = to how much micronized progesterone? How much progesterone vaginal suspension? Norethindrone? 10 mg 200 mg 90 mg Medroxyprogesterone Testosterone derivatives (norethindrone, norgestrel – levonorgestrel) “Natural” Progesterones C17 C19 Derived from diosgenin in soybeans (Glycine max) or an inedible Mexican wild yam (Dioscorea villosa). Diosgenin is not converted to progesterone in human body so oral or topical wild yam preparations would be expected to be ineffective for hormonal purposes IM 25 mg/day Local (OTC) Loses potency due to 5α-reductase activity so give 30 mg/day 60 mg/day Transdermal (Pro Femme, Pro Gest and other creams) Should not be used as the progestin component of HRT. This does not preserve bone Rectal and vaginal 100 mg/day Micronized progesterone Crinone Progesterone gels (Allows form of extremely small particles of progesterone to be absorbed) < 10 µm Prometrium 100–200 mg/daily (Vaginal gel with bioadhesive that induces secretory endometrium despite low serum levels) Dosage is every other day delivering 45 mg/day Half-life of progesterone is 30 min Salivary measurements of progesterone do not reflect serum levels and should not be trusted Prochieve 4% Prochieve 8% Side-effects Indicated for women with secondary amenorrhea Dose is every other day up to six total doses Indicated for progesterone supplementation in assisted reproductive technology (ART) Dosage is once daily for supplemention and twice daily for ovarian failure (1) Attenuates lipid profile with estrogen but due to direct vasoconstricting effect, progestins potentially may negate the protective actions of estrogens (2) Lethargy 315 PROLAPSE (POP) (3) Weight gain (4) Fluid retention (5) Breast tenderness (6) Sedation and mood changes are probably the result of progesterone metabolites that bind to GABA receptors in the CNS PROLAPSE (POP) Prolapse is not relaxation or attenuation. It is actually specific breaks in specific fascia and fibers. Goal is to optimize the surgical repair by individualizing and identifying primary site of damage that can be repaired. Look for vault prolapse in any woman who has an advanced degree of vaginal prolapse. The goals of surgery are to normalize support of all anatomic compartments, alleviate clinical symptoms, and optimize sexual, bowel, and bladder function Three principal sources of damage: (1) Weakness associated with neuropathy – congenital (spina bifida) or acquired (disc herniation) Patients with abnormal spinal curvatures were 3.2 × more likely to have pelvic organ prolapse than patients with a normal curvature (Mattox TF, Lucente V, McIntyre P, et al. Abnormal spinal curvature and its relationship to pelvic organ prolapse. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;183:1381–4) (2) Trauma (ob origin) (3) Aging (decreased estrogen – loss of collagen + supporting tissue) Symptoms Anterior (urgency, frequency, urinary incontinence, voiding dysfunction) Posterior (difficulty with defecation, pelvic pressure, bearing down sensation, sacral backache) Protrusion from vagina, coital difficulty Some patients have no urinary incontinent symptoms, despite severe prolapse, but some patients will have these symptoms after the prolapse is corrected; therefore, it is recommended that a Burch or midurethral sling be done at the same time of prolapse correction Grades of descent Between normal position and ischial spines Between ischial spines and hymen At hymen Through hymen I II III IV Describe grade of descent with and without prolapse Evaluate Pelvic diaphragm, endopelvic fascial support, vaginal apex, anterior/posterior walls and perineum What % of females with POP are affected enough to need surgical therapy? What % after vaginal surgery will need reoperation? What % after abdominal surgery will need reoperation? Procidentia is total uterine prolapse with eversion of entire vagina Lithotomy – adhesions? tumors? lesions? cytology + biopsy? ureters? down? Ureters are obstructed in what % with procidentia? 10–15% 33% 16% 92% 316 PROLAPSE (POP) Figure 20 Uterine prolapse (complete) before surgery Evaluate for enterocele with patient in standing position with maximum Valsalva maneuver It is not cost-effective to use urodynamic testing as opposed to a basic office evaluation of incontinence when evaluating patients with known prolapse and symptoms of SUI (Weber AM, Walters MD. Cost-effectiveness of urodynamic testing before surgery for women with pelvic organ prolapse and stress urinary incontinence. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;183:1338–46) Endopelvic fascia Fibromuscular network (1) Cardinal and uterosacral ligaments Tenaculum to right and left. Is cervix to introitus? (2) Pubocervical fascia Paravaginal defects very palpable (lateral along the “white line” of the arcus tendineus) – correct with PARAVAGINAL repair Endopelvic fascia and bilateral sup ant vaginal sulcus is sutured to arcus tendineus fascia with interrupted permanent sutures (with GSI – repair with Burch for retropubic urethropexy) Central (midline) defect – correct with anterior repair CYSTOCELE is attenuation and/or rupture of the pubocervical fascia. May also have vaginal vault prolapse with failure of vaginal support structures – cardinal and uterosacral ligaments. An ANTERIOR COLPORRHAPHY corrects anterior midline vaginal endopelvic defects. It is effective, quicker recuperation, there is no neuromusculature compromise of the pelvic diaphragm but should not be performed as primary procedure for incontinence as it has failure rate of @ 50% Transverse defect (alone) – no SUI. Postvoid residual check (3) Rectovaginal (Denonvillier’s) fascia Rectocele – caused by inferior separation of rectovaginal fascia. Perineal descent due to pudendal nerve injury Diagnosis: push lower two-thirds of vagina down with cottonball stick then look for bulge in front. Repair by POSTERIOR COLPORRHAPHY. Involves: (a) Plication of levator ani muscles in midline (b) Narrowing of vaginal caliber (c) Perineorrhaphy to close genital hiatus 317 PROLAPSE (POP) Risks: (a) Dyspareunia (b) Decreased defecatory function Enterocele – evaluate by pushing down on perineum while lifting cervix or having patient stand and performing maximal Valsalva maneuver. Prevent and correct with obliteration of the cul-de-sac Pelvic diaphragm Fibromuscular connective tissue backed up by striated muscle with its fascial covering. Serves as back-up support to endopelvic fascia and as principal support during increased intra-abdominal pressure (1) Levator group – test with Kegel’s and neuro exam Iliococcygeus Pubococcygeus – fibers of Luschka broken with paravaginal defect. Most significant Coccygeus Urogenital diaphragm Superficial and anterior to pelvic diaphragm and aids in closure of the vagina, urethra and rectum (1) Transverse perinei muscles (2) Intrinsic muscles of the perineum Bulbocavernosus m Superficial transversus m External and internal anal sphincters m Perineorrhaphy Treatment options Minimal – medical therapy Pessaries (rings, donuts, Gehrung, Gelhorn, cubes only short term), Kegel’s, estrogen × 30 days Surgical therapy MIVH or TVH with A&P repair followed by a procedure to restore vault support and preserve vaginal coital function (McCall’s culdoplasty – uterosacral ligament suspension – better vaginal depth and normal alignment) Cystoscopy is essential with uterosacral ligament suspension – ureteral injury rate is as high as 11% LAVH or TAH with A&P repair if PID/endometriosis or unable to accomplish vaginally Grafts may be used as necessary for A&P repairs Good uterine support MANCHESTER–FOTHERGILL A&P with amputation of the cervix Older female without sexual activity LeFORT partial colpocleisis A&P with vaginal walls sutured together Vaginal vault suspensions Consider when symptomatic prolapse of vaginal apex. Most reconstructive cases can be performed transvaginally. If the apex is repaired up solidly, the surgeon is usually home free. Remember that any operation that alters the vaginal axis will seriously weaken the vagina opposite the distorted axis Vaginal approach (1) Uterosacral suspension – attach uterosacral and cardinal ligaments to pararectal fascia. Better vaginal depth with normal alignment Caution: ureters in close proximity of the uterosacral ligaments • The ureters are how close at the level of the cervix in cadavers? 1.4 cm (2) Sacrospinous ligament fixation – suspend vaginal vault @ 2 cm medial and anterior to ischial spine with native vaginal tissue. Use with functional pelvic diaphragm + good endopelvic fascia. Use Miya hook or Capio Suture Capturing Device (Boston Scientific, Urology/Gynecology, Natick, MA) and pulley stitch to attach to sacrospinous/coccygeal ligament. If sexual function is critical to the patient, a sacrocolpopexy should be the primary surgical option Not anatomic, but success rate is 83–97% 318 PROLAPSE (POP) Can predispose to recurrent anterior wall prolapse, vaginal shortening, sexual dysfunction, pain and hemorrhage. Caution: pudendal, sciatic and gluteal nerve entrapment. Pudendal artery Iliococcygeus and sacrospinous fixation offer equally effective results for the treatment of vaginal vault prolapse with similar rates of postoperative cystocele, buttocks pain and bleeding requiring transfusion (Maker CF, Murray CJ, Carey MP, et al. Iliococcygeus or sacrospinous fixation for vaginal vault prolapse. Obstet Gynecol 2001;98:40–4) Bilateral sacrospinous fixation avoids lateral vaginal deviation If voiding improves when prolapse is reduced, the prolapse is probably causing urethral obstruction. Before repairing an advanced degree of prolapse, identify any urethral obstruction or occult sphincteric incontinence (3) TVTs or TOTs (transobturator) slings – usually included if there is any urinary incontinence involvement. Anterior compartment prolapse is more likely with a concomitant anti-incontinence procedure. Until trials are done, how the kits with synthetic mesh compare with conventional repairs will not be known. Various kits used today include: (a) Perigee (transobturator anterior prolapse repair system) – treats all types of anterior vaginal wall defects – central, lateral, proximal, and distal – with a standardized, repeatable approach (b) Apogee (vaginal vault prolapse repair system) – treats apical and posterior prolapse with graft augmentation options that accommodate individual patient pathologies (c) Straight-In Sacral Colpospexy System is designed to treat vaginal vault prolapse by suspending the vaginal apex from the sacrum with a tension-free sling (d) Monarc TOC Series is a hammock-shaped mid-urethral sling designed to mimic patient anatomy and restore normal pubourethral support (e) SPARC is a minimally invasive sling system that utilizes a suprapubic approach and polypropylene mesh to create a U-shaped sub-urethral support under the urethra during increased abdominal pressure (f) BioArc is a hybrid sling system that pairs a suburethral biologic graft material called InteXen LP with AMS-proven polypropylene mesh for lateral support. Currently, it is the only sling offering a synthetic/ biologic combination. BioArc is a unique option for physicians who prefer biologics or for those patients who may be at high risk for complications with synthetic grafts (g) In-Fast Ultra is a device that allows minimally invasive, transvaginal sling placement for proximal urethral support. A concomitant repair surgery also can be performed at the same time (h) Acticon Neosphincter treats severe fecal incontinence due to neurogenic, congenital or traumatic causes when more conservative treatments have failed (i) Posterior slings – minimally invasive treatment of vaginal prolapse via small bilateral incisions made @ 2 cm lateral and posterior to the rectum, through the levator muscle, and threading the graft behind the vaginal apex and parallel to the vagina on both sides, pulling the apex back into the pelvis. • This is an excellent option to retain sexual function, and is often replacing the sacrocolpopexy in popularity due to its safety, simplicity, and minimal invasiveness Abdominal approach Transabdominal sacral colpopexy – suspend vaginal vault to S3–4 vertebral bodies just below the sacral promontory. Use with attenuated endopelvic fascia, compromised pelvic floor and severe ongoing physical stress. Consistent cure rate is > 90% Sacral colpopexy vault suspension technique has best longevity 319 PROTRACTION DISORDER Complications: (1) Hemorrhage – keep bone wax and thumb tacks (2) Vaginal mesh erosion within 5–9 years out 3.3% (3) Enterocele formation behind graft – prevent with concurrent Halban culdoplasty AVOID MIDDLE SACRAL ARTERY KEEP STERILE THUMB TACKS and BONE WAX available at all times The Straight-In System is designed to treat vaginal vault prolapse via the laparoscopic or abdominal approach. Pre-configured IntePro Y-graft with large pores encourage tissue ingrowth. Titanium screws are used with the StraightIn Powered Inserter for direct access to the sacrum and precise screw placement. A vaginal distender is also available for full mobilization of the vaginal apex Preoperative low-dose estrogen cream is crucial in most postmenopausal women regardless of the planned type of corrective prolapse procedures Place multiple sutures (include posterior vaginal wall) to obliterate the cul-de-sac and prevent enterocele PROSTAGLANDINS Prostacyclin is a potent vasodilator that decreases platelet aggregation – What prostaglandin? PGI2 This is the principal prostanoid synthesized in the endothelial cells of blood vessel walls. Thromboxane is a potent vasoconstrictor that increases platelet aggregation (prostanoids in PIH). There is an increase in thromboxane-toprostacyclin ratio during PIH Which prostaglandin increases the synthesis of non-collagenous proteins and hyaluronic acid? Which induces the production of the cytokine interleukin-1? PGE2 This “inflammatory process”, with its increased enzyme activity allows for the loosening, separation and splitting of collagen fibers of cervix How much aspirin does it take to disable platelets–thromboxane production machinery for 1 week lifespan of platelet? (Only pts at risk should be treated, such as rec PIH, IUGR, Hx of fetal demise) 81 mg per day PROSTAGLANDIN CERVICAL RIPENING Increases Bishop’s score Decreases total number of hours of labor Decreases total dose of oxytocin required Increases incidence of spontaneous labor Does not affect C-section rate in any of the studies How prostaglandin ripening works – causes cervical connective tissues to exhibit increased remodeling, involving altered proteoglycan metabolism (believed to cause a breakdown of the collagen matrix), increasing smooth muscle fiber alignment and hypertrophy and changes in glycosaminoglycans. During this process, PGE2 increases synthesis of non-collagenous proteins and hyaluronic acid, which may induce the production of the cytokine interleukin-1. This “inflammatory process” with increased enzyme activity allows for loosening, separation and splitting of collagen fibrils PROTRACTION DISORDER Criteria Nulligravid – cervical dilatation Prolonged latent phase Prolonged second stage Prolonged second stage with epidural Multipara – cervical dilatation Prolonged latent phase Prolonged second stage Prolonged second stage with epidural See also Arrest of dilatation < 1.2 cm/h 20 h >2h >3h < 1.5 /h 14 h 1h 2h 320 PSYCHIATRIC PSYCHIATRIC What % pregnant women experience depression? 10% What % pregnancies treated with lithium in first trimester result in Ebstein’s anomaly? 0.1% Treatment for initial onset of late-life depression should receive therapy AFTER recovery for 6 months Older women with recurrent depression should receive therapy indefinitely Treat depression in pregnancy with SSRIs if: (1) Nutrition compromised (2) Patient only sleeping 2–3 h per night (3) Suicidal ideation (4) Use of EtOH to self-medicate Refer if suicidal intent, delusions and/or hallucinations, history of poorly controlled bipolar illness requiring multiple medicines or concurrent substance abuse Common psychiatric disorders in women Treatments Panic disorder Depression Adjustment disorder Anxiety and depression Self-limited @ life stressors Hypochondriacal Somatic symptoms Somatic disorder SSRIs SSRIs 70% in general population (Exc females 0.2–2%) Benzodiazepines – relatively contraindicated in late pregnancy due to neonatal syndromes and withdrawal Anticonvulsants – concern is for neural tube defects and possible craniofacial defects Typical psychological changes of pregnancy (1) First trimester – concerns with body image that threaten self-esteem and sexuality. Feelings of vulnerability (2) Second trimester – process of attachment to baby, fondness – concerns about baby not being normal (3) Third trimester – embodies task of separation from fetus Aspects of pregnancy → developmental crisis involving adaptive tests for both partners Postpartum blues → “transient” Postpartum depression → major depression @ 2 weeks after delivery; 30–50% risk of recurrence with each subsequent pregnancy Postpartum psychosis → florid affective episodes with hallucinations, emotional lability, which occurs 2 weeks after delivery St John’s wort The efficacy of St John’s wort for a major depressive disorder was unsupported in a recent trial and may even be detrimental to the patient’s overall mental health (Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group. Effect of Hypericum perforatum (St. John’s wort) in major depressive disorder: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002;287:1807–14) PUBARCHE Early hair over vulva or axilla? Premature pubarche if seen in female under what age? 8 years If seen in male under what age? 9 years Measure DHEA-S, testosterone, bone measurement of hand and wrist Think adrenal hyperplasia or androgen-secreting tumor PUBIC PARASITES Crab louse → pediculosis pubis → Phthirus pubis Itch mite → scabies → Sarcoptes scabiei Symptoms → constant itching or increased symptoms of itching at night 321 RADIATION Diagnosis → visualization of nits (eggs), parasites, excretions Treatment → Nix cream (permethrin) or Kwell (lindane) PULMONARY ARTERY CATHETER Normal ranges Right atrium or pulmonary artery, wedged mean Right ventricle, systolic diastolic Pulmonary artery, systolic diastolic 5–10 15–20 0–8 15–20 8–15 mmHg mmHg mmHg mmHg mmHg Diagnosis CXR (normal or Westermark’s sign or Hampton’s hump). Also can see an enlarged descending pulmonary artery. EKG (sinus tach, new onset atrial fib or flutter). Also can see S wave in lead 1. Q wave in lead V3 ABG Ventilation–perfusion (VQ) lung scan positive 90% Treatment Stat heparin (see Heparin therapy under Deep vein thrombosis) PULMONARY EMBOLISM PUPILS AND DRUGS Amphetamine and cocaine → dilated Heroin and morphine → pinpoint Marijuana → injected conjunctivae PUPP Not associated with adverse perinatal outcome or recurrences. Rx with benadryl. Incidence is (See Dermatologic conditions) 0.5% PYELONEPHRITIS IN PREGNANCY Incidence in pregnancy 1–2% Most common bacteria (E.coli/Klebsiella–Enterobacter/Proteus) 77%/15%/4% Risk factors for ARDS are increased tocolytics and hydration Treat with cephalosporin (Mezlin®, Pipracil®, Zosyn®) These are category B Rocephin 1–2 g/day PYROSIS Heartburn in pregnancy is noted in what % of pregnancies? Etiology (1) Decreased resting pressure of esophageal sphincter (2) (3) (4) (5) Treatment 70% Increased acidity of gastric juice Progesterone decrease tone and propulsive motility of esophagus Increased size of uterus → increases abdominal–thoracic pressure Decreased motilin levels (hormone that stimulates smooth muscle of gut) (1) Elevate head of bed (2) Bland, fat-free foods in small amounts (3) Bicitra or Milk of Magnesia → Tagamet or Zantac (Category B). Reglan has not been found to be beneficial RADIATION There are NO anomalies, growth restrictions or abortions in pregnancy if radiation exposure is < 5 rads 322 RALOXIFENE (EVISTA) First trimester – ALL OR NONE EFFECT Organogenesis – estimated dose of 100 cGy will result in what % offspring with anomalies at birth? 100% CNS effects may occur when radiated up to how many weeks? 25 weeks Fetal stage: doses above what rad dose may result in growth retardation? 50 cGy The upper limit of radiation exposure in pregnancy is CONTROVERSIAL. Ob Prolog states that this amount is safe in pregnancy < 1 cGy (1000 mrad) Nomenclature Rad – radiation absorbed dose 1 rad = 100 erg/g 1 Gray = 100 rad or 1 joule/kg 1 cGy = 1 rad Radiosensitivity for most gyn tumors regarding microscopic disease is rad cure of 4000–5000 In @ what % of cases? 80–90% 2 cm lateral and 2 cm superior to cervical os (point at which the uterine artery goes above ureter) Point A Central control 7500–8000 cGy 3 cm lateral to point A (pelvic wall). Lymph nodes up along pelvic wall Point B Side walls Usually 5500 rad + or – 1000 Greatest exposure risk is between what gestational weeks? 8–15 weeks Carcinogenesis What % of children will develop childhood leukemia if exposed to ionizing radiation? 1/2000 What % of children will develop a malignancy from exposure to X-ray? 1/1000 Ultrasound should be limited to how many mW/cm2? 94 US and MRI not associated with any adverse fetal effects but MRI should be avoided in ? trimester? 1st Iodine is CONTRAINDICATED in pregnancy so instead of 99m using 131I, use Tc with < 0.5 rad Pregnancy should not prevent X-ray procedures. (US and/or MRI to be used rather than X-rays when possible) How much radiation is utilized for these procedures? CXR 0.02–0.07 mrad Mammo 7–20 mrad Abdominal film 100 mrad CT pelvimetry 250 mrad CT of head or chest < 1 rad IVP > 1 rad BE or SB series 2–4 rads CT of abdomen and lumbar spine 3.5 rads Maximal amount of tolerated radiation in cancer therapy is remembered with mnemonic, “A Small Rat Ran By” V – see below: Abdomen 2500 rads Small bowel 4000 rads Rectum 5000 rads Rectovaginal septum 6000 rads Bladder 7000 rads Vagina 7000 rads Cervix 12 000 rads RALOXIFENE (EVISTA) Decreases vertebral fractures by 30–50% Unlike tamoxifen in that it has no apparent trophic effect on the endometrium. Has NOT been shown to have a definitive, + effect on cognitive function in postmenopausal women. Raloxifene shows no cardioprotective properties in 4-year MORE study (according to Barrett-Connor E, Grady D, Sashegyi A, et al. Raloxifene and cardiovascular events in osteoporotic postmenopausal women: four-year results from the MORE (Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene Evaluation) randomized trial. J Am Med Assoc 2002;287:847–57). Decreases LDL, no change in HDL or triglycerides. Increases risk of venous thromboembolic phenomena 323 RESPIRATORY DISORDERS RECTOCELE Separation of rectovaginal fascia Posterior repair corrects rectovaginal fascial defect RECTOVAGINAL FISTULA What % heal spontaneously? See also Fistula 25% RECURRENCE RISK Obstetric complications General risk (%) Risk of recurrence Gestational diabetes Placental abruption Placenta previa Spontaneous PTB Pre-eclampsia HELLP syndrome Stillbirth Shoulder dystocia 1–3 0.5–3 0.3–0.5 3 5.6 0.2–0.7 0.8 0.5–1 46% 5–100 x baseline 6–8 x baseline 7–64% 7.5% 4–38% 7.3–8.4% 2–16 x baseline RED DEGENERATION Myomas that undergo ‘red’ or ‘carneous’ degeneration by hemorrhagic infarction. Hyaline and cystic degeneration (liquefaction) can be confused with cyst. These are other types of fibroid degeneration Percentage of types of degeneration – hyaline/red/calcium/cystic 60%/11%/10%/4% See Myomas Symptoms Focal pain, tenderness to palpation, occasionally low fever or increased WBC Differential Appendicitis, pyelo, abruption, stone Treatment Rest, codeine – usually resolves spontaneously RESPIRATORY CHANGES IN PREGNANCY Increased Decreased No change Tidal volume Minute ventilatory volume Minute oxygen uptake Airway conductance and closing volume Oxygen consumption Functional residual capacity Residual volume Total pulmonary resistance pCO2 Arterial PaO2 Respiratory rate Maximum breathing capacity Forced or timed vital capacity RESPIRATORY DISORDERS Asthma What % of pregnancies? Associated with increase in PIH, hyperemesis and hemorrhage. Increase in IUGR, PTD, LBW, neonatal hypoxia 4% Manage with (1) Baseline spirometry (2) Peak expiratory flow daily – maintain 80% goal – treat p.r.n. (3) Early ultrasound, fetal kick count surveillance, NST/BPP p.r.n. (4) EFM during exacerbation – maintain SaO2 at 95% or > Management with asthma exacerbations (1) Rest, O2, hydration, β2-agonist therapy, EFM (2) Hydrocortisone 100 mg IV to decrease risk of inflammatory-mediated response 6–8 h later (3) Oral steroids 1–2 weeks pulsed course p.m. if inhaler not option (4) Identify asthma “triggers” → 75–80% have positive skin test (5) Continue “allergy shots” in pregnancy if already been diagnosed (6) Give annual influenza vaccine to pregnant patients if no egg allergy (7) Do not avoid physical activity (8) Cromolyn Na+ inhaler regularly (mast cell stabilizer – prevents histamine release) 324 RETROGRADE EJACULATION (9) β2-agonist b.i.d. to q.i.d. inhaler (10) Oral prednisone/prednisolone p.r.n. (11β-ol-dehydrogenase metabolizes in placenta) (11) 1-h 50 g glucose tolerance test at 27–30 weeks secondary to increased risk of gestational DM (12) Severe exacerbation – inhaled nebulized β-agonists Terbutaline p.r.n. PTL – MgSO4 prescription of choice Terbutaline requires increased dosing (ASA, NSAIDs, ibuprofen, indomethacin → 11% have hypersensitivities to these) Management of labor (1) Continue regularly scheduled medicines (except oral steroids) (2) If moderate to severe, check peak flow volume on admission then repeat every 12 h as needed (3) Maintain adequate hydration (4) Provide adequate analgesia (5) Avoid methergine and prostaglandin F2α (Hemabate) → these are bronchoconstrictors. Use Pitocin or prostaglandin E2 as needed (6) Hydrocortisone 100 mg (or equivalent) IV every 8 h until 24 h postpartum if patient has a history of oral steroid use at least 2 weeks within previous 6 months or for those who have frequent exacerbations. This provides adrenal support and helps prevent exacerbations due to labor Epistaxis Treatment (1) Intranasal saline spray 5–6 times daily (2) Eucerin®/aloe b.i.d. in a.m. and p.m. (3) Pinch nostrils and sit forward for 10 min Rhinitis Diagnostic character of mucus (1) Copious clear secretions (2) Yellowish/greenish discharge Allergic Infection Common causes and treatments of nasal congestion during pregnancy: (1) Allergic rhinitis (most common) Changes in cortisol levels Treatment – beclomethasone, topical cromolyn, Sudafed® (not if hypertensive) (2) Acute or chronic maxillary sinusitis Tender frontal sinuses, yellowish/greenish discharge, X-ray p.r.n. Treatment: amoxicillin 500 mg t.i.d. × 3 weeks Erythromycin if allergic Sudafed 60 mg b.i.d. or 30 mg q.i.d. Vantin® 200 mg p.o. q. 12 h x 10 days as alternative (3) Nasal polyposis Steroid burst will sometimes shrink polyps, but not recommended Treatment: Usually delay until after pregnancy is necessary (4) Rhinitis medicamentosa (rebound rhinitis) Occurs secondary to excessive use of over-the-counter decongestant nasal sprays. Sometimes it is necessary to use oxymetazoline (topical vasoconstrictor) to facilitate evaluation in patients who are not hypertensive Treatment: discontinue spray or drops. Give p.o. decongestants or intranasal corticosteroids RETROGRADE EJACULATION Associated with urinary tract surgery (prostatectomy or surgery of bladder neck as child) Diabetes Spinal cord injuries Diagnosis Postejaculate urine sample Treatment α-Adrenergics or insemination with semen from bladder Rh RhD-negative woman (who is not RhD alloimmunized) should receive anti-D immune globulin (RhoGAM) • @ 28 weeks unless father of baby also RhD negative • Within 72 h after delivery of RhD + infant 325 Rh • After first-trimester pregnancy loss • After invasive procedures (CVS, amnio, fetal blood sample) Also consider giving RhoGAM if patient experiences: • Threatened abortion • External cephalic version • Second- or third-trimester antenatal bleeding • Abdominal trauma Rh antigens are CDEce – there is no little d What % Caucasians are Rh negative? What % Asians and North American Indians are Rh negative? What % of the Basque population are Rh negative? The most common cause of Rh D alloimmunization is fetomaternal hemorrhage in what % cases? Antenatal fetomaternal hemorrhage occurs in what %? The dose of Rh anti-D globulin (RhoGAM) is This dose prevents RhD alloimmunization up to how many ml of RhD and blood? How many fetal cells? If RhoGAM is forgotten during the postpartum stay, it can be given up to how many days? If patient is ‘weak D positive’ then the patient does not need RhoGAM because she is positive BUT if she is postpartum, investigate possible fetomaternal hemorrhage 15% 5% 95% 90% 10% 300 µg 30 ml 15 ml Rh isoimmunization D immunoglobulin administration to potentially susceptible candidates greatly reduces their chances of developing D isoimmunization and subsequent fetal morbidity/mortality of Rh hemolytic disease Prenatal testing Determine maternal ABO and Rh type with prenatal profile at initial visit Rh negative (not isoimmunized) women should have repeat D antibody determination at 28–29 weeks’ EGA If negative, prophylactic D immunoglobulin (RhoGAM) If positive, manage as D-sensitized Presence of D-u (variant of D antigen) most often indicates maternal carriage of D-u antigen (considered Rh positive) Prophylactic administration (used only in unsensitized Rh women) (1) Abortion (induced or spontaneous) and ectopic pregnancy (a) Up to 13 weeks’ EGA – 50 µg D immunoglobulin (b) After 13 weeks’ EGA – full dose (300 µg D immunoglobulin) (2) Amniocentesis 300 µg dose in first, second or third trimester. Follow with routine antepartum/postpartum prophylaxis. If delivery anticipated within 48 h, RhoGAM may be held until postpartum (3) Chorionic villus sampling 50 µg dose D immunoglobulin (4) Percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling In D-negative women, analyze fetal blood. If D-positive, give 300 µg dose (5) External version May precipitate fetal/maternal bleeding – 300 µg dose Special situations (1) Antepartum placental hemorrhage (a) Kleihauer–Bettke to estimate volume of fetal–maternal transfusion (b) 300 µg dose protects against 30 ml fetal blood (15 ml fetal RBC) (c) May test 48–72 h after RhoGAM dose for adequate treatment (excess D immunoglobulin = adequate treatment) (2) Postpartum/postabortal sterilization Controversial, but low risk of sensitization, probably precludes this group from treatment (3) Administration of blood/blood products (a) Use of D-positive PRBC/platelets/granulocytes may cause sensitization (b) With D-positive PRBC – 300 µg per 15 ml PRBC (administered in six divided doses q. 12 h x 72 h) (c) Platelets/granulocytes – single vial (300 µg) adequate 28 326 Rh Prevention of Rh isoimmunization Pregnancy Antepartum prophylaxis Determine ABO and Rh type Rh Positive or D-u Rh negative 50 µg dose (< 13 weeks' EGA) Spontaneous or induced Ab Ectopic pregnancy CVS 300 µg dose Amniocentesis PUBS (if fetus is D positive) External version Variable dose** NO TREATMENT Antepartum placental hemorrhage Transfusion of D-positive blood products 18 weeks' EGA (unsensitized) Platelet/ granulocyte transfusion Spont/induced Ab >13 weeks' EGA Postpartum (within 72 h if infant is D pos) **Determine volume of transfusion (Kleihauer–Betke for antepartum hemorrhage) Treat with RhoGAM 300 µ g per 15 ml PRBC or 30 ml whole blood 327 RU 486 (MIFEPRISTONE) RHABDOMYOSARCOMA Most common soft tissue sarcoma of childhood. This makes up what % of malignant disease in children? Diagnosis Biopsy. Poorly differentiated round or spindle-shaped cells. Electron microscopy – striated muscle fibers Staging I = localized II = regional with involved nodes III = incomplete resection or biopsy with gross residual disease IV = distant metastasis Treatment Chemotherapy (VAC) with subsequent limited surgery or radiation 4–8% RITGEN MANEUVER Operator extends head via fetal chin through maternal rectum. Quickens delivery but presents greater fetal head diameter to maternal vulva so leads to more frequent episiotomy or vaginal lacerations RNA VIRUS Includes HIV, rubella, rubeola and hepatitis types A, C, D, E ROBOTIC SURGERY Types da Vinci (all systems below are similar to that incorporated in da Vinci) Zeus MicroWrist Voice-directed HERMES control system AESOP robotic endoscope positioner Disadvantages High price tag ($1.5 million for new, 4-arm da Vinci) Computer interface that erases any tremor of surgeon’s hands Console that surgeon sits away from peripheral distractions Virtual sense of being within the pelvic cavity Easy movements and unparalleled visualization Actually easier to learn than laparoscopic surgery (intuitive) Robot responds directly to the directions of the surgeon’s fingers Robot’s articulating arms are flexible compared with the “rigidity” of scopes Advantages Burch colposuspension Dermoid cyst removal Endometrial ablation Hysterectomy Laparoscopically assisted vagainal hysterectomy Myomectomy Oophorectomy Oophorocystectomy Ovarian cystectomy Ovarian transposition Removal of fibroids Salpingectomy Tubal ligation Tubal reanastomosis Tuboplasty Vaginal prolapse repair Gyn procedures that can performed by robot RU 486 (MIFEPRISTONE) Is as effective as high-dose OCP for postcoital contraception. RU 486 in a dose of 600 mg will terminate pregnancies what %? 80% Prolonged administration results in anovulation 328 SACROSPINOUS LIGAMENT FIXATION SACROSPINOUS LIGAMENT FIXATION Rectovaginal space/rectal pillar dissected Sacrospinous ligament/coccygeus space Miya hook ligature carrier 2 prolene Place 2–3 cm medial to ischial spine AVOID PUDENDAL VESSELS AND PUDENDAL NERVE See Prolapse (POP) This procedure is fully explained in Turrentine JE. Surgical Transcriptions and Pearls in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2nd edn. London: Informa Healthcare, 2006 SARCOMA Make up what % of uterine tumors? Mixed mesodermal tumors are the most common and this % is found outside uterus at time of dxn Endolymphatic stromal myosis – low grade – surgery only – may recur after LONG INTERVAL Adenosarcoma – low malignant potential – TAHBSO with selective nodes – Rad + Chemo don’t help 3% 60% SCORING SYSTEMS Apgar scoring of newborns Bishop’s pelvic score for induction Vaginal atrophic index (VAI) for scoring atrophic vaginitis VBAC scoring system (Flamm–Geiger) to evaluate likelihood of successful trial of labor Zatuchni–Andros breech score to evaluate likelihood of avoiding problems during breech delivery Apgar scoring of newborns Sign 0 Points 1 Point 2 Points Heart rate Absent Under 100 Over 100 Respiratory effort Absent Slow, irregular Good, crying Muscle tone Limp Some flexion Active motion of extremities Reflex irritability: response to catheter No response Grimace Cough or sneeze, cry in nostril Color Blue–white Body pink, extremities blue Completely pink Bishop’s pelvic score Features 0 Points 1 Point 2 Points 3 Points Dilatation (cm) 0 1–2 3–4 5–6 Effacement (%) 0–30 40–50 60–79 80 Station Consistency Position –3 –2 –1, 0 +1, +2 Firm Medium Soft — Posterior Mid Anterior — 329 SCREENING Vaginal atrophy index (VAI) 1 Point Skin elast + turgor Pubic hair Labia Introitus Vaginal mucosa 2 Points 3 Points Poor Fair Excellent Sparse Normal > Normal Dry atrophy Full > Full <1 Fg br 1 Fg br 2 Fg br Thin/friable Sm Rugated Short Normal At least normal Vaginal depth VBAC scoring system (Flamm–Geiger) Points < 40 years of age 2 Vaginal delivery before and after their C-section 4 Vaginal birth after the first C-section 2 Vaginal birth before their Cesarean birth 1 No vaginal delivery 0 First C-section done for reason other than FTP 1 Cervix > 75% on admission 2 Cervix 25–75% on admission 1 Cervix < 25% on admission 0 Cervix dilated ≥ 4 cm on admission 1 Points Likelihood of successful TOL (%) 0–2 49.1 3 59.9 4 66.7 5 77.0 6 88.6 7 92.6 8–10 94.9 Zatuchni–Andros breech score 0 Points 1 Point 2 Points Primagrav. Multip. > 39 or > 38 37 or < > 8# 7–8# < 7# Prev. breech 0 1 2 or > Cx dil (cm) 2 3 4 or > –3 or higher –2 –1 or lower Parity Gestational age (weeks) EFW Station Total score of 5 or > indicates no difficulty in delivery of breech per vagina SCREENING Routine screening Periodic H&P Mammogram yearly > age 40 (definitely after age 50). Baseline > 35 Fecal blood test > age 50 Annual Pap (until at least three normal Pap smears) Cholesterol every 5 years Flexible sigmoidoscopy every 3–5 years after age 50 Annual flu shot after age 55 330 SELECTIVE ESTROGEN RECEPTOR MODULATORS (SERMS) Tetanus–diphtheria every 10 years Pneumococcal vaccine once at age 65 Plus if patient is obese then get fasting glucose test and if she is a smoker then get lipid profile Lifestyle review Smoking, alcohol, exercise, sexual behavior or risks, use of non-conventional therapies If menopausal, discuss osteoporosis prophylaxis, screening if at risk and treatment p.r.n. SELECTIVE ESTROGEN RECEPTOR MODULATORS (SERMs) Triphenylethylenes Clomiphene (Clomid or Serophene) Tamoxifen (Novadex). Decreases breast cancer by Toremifene (Fareston). Well suited for PMP with metastatic breast cancer Benzothiophene Raloxifene (Evista) (1) Decreases vertebral fractures by (2) Decreases C-reactive protein, lipoprotein and homocysteine (3) Useful with females with history of breast cancer (4) Increases vasomotor instability 50% 30–50% STAR study – tamoxifen versus raloxifene (head-to-head study) SEPSIS Definitions Early sepsis (“warm shock”) Systemic response to infection (temp > 38°C, tachycardia, tachypnea, PaCO2 < 32 mmHg, WBC >12 000 or < 4000 or >10% bands [i.e. left shift]) Late/severe sepsis (“cold shock”) Characterized by hypoperfusion, hypotension organ dysfunction (peripheral cyanosis, cold extremities, lactic acidosis, oliguria, MS changes) Septic shock Sepsis accompanied by hypotension unresponsive to fluid resuscitation often requiring inotropic or vasopressor agents Multiple organ system failure Altered organ function such that homeostasis is not maintained without intervention Diagnosis Clinical manifestations (1) Cardiovascular (a) Vasodilatation/increased vascular permeability – hypotension (b) Myocardial depression – cardiac dysfunction (2) Pulmonary (a) Vascular permeability/endothelial damage – hypoxemia/ARDS (3) Renal (a) Hypotension/vasoconstriction – oliguria (b) Prolonged cortical hypoxia – ATN (c) Immune-mediated damage – interstitial nephritis (4) Hematologic (a) Endotoxin activation of coagulation cascade – DIC (b) Demargination/immune response – leukocytosis (5) Neurologic (a) Decreased cerebral blood flow/hypoxia – altered mental status (6) Homeostatic (a) Endotoxin/TNF effect on hypothalamus – fever Laboratory investigations (1) CBC and platelets with differential (2) Electrolytes (3) Arterial blood gases (4) BUN/Cr 331 SEPSIS (5) Urinalysis (6) Coagulation studies (PT/PTT, fibrinogen) (7) Serum lactate (8) Cultures – blood, urine, other suspicious sites (endometrium, amniotic fluid, wound/episiotomy, sputum/drains) (9) Radiologic studies – CXR +/– CT, MRI or abdominal X-ray Principles of management Early (simple sepsis) (1) Maintain adequate oxygenation (supplemental O2) (2) Maintain adequate circulating volume (IV fluids) (3) Obtain appropriate laboratory data (4) Initiate appropriate antibiotics (broad-spectrum) Late (severe sepsis/shock) (5) Transfer to Intensive Care (Swan–Ganz catheter) (6) Surgical removal/drainage of abscess or infected tissue (7) Tailor antibiotic coverage to culture results (8) Institute inotropic/vasopressor agents Antibiotic regimens (1) Ampicillin 2 g IV q. 6 h + gentamicin (load: 2 mg/kg, maintenance: 1.5 mg/kg IV q. 8 h) + clindamycin 900 mg IV q. 8 h (2) 3rd generation cephalosporin (cefotaxime 2.0 g IV q. 4 h or ceftriaxone 2.0 g IV q. 12 h or ceftazidime 2.0 g IV q. 8 h) + gentamicin (dose as in #1) (3) Ticarcillin/clavulanate 6.2 g IV q. 6 h or piperacillin/tazobactam 6.75 g IV q. 6 h + gentamicin (dose as in #1) (4) Cefoxitin 2.0 g IV q. 8 h + gentamicin (dose as in #1) (PCN/cephalosporin allergic): (5) Imipenem 500 mg IV q. 6 h (6) Aztreonam 2.0 g IV q. 6 h + gentamicin (dose as in #1) + clindamycin 900 mg IV q. 8 h 332 SEPSIS Infection Empiric antibiotic therapy for suspected organism(s) IMPROVEMENT NO IMPROVEMENT RESOLUTION EARLY SEPSIS (1) (2) (3) (4) Broaden Abx coverage (triple Abx) Culture blood/urine/other sites Chest X-ray R/o Abscess IMPROVEMENT NO IMPROVEMENT RESOLUTION LATE SEPSIS (1) Surgical drainage abscess (2) Transfer to ICU (3) Maximize circulating volume (Swan–Ganz) (4) Correct acidosis IMPROVEMENT NO IMPROVEMENT RESOLUTION SEPTIC SHOCK (1) Correction of DIC (2) Inotropic/vasopressor agents (3) Maintain renal perfusion IMPROVEMENT RESOLUTION NO IMPROVEMENT (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Decreased organ perfusion Cardiovascular collapse End organ failure ARDS Coma Death 333 SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION SEPTIC SHOCK (SIRS – SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE) Associated with a mortality in ICU of If ARDS develops, there is a mortality rate of 20–50% 50% SEQUENCES Innermost Outermost Zona pellucida – granulosa Theca interna Responsive to FSH Synthesizes estrogen Medulla cortex Responsive to LH Synthesizes androstenedione products Germinal epithelium Estrogens in sequence of decreasing potency: Estradiol, estrone, estriol Most frequent sites of osteoporotic fractures: Vertebra, distal radius, femoral neck SEXUAL ASSAULT See Assault SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION Definition Sexual dysfunction is a chronic disturbance in the sexual response cycle The overall prevalence rate of female sexual dysfunction has been reported as high as Compared to male sexual dysfunction at rate of What % of married women believe that a satisfying sex life is important? 43% 31% 84% Detect with abbreviated interview (1) Sexually active? (2) Pain with sex? (3) Problems or questions? • “Is contraception an issue for you?” • “Please tell me the nature of your sexual practices, whether by yourself or with others. I am asking because some sexual practices play a role in decisions @ diagnosis and treatment – I am not asking to pass judgment on anything you do.” Types of sexual dysfunction (1) Disorders of desire or libido (low sexual desire) (a) Hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD) Hormone deficiencies or neuropsychiatric disorders (b) Sexual aversion disorder (SAD) Childhood or painful sexual abuse or experiences Feelings of shame and guilt. (2) Disorders of arousal (inability to attain or maintain physical response to sexual arousal) Causes can be: (a) Diabetes (b) Arteriosclerosis (c) Medications, e.g. many blood pressure and psychiatric drugs (3) Orgasmic disorders (inability or delayed orgasm) Physical causes can be surgery, hormone deficiency, or medications such as antidepressants (4) Pain disorders (a) Dyspareunia (pain during coitus) Insufficient vaginal lubrication, inflammation, endometriosis, or vaginal/pelvic infections (b) Vaginismus (spasm of vaginal muscles during coitus) Vaginal scarring (previous injuries, surgeries, childbirth), vaginal irritation or inflammation (douches, spermicides, latex condoms) or vaginal infection (c) Non-coital sexual pain 334 SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION (5) Psychological causes Sexual guilt, grief, trauma, depression, interpersonal conflict with a sexual partner Symptoms (1) HSDD – deficiency or absence of sexual fantasies or desire SAD – phobic aversion to and avoidance of sexual contact with partner (2) Inability to attain or maintain sexual excitement (3) Primary orgasmic disorder – the patient has never experienced an orgasm Secondary orgasmic disorder – the patient has recently become anorgasmic (4) (a) Genital pain with intercourse (b) Involuntary spasm of the muscles comprising the outer third of the vagina (c) Genital pain with non-coital sexual stimulation Possible CAUSES (1) Side-effects of SSRIs (serotonin reuptake inhibitors) (2) Tricyclic antidepressants (3) Antihypertensives (4) Benzodiazepines (5) Adrenal insufficiency (6) Relationship problems (7) Pelvic organ prolapse (POP) is likely to result in sexual dysfunction (Barber MD, Visco AG, Wyman JF, et al. Sexual function in women with urinary incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse. Obstet Gynecol 2002;99:281–9) as compared to urinary incontinence, which is less likely to result in sexual inactivity than POP (8) Cimetidine (9) Bromocriptine (10) Spironolactone (11) Tamoxifen (12) Cancer (13) Ovaries in the cul-de-sac (14) Pelvic infection, fibroids, endometriosis (15) Hypoestrogenism (16) Chronic diseases (17) Other conditions (pregnancy, lactation, menopause) Treatment (depends on etiology) (1) HSDD – trial of testosterone especially in menopausal women to increase libido and clitoral sensitivity. EROS – CTD is a “clitoris pump” that is FDA approved; it uses a suction cup/hand-help vacuum device to increase blood flow to the clitoris. ERT sometimes increases libido, improves clitoral sensation, and decreases pain during intercourse for women in menopause. Topical creams and Femring or Estrings can also help with vaginal irritation, pain, or dryness SAD – refer for counseling (2) Treat underlying physical disorder. Consider sildenafil, local vasodilating agents and appropriate estrogen replacement. Refer for counseling if necessary. There is a nasal spray that looks promising for the treatment of female sexual arousal disorder called bremelanotide (PT-141). It directly stimulates the brain’s sexual control center. Women who have used it in clinical trials report feeling “genital warmth, tingling and throbbing,” as well as “a strong desire to have sex.” It is not yet approved by the FDA as of this publication (3) Correct underlying pharmacologic problem and/or refer for sexual or psychological counseling and look for OTC and herbal supplements as possible etiological agents (4) Correct underlying perineal trauma (eliminate soaps and harsh chemicals) and medical conditions (infection and endometriosis). Vaginal dilators can be inserted into the vagina for 15 minutes, twice daily, to treat vaginismus. Kegel exercises and techniques to relax the vaginal muscles and relieve orgasmic disorders and vaginismus. See Pelvic (Kegel) exercises 335 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (5) Try physical therapy (pelvic-floor biofeedback). Refer for sexual and/or psychological counseling. Search for history of abuse or molestation in these women. Pelvic pain is often multifactorial Alternative therapies (1) DHEA 50 mg/day for 12 months (Baulieu EE, Thomas G, Legrain S, et al. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), DHEA sulfate and aging: contribution of the DHEAge Study to a sociobiomedical issue. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000;97:4279–84). Increases libido and sexual satisfaction but can increase androgens, decrease HDL, SHBG and can be correlated with increased CHD. More study needed for this along with Ginkgo biloba, yohimbine and arginine (2) EROS–CTD The EROS clitoral therapy device (EROS–CTD) is the first FDA-approved device for female sexual dysfunction The EROS–CTD patients reported what % improvement of: Increased clitoral sensation? Greater vaginal lubrication? Improved ability to have an orgasm Higher overall sexual satisfaction 90% 80% 55% 80% SEXUAL RESPONSE Vagina lubricates, lengthens + distends, tension increases, skin flushes, breasts engorge Excitement Vagina decreases in diameter by Plateau 50% Vaginal inner two-thirds distends, clitoris retracts, systolic B/P increases, breasts AND areolas engorge Vagina contracts strongly at how many second intervals? Orgasm How many times does it contract? Cervix dilates, hyperventilation, tachycardia at rate of 0.8 s 5–10 × 110–180 BPM Returns to normal Resolution SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES Genital ulcers Feature Syphilis Herpes Chancroid LGV Granuloma inguinale Incubation 2–4 weeks 2–7 days 1–14 days 3 days–6 weeks 1–4 weeks Pain Rare Common VERY tender Varies Uncommon Lymph nodes Firm, NT Firm, NT Tender, Sup Tender Pseudoadenopathy Bilat Bilat Usu unilat Sup, loc Characteristics T. pallidum Resides dorsal root ganglia Hemophilusi ducreyi Chlamydia trachomatis Calymmatobacterium granulomatis Diagnosis Dark field microscopy Cultures WBA Gram stain “School of fish” culture Complement fixation or culture Multiple fissures of perineum/ rectum Find Donovan bodies Treatment Penicillin B 2.4 million u Acyclovir Rocephin or erythromycin Doxycycline Tetracycline Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) Risk factors for PID Age 14–24 (One-third of U.S. girls are sexually active by age 15) Sexually active Multiple sex partners 336 SHEEHAN’S SYNDROME New sex partner Hx of STD Hx of PID Use of an IUD for contraception Nulliparity Onset of pain during or within 1 week of menses Cigarette, alcohol or illicit drug use Pelvic instrumentation Criteria for clinical diagnosis of PID Minimum criteria for clinical Dx (all three must be present) Lower abdominal tenderness Bilateral adnexal tenderness Cervical motion tenderness Additional criteria useful in Dx (one or more necessary for dx) Oral temp > 101°F (> 38.3°C) Abnormal cervical or vaginal discharge Elevated ESR or C-reactive protein WBC > 10 500 Evidence of cervical infection with Neisseria gonorrhoeae or Chlamydia trachomatis Tubo-ovarian abscess on sonography or radiologic test Laparoscopic abnormalities consistent with PID Histopathologic evidence on endometrial biopsy CDC criteria for hospital admission Adolescent patient Concurrent HIV infection Dx of PID uncertain Failure of outpatient treatment Inability of patient to follow or tolerate outpatient regimen Inability to exclude surgical emergency Pregnancy Severe illness or nausea and vomiting Suspected pelvic abscess Uncertainty about clinical f/u within 24 h of starting antibiotic tx All nulliparous women Inpatient treatment guidelines Regimen A Cefoxitin sodium (Mefoxin), 2 g IV q. 6 h, or Cefotetan disodium (Cefotan), 2 g IV q. 12 h, plus Doxycycline 100 mg IV (Vibramycin IV) q. 12 h – Continue this regimen for at least 48 h after clinical improvement – After discharge, the patient continues doxycycline 100 mg p.o. b.i.d. for a total of 14 days Regimen B Clindamycin 900 mg IV q. 8 h, plus Gentamicin in IV or IM (loading dose of 2 mg/kg of body weight followed by a maintenance dose of 1.5 mg/kg q. 8 h – Continue this regimen for at least 48 h after clinical improvement – After discharge, the pt is given doxycycline 100 mg p.o. b.i.d. or clindamycin 450 mg p.o. q.i.d. for 14 days Outpatient treatment guidelines Regimen A Cefoxitin 2 g IM; plus probenecid (Benemid), 1 g p.o. concurrently, or Ceftriaxone (Rocephin), 250 mg IM, plus Doxycycline 100 mg p.o. b.i.d. for 14 days or Zithromax 1 g p.o. Regimen B Ofloxacin 400 mg p.o. b.i.d. for 14 days, plus Clindamycin 450 mg p.o. q.i.d. for 14 days, or Metronidazole 500 mg p.o. b.i.d. for 14 days SHEEHAN’S SYNDROME Postpartum pituitary necrosis due to postpartum hemorrhage Symptoms Amenorrhea, fatigue, galactorrhea, decrease axillary and pubic hair 337 SHOULDER DYSTOCIA Diagnosis Draw CORTISOL level STAT! Treatment Hydrocortisone IV or 100 mg Dexamethasone IM (does not interfere with cortisol assay) Also give: Cortisone acetate (Cortone®) or prednisone Fludrocortisone (Florinef®) for mineralocorticoid replacement Levothyroxine? GH? estrogen/progesterone? FSH/LH if patient wants pregnancy 25 mg/day 5 mg/day 0.1 mg/day SHOCK Normal CVP is Central monitoring 4 + or –2 (1) Peripheral artery (2) CVP – R internal jugular vein (3) Swan–Ganz (pulmonary artery cath) Most common cause of shock = blood volume deficiency CVP decrease with CVP increase with Sepsis Right ventricular failure Shock Cardiac tamponade Anaphylaxis Pulmonary embolus Inadequate vascular volume Fluid overload Types of shock Hypovolemic (hemorrhagic) Distributive (septic) Cardiogenic shock Extracardiac obstructive shock Order Oxygenate, restoration of circulatory volume, drug therapy, evaluation and remedy basic problem SHOULDER DYSTOCIA Planned C-section may be reasonable for diabetic pt with EFW between 4250–4500 g Less than what % of all deliveries complicated by SD will result in permanent brachial plexus injury? 10% It appears that intrauterine brachial plexus palsy (BPP) not associated with shoulder dystocia is almost always temporary, whereas almost all permanent BPP is associated with shoulder dystocia (Gurewitsch ED, Johnson E, Hamzehzadeh S, Allen RH. Risk factors for brachial plexus injury with and without shoulder dystocia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006; 194: 486–92) Macrosomia infants > 4500 g comprise only this % of pregnancies 0.4% If the patient is diabetic, obese and post-term, the risk for macrosomia is 5–15% Define shoulder dystocia – delivery of shoulder after delivery of head that exceeds 60 s How much time does one have to deliver the shoulders after the head before hypoxia sets in? 2½ min or 150 s Treatment plan (1) Call for help (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Gentle traction Drain bladder p.r.n. Suprapubic pressure McRobert’s maneuver Episiotomy or extension of episiotomy Wood’s maneuver (corkscrew) Mazanti maneuver (delivery of posterior arm) Fracture outer third of clavicle–mid humerus p.r.n. Zavanelli maneuver followed by C-section 338 SICKLE CELL DISEASE Important tips (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Most shoulder dystocia cannot be prevented Risk is increased with obesity and diabetes Erb’s palsy is caused by stretching of C5–C6 Klumpke’s palsy is caused by stretching of C8–T1 C-sections on all macrosomic fetuses is NOT appropriate Elective C-sections are reasonable for diabetics with EFW > 4250 g Injuries are common with SD but only what % are permanent? 10% Ultrasound measurements have limited accuracy AVOID EXCESSIVE TRACTION Shoulder dystocia is the most prominent risk factor for brachial plexus palsy in the setting of vacuum extraction SICKLE CELL DISEASE Autosomal recessive–common types SS, SC, Sb thalassemia Cause for HgbS is single substitution of VALINE for GLUTAMIC ACID RBCs that normally have half-life of 120 days now only 5–10 days The RBCs become sickle-shaped sludge in small blood vessels – ischemia + infarction – pain Sickling triggered by decreased oxygen tension and acidosis Incidence How many African-Americans have the trait? 1 in 12 If two parents have trait, what is chance that child will have SC disease? 25% How many African-Americans have the disease? 1/600 Hgb C in African-American is present in 1/40–1/50 Diagnosed by Hemoglobin electrophoresis Increased risks for crisis Pyelo and decreased urine concentration Pulmonary infarction Infection (spleen) Cholelithiasis with increased stones Poor perinatal outcome Spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, pre-term birth or IUGR During pregnancy Screen for UTIs frequently Pneumococcus vaccine early in life Check iron levels Give folic acid Check B/P often secondary to increased risk of PIH Serial ultrasounds Serial NSTs Vaginal deliveries preferable Treatment Analgesia, oxygen and hydration. Transfusion if necessary SINUSITIS Acute < 1 month Subacute 1–3 months Chronic > 3 months Sinusitis is the fifth most common diagnosis for which clinicians prescribe antibiotics in the ambulatory setting. First-line antibiotics (defined as amoxicillin, TMP–SMX and erythromycin) had identical success rates compared to second-line treatments (90.1% vs 90.8%) and relapse rates were similarly indistinguishable (3.3% vs 3.5%). However, mean cost between first-line Rx ($68.98) vs second-line Rx ($135.17) were about half the cost. It is recommended that first-line therapies be used first. (Piccirillo JF, Mager DE, Frise ME, et al. Impact of first-line antibiotics for the treatment of acute uncomplicated sinusitis. JAMA 2001;286:1849–56) Sinuses MOST involved Maxillary, anterior ethmoidal, frontal Symptoms Cough, nasal discharge, bad breath, facial pain, low-grade fever Diagnosis Secretions, CT Pathology Streptococci, Hemophilus, Moraxella 339 SLING PROCEDURE Treatment Ampicillin, amoxicillin, TMP–SMX, erythromycin Use antibiotic with β-lactamase activity if necessary after 14 days SINUSOIDAL HEART RATE CNS, absence of autonomic nervous system control over heart, high output failure or tissue hypoxia of the fetal heart SKIN CANCERS Basal cell, squamous cell, superficial spreading melanoma and acral-lentiginous melanoma Familiarize oneself with gross appearances of these Basal cell Most common skin cancer of light-complexioned people Ring with central depression. Larger lesions have rolled border. Often found on face, especially the nose Squamous cell Usually found on hands and/or limbs. Increased incidence in black patients. Dull, red and crusted Superficial spreading melanoma Most common type of melanoma Acral-lentiginous melanoma Irregular black macule. Often found on toes. Increased incidence in Asians, Blacks, Hispanics and Indians SLING PROCEDURE Indication for treatment ISD (intrinsic sphincter deficiency) with urethral hypermobility and SUI (stress urinary incontinence) (Burch is for defect in endopelvic fascia) Technique for sling Various grafts There are 30 different synthetic midurethral slings on the market. Some of the better known are below: (a) INFLUENCE FASCIAL ALLOGRAFT or TUTOPLAST are human freeze-dried/solvent-dehydrated fascia lata (b) REPLIFORM (Lifecell Corporation, Woodlands, TX; distributed by Boston Scientific, Urology/Gynecology, Natick, MA) or ALLODERM are decellularized human cadaveric dermis STRATASIS (porcine small intestinal submucosa) (c) PELVICOL, IN-FIRST ULTRA (secured with bone anchors), INTEXENE (acellular collagen matrix–porcine dermal xenografts) The author soaks his graft in an antibiotic solution for 20 min prior to use. Relatively little info is available to support or discourage the use of xenograft materials in sling procedures (d) PELVISOFT (acellular collagen matrix) More porous, less stiff and softer to use than PELVICOL. (e) Multifilament and small-pore mesh products such as OBTAPE, TVT-O, MONARC, IVS all have erosion rates of 1.8–17%. A consensus may be emerging that the safest synthetic material is monofilament polypropylene with pore size larger than 70 µm (f) Avoid cadaveric fascia, as more complications and re-operations occurred with this compared to autologous rectus fascial slings (Howden NS, Zyczynski HM, Moalli PA, et al. Comparison of autologous rectus fascia and cadaveric fascia in pubovaginal sling continence outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006; 194: 1444-9 Synthetic grafts tend to have slightly higher success rates; biologic grafts tend to be better tolerated 340 SMOKING Various methods (a) BONE SCREW Dissect perivesical and periurethral fascia. After perivesical fascia are mobilized, then the BONE of the pubic rami is cleaned with sponge. Titanium (Precision Speed Tack or Precision Twist, Boston Scientific, Urology/Gynecology, Natick, MA) bone screws with #1 Prolene drilled into bone of posterior pubic rami. Prolene is threaded through #18 gauge needle and graft. #2–0 Vicryl placed into suture graft then # 0 Vicryl on Uro-6 needle Gortex sutured at angle (b) TVT (tension-free vaginal tape) Graph is placed under middle third of urethra to elevate via various needle-threading kits that are available. This technique is done behind the vaginal mucosa GYNECARE TVT has the most evidence and longest follow-up available in the literature. The company markets all 3 approaches, including vaginal, abdominal (“top-down”), and obturator. (In a retrospective case series by Gandhi et al and a randomized trial by Lord et al, Gynecare TVT had better continence outcomes compared with SPARC) (c) TOT (tension-free obturator tape) Graft is placed under urethra via the obturator canal. The outside-in technique results in the mesh being placed farther from the obturator canal and closer to the ischiopubic ramus, theoretically reducing the risk of neurovascular injury Anterior or posterior repairs can be done in conjunction with any of these (a, b, or c) Suprapubic catheter is an excellent choice to be used if urinary retention is anticipated postoperatively in any of these procedures. Cystoscopy should be done during and after these procedures to check for inadvertent bladder injury. If perforation with trocar occurs, check ureteral orifices for efflux from both. Perforations to the bladder dome, anterior or lateral bladder neck usually heal spontaneously and require no extended bladder drainage. To understand how to perform these methods in detail, see Turrentine JE, Surgical Transcriptions and Pearls of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2nd edn. London: Informa Healthcare, 2006 Midurethral slings: In regards to whether retropubic or transobturator slings are better, randomized trials will be out by 2008 and 2009 to determine both objective and subjective treatment success Experience and anesthesia Both general anesthesia and the inexperience of the surgeon with the TVT procedure have negative effects on outcome. Schraffordt Koops SE, Bisseling TM, van Brummen HJ, Heintz APM, and Vervest HAM (What Determines a Successful Tension-Free vaginal tape? A prospective multicenter cohort study: Results from The Netherlands TVT database. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006; 194: 65–74) believe that only experienced surgeons should perform TVT procedures. The success rate for experienced surgeons was 72.4% at the 2-year interval, compared to the 61.7% for surgeons during their first 10 procedures. The article contains very extensive tables worthy of review by any surgeon who is performing this TVT. The negative influence of general anesthesia on success of the TVT procedure was not explained SMOKING What % of reproductive women smoke? What % of ALL CANCERS are secondary to smoking? What % of cardiac deaths in women under the age of 65 years old are secondary to smoking? Quitters usually relapse within what amount of time? Women most often begin to smoke during what years of age? 30% 30% 55% 1 week 11–14 341 SPINAL CORD INJURY SPERM OR SEMEN (ABNORMAL) Hypospermia or oligospermia Hyperspermia Aspermia Azoospermia Oligozoospermia Polyzoospermia Asthenozoospermia Teratozoospermia < 2 ml volume > 6 ml volume Absence of semen Absence of sperm in semen < 20 million sperm/ml > 250 million sperm/ml < 50% of sperm with forward progression > 60% abnormal sperm Environmental toxins Sulfasalazine – sperm count and motility decreased Chemotherapy – count decreases with germ cell destruction – FSH increase Alcohol – inhibits Leydig cell biosynthesis. Testosterone – decrease Chemical toxicants (DBCP, metals, lead, cadmium, mercury) Toxic to all parts of testes. Pesticides cause azoospermia, oligospermia and decreased FSH, LH, low to normal testosterone, normal estradiol Sperm antibodies (1) 3–7% of men presenting for fertility evaluation have significant titers of sperm antibodies that are responsible for their infertility (2) Approximately half men develop sperm antibodies in serum after a vasectomy A “shaking” pattern in non-progressively motile sperm suggests presence of sperm antibodies in either partner (3) SPERM ANTIBODIES What % of males presenting for fertility evaluation have significant titers of sperm antibodies that are responsible for their infertility? What % of men develop sperm antibodies in their semen after a vasectomy? A “shaking” pattern in non-progressively motile sperm suggests presence of sperm antibodies in either partner 3–7% @1/2 SPIEGELBERG’S CRITERIA FOR OVARIAN PREGNANCY (1) Tube + fimbria must be intact (2) Gestational sac must occupy normal ovarian position (3) Sac must be connected to uterus by utero-ovarian ligament (4) Ovarian tissue must be identified histologically in the wall of the gestational sac SPINAL CORD INJURY • Fertility NOT affected but common problems include: UTI Anemia Pressure sores • Patient with spinal cord transection at what segment may have painless labor? • Anesthesia should be used to prevent autonomic dysreflexia (blocks stimuli arising from organs) • Vaginal delivery can be expected • Spinal cord injuries occur in ages 15–25 in what % of the time? • What % of this age group of SCIs are female? • If SCI is above or at T5, what % patients are subject to AUTONOMIC DYSREFLEXIA? • Stimulus is unmodified by supraspinal centers thus catacholamine release – vasoconstriction 80% 63% 26% >T10 50% 15% 85% 342 STD TREATMENT Symptoms • Increased B/P associated with HA, bradycardia, arrhythmia, sweating, nasal congestion, resp distress, fetal hypoxia. AVOID stimulation of vagina, bladder or bowel. GIVE EPIDURAL STD TREATMENT Chlamydia Gonorrhea Azithromycin p.o. as one dose 1g Amoxicillin p.o. t.i.d. × 7 days 500 mg Ceftriaxone IM in single dose 125 mg Cefixime orally as single dose Spectinomycin IM in single dose 400 mg 2g STERILE WATER PAPULES Intradermal/intracutaneous water injection for relief of back pain in labor, whiplash, renal pain. Success rate is How many women suffer from severe low-back pain in labor? What predicts back pain in labor? History of back pain during menses and/or during pregnancy Incidence of fetus entering the pelvis in an OP position is up to Persistent posterior positions occur in approximately what % of all labors? ROP is estimated to be how many times more common than LOP? 89% 1/3 30% 5% 5× Technique Locate four specific sites lateral to sacrum and below iliac crest. (Many women have an indentation on their sacrum at this point.) Mark with pen – next two sites are 2–3 cm below and 1–2 cm medial. Inject 0.1–0.15 ml intradermally. Warn patient in advance about sting of injection site that lasts about 30 s Relief is within about 2 min after injection Effect of injection lasts from 1–3 h and may be repeated Best to have two people administering injections during contraction Mechanisms of action of SWP (1) Cause distention of skin, stimulating nociceptors and mechanoreceptors. Stimulates fast-conducting A fibers as in gate control theory (2) “Counterirritation” theory as with TENS (3) Release of β-endorphins STERILIZATION METHODS Vaginal colpotomy Abdominal mini-lap or at time of C-section Minimally invasive with small incision made under cervix into cul-de-sac. Small valentine to lift uterus, long allis clamps, jet pack, plain ties for tubes, and suture for closure of vaginal colpotomy Irving – tube is buried in broad ligament Pomeroy – tube is brought up into a loop, tied with plain suture, and loop is cut Parkland – wide piece of tube is cut and tied in two separate sections Madlener – tube is brought up into a loop and tied with suture Kroener – fimbriectomy Laparoscopy Tubes are divided, cauterized, clipped (Hulka), or banded (Falope Rings) Hysteroscopy Essure – a microinsert of flexible stainless steel inner coil and outer coil of nickel titanium alloy (nitinol), and an innermost layer of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fibers. These fibers gradually elicit a benign localized tissue in growth that occludes the tubal lumen. (See also Essure; also Turrentine JE. Surgical Transcriptions and Pearls of Obstetrics and Gynecology. London: Informa Healthcare, 2006) 343 STRUMA OVARII STEROIDS Betamethasone 12 mg IM × 2 doses 24 h apart Dexamethasone 6 mg IM × 4 doses 12 h apart Beta and dexamethasone are alike in structure, placental transport, with little or no mineralocorticoid activity and half-life of how many hours? 72 h Repeat doses? Markedly reduce maternal basal cortisol levels – could cause maternal adrenal suppression, an effect that could be of concern during the stress of labor and delivery. Repeat doses should only be used in those pregnancies at the highest risk for pre-term delivery • National Institute of Child Health and Human Development convened a Consensus Panel in August 2000 – concerned about adverse affects on neurological development and growth without clear evidence of benefit. Panel concluded that use of repeated steroids should now only be used in research studies • There is no improvement in neonatal morbidity with weekly administration of antenatal corticosteroids compared to a single course of corticosteroids. (Guinn DA, Atkinson MW, Sullivan L, et al. Single vs weekly courses of antenatal corticosteroids for women at risk of preterm delivery: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Med Assoc 2001;286:1581–7) What weeks of gestation is it best to administer steroids? Decreased RDS born at Decreased severity of RDS Decreased incidence of IVH Give with ROM if no chorioamnionitis Increased risk unless delivery imminent or danger to mother Which steroid is better? 24–34 29–34 24–28 24–28 < 30–32 < 34 weeks weeks weeks weeks weeks weeks One randomized, double-blind study presented at the annual Meeting of the Society for Maternal–Fetal Medicine showed that prenatal dexamethasone is superior to betamethasone in its reduction of two major neonatal morbidity and mortality outcomes – intraventricular hemorrhage and periventricular leukomalacia STILLBIRTHS H&P, photography if possible, mat TORCH, obtain placenta, membranes and cord of at least Analysis of bile, vitreous humor and urine. Tissue – get how much skin? Place in sterile NS or medium at room temperature. Autopsy if possible – reach consensus 3 ml 1 cm2 STROMAL SARCOMA Most common preoperative diagnosis in patients with LGSS is myomata uteri In patients with LGSS, extrauterine tumor is present in approximately how many cases? Among patients with LGSS, a higher recurrence rate is reported in patients with residual ovarian tumor LGSS histology includes 1/3 Proliferation of uniform, benign-appearing, stromal cells Whorling pattern around tumor vessels Mitoses Infiltrative margins Most effective means of prolonging the progression-free interval among patients with advanced LGSS is postoperative progestational therapy STRUMA OVARII What % of teratomas? Usually measure less than what diameter? 2–3% 10 cm 344 STUCK TWIN SYNDROME Thyrotoxicosis develops in If metastasis present, treat with < 5% 131 I Carcinoids (histologically resemble GI tract, unilateral, ovarian teratoma) % true carcinoid Metabolite of serotonin can be measured in urine 30% 5-HIAA STUCK TWIN SYNDROME Severe form of TTTS with absence of amniotic fluid in donor’s sac Membrane cannot be visualized because it is so closely wrapped against the donor twin. Rule out monoamniotic twin gestation – difficult to do this sometimes SUBTOTAL (SUPRACERVICAL) HYSTERECTOMY Usually this is done only in last resort when concerned with: (1) Increased blood loss (2) Anatomic distortion (3) Injury to pelvic floor (4) Precarious condition of patient Most common reason to leave cervix – limit surgical risk Disadvantages Advantages Cervix can become inflamed Avoidance of injury to pelvis Cervix can cause discharge Limits surgical risks Mucocele can form Decreased injury to urethra, bladder, etc. Can become precancer Preservation of sexual function Can develop cervical cancer Absence of granulation tissue Need for continued Paps Decreases infectious morbidity SUCCENTURIATE PLACENTA One or more accessory lobes distant from main placenta HEMORRHAGE! Incidence of succenturiate placenta 3% SUTURE Tensile strength and degree of inflammatory response Dissolves Plain catgut* (00 size) 7 lb, losing half strength in 4–6 days; high 70 days Chromic catgut (00 size) 8 lb, losing half strength in 10–14 days; high 90 days (00 size) 9.6 lb, losing half strength in 21 days; low 60–90 days (00 size) 9.9 lb, losing half strength in 5 days; low 42 days Natural fibers Synthetic fibers Polyglycolic acid and coated polyglactin-910 Pretreated coated polyglactin-910** Dexon Losing half strength in 14 days Maxon Losing half strength in 21 days PDS*** Losing half strength in 42 days *Suggested for Tubal ligation; **Suggested for episiotomy repair; ***Suggested for vertical abdominal fascial closure 345 SYPHILIS SYPHILIS • Hard chancre in primary syphilis can be seen within how many weeks of exposure? 3 weeks • Condyloma latum and/or rash in secondary syphilis can be seen @ 6 weeks to 6 months • Positive serology is present between • Latent stage or tertiary syphilis is seen between • What % of patients develop CNS, cardiac and muscle abnormalities? Gummas – skin + bone. Optic atrophy and aneurysms Treatment (a) • For primary and secondary syphilis – benzathine PCN IM × 1 dose 2.4 • A second dose is given a week later if pt is pregnant to prevent congenital syphilis in • For tertiary syphilis – benzathine PCN IM × 3 doses weekly for a total dose of 7.2 • Weekly doses would be 2.4 • Alternate dosing for penicillin allergies: Doxycycline b.i.d. for 2 weeks Tetracycline q.i.d. for 2 weeks • If syphilis duration >1 year, give doxycycline or tetracycline for • If pregnant, desensitization needed to give PCN • For neurosyphilis – daily aqueous crystalline PCN G in doses of 12–24 Or how much every 4 h × 10–14 days 2–4 Or how much procaine PCN IM daily × 10–14 days 2.4 Plus PROBENECID q.i.d. × 10–14 days (b) Figure 21 Characteristic rash of secondary syphilis: (a) on back; (b) palmar rash 4–6 weeks 2–20 years 33% million units 98% million units million units 100 mg 500 mg 4 weeks million units million units million units 500 mg 346 TAMOXIFEN TAMOXIFEN • Non-steroidal with potent antiestrogen properties • TRIPHENYLETHYLENE • Competes with circulating estrogens or binding to estrogen receptors • Used in treatment for metastatic breast cancer and adjuvant treatment of breast cancer especially with negative nodes and + estrogen receptors Prophylaxis • Multiple primary relatives with breast cancer, history of lobular CIS of breast or osteoporosis to increase BMD • Prevention trial showed what % decrease in occurrence of primary disease in high-risk patient? 49% • GAIL model defines high risk as 35 years or > with 5-year predicted risk of breast cancer of 1.67% • Decreases LDL, increases BMD, no effect on HDL and increases endometrial cancer by 2× • Decreases cardiac events but may slightly increase thromboembolic events. Optic changes including cataracts Decreases vertebral fractures by 48% Endo Bx if patient experiences bleeding. What endometrial thickness measurement in a postmenopausal woman correlates with atrophic histological changes? ≤ 4–5 mm TANNER STAGING Stage I Prepubertal 9.8 years Small mound – sparse pubic hair by 10.5 years Stage II 11.2 years Enlargement but no sep of breast and areola. Dark, coarse on mons 11.4 years Stage III Mound of areola. Adult but lim to mons 12.1 years Recessed areola 14.6 years. Adult spread dist 13.7 years Stage IV Stage V 12.1 years TAY–SACHS Autosomal recessive Lysosomal storage disease in which GM2 gangliosides accumulate throughout body Frequency of Tay–Sach carriers in Jews of East European descent (Ashkenazi) is @ People of French-Canadian and Cajun descent also have greater carrier frequency than general population 1/30 TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS Centigrade to Fahrenheit – Multiply by and add Fahrenheit to Centigrade – Subtract and multiply by 1.8 32 32 0.555 TESTOSTERONE • Normal reproductive range is 20–80 ng/dl • There is a powerful placebo response that patients experience when placed on testosterone. Data thus far indicate that only superphysiological testosterone can produce sexuality and psychological effects. However, a study adapted from Davis and colleagues (Davis SR, McCloud P, Strauss BJ, et al. Testosterone enhances estradiol’s effects on postmenopausal bone density and sexuality. Maturitas 1995;21:227–36) demonstrated that an estrogen (esterified estrogen 1.25 mg) in combination with methyltestosterone 2.5 mg improved sexuality score statistics better than the same dose of estrogen alone. This added testosterone improved all elements of the 347 THROMBOCYTOPENIA score including libido, activity, satisfaction, pleasure, fantasy orgasm and relevancy • Testosterone, methyltestosterone and NETA (norethindrone acetate) all decrease SHBG thus increasing free bioavailable testosterone and estrogen • If symptomatic relief of hot flushes is not achieved after 4 weeks, usually an estrogen/androgen therapy can resolve the problems prior to increasing estrogen dose. Switching to a transdermal estrogen can also avoid the protein-binding properties of SHBG • Androgen-deficiency syndrome is usually treated by adding testosterone to hormone regimen. This mainly increases bone density but also increases the bioavailability of estrogen because of the decrease in SHBG. Osteoporosis with failure to respond to postmenopausal estrogen therapy or a patient with low turnover osteoporosis should be switched to an estrogen/androgen combination therapy Available Intramuscular 250 mg/cc for men 125 mg/cc for women Sublingual tablets 10 mg, 25 mg, 50 mg for men 0.625 mg, 1.25 mg, 2.5 mg for women (College Pharmacy at 800 888-9358) Subcutaneous pellets 75 mg Oral (methyltestosterone in combo with premarin) (Half strength or full strength) by Solvay Estratest THELARCHE Normal LH and FSH Estradiol Bone age Ultrasound of ovaries 3–6 mIU/ml < 20 pg/ml + or – 1 1×1×1 Gonadal dysgenesis LH and FSH Estradiol Bone age Ultrasound of ovaries up to 10 + 14 mIU/ml < 20 pg/ml 1.5 not visualized Isosexual precocious puberty LH and FSH Estradiol Bone age Ultrasound of ovaries 9 + 8 mIU/ml up to over 42 pg/ml up to over 4.5 2×2×2 Premature thelarche LH and FSH Estradiol Bone age Ultrasound of ovaries 3 + 4 mIU/ml < 20 pg/ml 1.5 1.5 × 1.5 × 1 Precocious pseudopuberty LH and FSH Estradiol Bone age Ultrasound of ovaries < 3 + < 3 mIU/ml > 77 pg/ml 3 unilateral enlargement 2 × 3 × 4 THROMBOCYTOPENIA Neonatal alloimmune should be treated with IVIG Epidural is safe in patients with platelet counts > 100 000 Mild maternal thrombocytopenia ≥ 70 000 In asymptomatic female is usually benign gestation thrombocytopenia – Rx with routine periodic repeat platelet counts. Platelets that are this rarely require therapy ≥ 50 000 Normal non-pregnant platelet count is 150 000–400 000 Normal > 150 000 Mild thrombocytopenia 100 000–150 000 348 THROMBOPHILIAS Moderate thrombocytopenia Severe thrombocytopenia Significant spontaneous bleeding Excessive bleeding is associated with trauma or surgery is common 50 000–100 000 < 50 000 < 10 000 < 50 000 Gestational thrombocytopenia is found in what percent of pregnancies? Normally, gestational thrombocytopenia does not typically cause maternal, fetal, or neonatal complications 5% Treatment Treat with prednisone 1–2 mg/kg/day For how many weeks and tapered over this period? 1–3 weeks Give IVIG if platelet level < 10 000 Or if platelets this low and bleeding < 30 000 Splenectomy results in a complete remission of what % patients? 66% Immunize for pneumococcus, H. influenzae and meningococcus Platelet infusion (10 000/µl per unit) to be given p.r.n. to control life-threatening hemorrhage or prep for surgery. Usually this many units are needed 6–10 units Rule out Preeclampsia and HELLP HIV (In 10 % of HIV patients, thrombocytopenia is the first clinical finding, although it can present at any time later. Work-up CBC and peripheral smear – rule out drugs or other medical disorders then if > this level, probably gestational if < this level, probably ITP if < this level, most certainly ITP Rule out DIC, PIH, TTP, hemolytic uremic syndrome, acute fatty liver if in what trimester? 70 000 70 000 50 000 Third THROMBOPHILIAS Inherited thrombophilias (1) Coagulation inhibitors (a) Antithrombin III deficiency – binds with all serine protease coag factors except factor VII. Affects 0.02–0.2% of general population and confers risk of thromboembolism as high as 40% during pregnancy (b) Protein C and protein S deficiencies – inadequate levels result in increased fibrin production – clot. Protein C deficiency affects 0.2–0.5% of general population. Risk with FMH of thrombosis in pregnancy is 3–10% and 7–19% postpartum Protein C deficiency in general population is 0.08%. Risk of thrombosis in patients with + family history is 0–6% during pregnancy and 7–22% during postpartum (2) Thrombophilias secondary to identifiable genemutations (a) Factor V Leiden mutation [amino acid substitution at position 506 (arginine → glutamine) results in loss of protein C cleavage site in factor V and accounts for high incidence of DVT] Prevalence in white population is 6–11% and approximately 1% in blacks. In patients with + family history of DVT, the risk in pregnancy for thrombosis is 10–14% and 19% in postpartum (b) Prothrombin gene mutation – (factor II or prothrombin stimulates coagulation by positive feedback loops and promotes anticoagulation via protein C pathway). The G20210A prothrombin gene mutation is associated with elevated levels of plasma prothrombin resulting in increased levels of fibrin and increased risk of thrombosis. Prevalence in general population is 2–6% 349 THROMBOSIS (c) Hyperhomocystinemia – established independent risk factor mostly caused by homozygosity for methylene-tetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR). 1–11% prevalence in general population FOLIC ACID SUPPLEMENTS DECREASE HOMOCYSTEINE LEVELS Pregnancy complications (other than DVTs, PE, and cerebral vein thrombosis) also include severe or recurrent PIH, abruption, IUGR and second- or third-trimester pregnancy losses, and stroke Screening tests for recurrent histories of above include: Factor V Leiden mutation Prothrombin mutation MTHFR mutation Antithrombin III antigen activity levels Protein C antigen activity levels Protein S antigen activity levels (free and total) (Protein C and S are not reliable tests during pregnancy. In addition, during extensive DVT or treatment with an anticoagulant – antithrombin III, protein C and S are also not reliable in that there are low levels) Screen women with a prior adverse pregnancy outcome for thrombophilia; without treatment, their risk of another adverse outcome ranges from 66–83% The risk of VTE during pregnancy and postpartum for women who have antithrombin deficiency and a history of VTE is roughly 40% Acquired thrombophilias (1) Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (a) Lupus anticoagulant (b) Anticardiolipin antibodies (c) Activated protein C resistance (2) Hyperhomocysteinemia Screening and treatment for thrombophilia remain experimental in these women THROMBOPHLEBITIS Incidence Vaginal delivery C-section Ovarian vein thrombosis 1/9000 1/800 Increased on right more than left Treatment Heparin. However, antibiotics alone were shown to be as good as antibiotics and heparin for treatment of septic thrombophlebitis (Brown CE, Stettler RW, Twickler D, et al. Puerperal septic pelvic thrombophlebitis: incidence and response to heparin therapy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;181:143–8) THROMBOSIS Superficial thrombophlebitis most likely can be cleared up by changing IV site if placement DVT begins during surgery. What % originate in the leg? Induration of calf Minimal edema Calf tenderness Positive Homan’s sign Treat septic thrombophlebitis with heparin for how many days? What % of patients with a thromboembolic phenomenon have tachypnea? > 48 h 75% 68% 52% 25% 10% 7–10 90% 350 THROMBOSIS Thrombosis factors Other risk factors Factor VIII 25% Leiden V 20% Homocysteine 10% Protein 20280 6% Protein C deficiency 3% Protein S deficiency 1–3% Triglycerides under this level – considered normal 150 mg/dl Myocardial infarctions in what % are found with triglyceride levels of 150–200? 35% Septic pelvic thrombophlebitis are found in this ratio of vaginal deliveries 1/9000 Found in this fraction of C-section deliveries 1/800 Ovarian vein thrombosis is found more on right or left? Right According to Brown and colleagues (Brown CE, Stetter RW, Twickler D, et al. Puerperal septic pelvic thrombophlebitis: incidence and response to heparin therapy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999;181:143–8), antibiotics alone are as good as antibiotics with heparin for the treatment of SPT Major gyn surgery, age > 40 years, malignancy, previous venous thrombosis (DVT or PE), obesity, immobility, pregnancy and the post partum period, oral contraceptives, hormones, tamoxifen, varicose veins, prolonged surgical procedure, radical vulvectomy, pelvic exenteration, inguinal–femoral lympadenectomy, and/or as above – inherited or acquired thrombophila (Factor V Leiden, etc.) Virchow’s triad Stasis, hypercoagulability, vessel wall abnormality Diagnosis of DVT Swelling of calf or thigh (unilateral) Pain or tenderness US (venous Doppler) Diagnosis of PE Dyspnea, tachypnea, tachycardia, and shortness of breath. Pleuritic chest pain, hemoptysis, fever, panic, cyanosis, diaphoresis, friction rub or changes in heart sounds ABG (PaO2) EKG – tachycardia, right axis shift CXR – atelectasis? pleural effusion? increased diaphragm? Lung scan < 85 mmHg What percent of pulmonary emboli show no signs or symptoms of thrombosis in the lower extremities? Treatment Immediate heparin for 5–10 days. Monitor with APTT then subcutaneous heparin every 24 h in two divided doses for remainder of pregnancy. APTT levels should be obtained 6 h after subcutaneous dose Interventions for pulmonary embolism include: STAT anticoagulant therapy, respiratory support, embolectomy, pulmonary artery catheterization, and vena cava interruption Heparin and warfarin Rx should overlap × 4 days. (Warfarin can be started postpartum and thromboembolic episodes should be treated for at least 3 months 80% 351 THROMBOSIS Heparin dosing guidelines (1) Obtain patient’s weight in kg = _____ (2) Calculate bolus dose 80 units/kg = _____units IV (3) Standard heparin infusion is 10 000 units of heparin in 250 ml D5W IV heparin maintenance dose 15–25 U/kg/h = _____ units (4) Warfarin _____ mg. Begin day 1–3 heparin therapy (if postpartum) Weight Loading dose Maintenance dose ≤149 lb (≤70 kg) 5 000 units 1000 units/h (25 ml/h) 150–200 lb (71–90 kg) 7 500 units 1400 units/h (35 ml/h) ≥ 201 lb (≥91 kg) 10 000 units 1800 units/h (45 ml/h) Dose adjustments APTT Rate change (ml/h) (ml/h) Dose change < 36 s +5 +200 U, 5000 U bolus 36–44 s +3 +120 U, no bolus 45–73 s 0 none 74–90 s −3 −120 U, stop heparin × 1 h > 90 s −3 −120 U, stop heparin × 1 h Prophylactic heparin dosages First and second trimester Third trimester or Monthly US Doppler studies of lower extremities 5000–7500 units SC b.i.d. 10 000 units SC b.i.d. Labor D/c heparin infusion 6 h prior to anticipated delivery. Subcutaneous heparin may be withheld at onset of labor Protamine reversal for APTT >1–1½ × control Epidural contraindicated Heparin infusion can be restarted when hemostasis is achieved (usually 2 h after delivery) Prophylactic regimens for venous thromboembolism Low-dose unfractionated heparin Medical illness: 5000 U subcutaneously every 12 h General surgery: 5000 U subcutaneously every 8–12 h, starting 1–2 hours preoperatively Low-molecular-weight heparin/heparinoids Moderate risk: Enoxaparin, 20 mg subcutaneously 1–2 h preoperatively and once a day postoperatively Dalteparin, 2500 U subcutaneously 1–2 h preoperatively and once a day postoperatively 352 THYROID DISEASE High risk: Enoxaparin, 40 mg subcutaneously > 2 h preoperatively and once a day postoperatively Dalteparin, 5000 U subcutaneously > 2 h preoperatively and once a day postoperatively Pneumatic compression Postop VTE declines 3-fold with eternal pneumatic compression during surgery and for 5 days post op • LMWH and external pneumatic compression are considered the best choices for prophylaxis in high risk patients Complications Hemorrhage 5–10% Thrombocytopenia 3% (monitor platelets first 3 weeks Rx – d/c if platelets <100 000) Osteoporosis – (supplemental vit D rec for long-term Rx) Increased liver enzymes Reverse Protamine sulfate 1 mg/100 units of heparin (do not exceed 100 mg) THYROID DISEASE Irregular cycles, hot flushes, fatigue, constipation, dry skin, hair loss, weight gain, increased cholesterol; do TSH What % females have subclinical thyroid dysfunction? 8% What % will develop overt disease? 2–5% per year What % will develop disease who have subclinical thyroid dysfunction and antithyroid antibodies? 5–7% Hyperthyroidism What % of pregnancies are complicated by hyperthyroidism and thyroid storm? Suspect hyperthyroidism in pregnancy if the patient has: (A) Tremor or nervousness (B) Frequent stools (C) Excessive sweating 0.2% Mild hyperthyroidism mimics symptoms of normal pregnancy, and can present as fatigue, increased appetite, vomiting, palpitations, tachycardia, heat intolerance, increased urinary frequency, insomnia, and emotional lability Hyperthyroidism is less common, occurring in less than 1% Most common cause in the USA is Graves’ disease Other causes Solitary toxic adenoma, subacute granulomatous thyroiditis (deQuervain’s), and, if pregnant → hyperemesis gravidarum, trophoblastic disease, exogenous thyroid hormone Affects of untreated hyperthyroidism Fetal → spontaneous abortion, prematurity, low birthweight, and/or fetal/neonatal thyrotoxicosis Maternal → preeclampsia, maternal heart failure, infection, anemia, and/or thyroid storm Common precipitants of thyroid storm Acute surgical emergency, induction of anesthesia, diabetic ketoacidosis, pulmonary embolism, noncompliance with antithyroid medications, myocardial infarction, infection, hypertension or preeclampsia, L & D, and severe anemia 353 THYROID DISEASE Symptoms Tachycardia, atrial fib, tremor, muscle weakness, increased reflexes, myalgia, low-grade fever, sore throat and dysphagia Diagnosis Decreased TSH, elevation of free T4. (If T4 is normal, measure T3, as this is 5% cases) Treatment Radioiodine therapy, antithyroid medication (propylthiouracil or methimazole) and (rarely) thyroidectomy. β-Blockers are also helpful in treating symptoms, but use propanolol with caution because it has a tendency to increase pulmonary diastolic pressure, and cardiac failure is a frequent presentation of thyroid storm. Propylthiouracil and methimazole alone can reduce the T3 concentration by Glucocorticoids should be started as soon as thyroid storm is diagnosed. Therapy is basically designed to: (A) Reduce the synthesis and release of thyroid hormone (B) Remove thyroid hormone from the circulation and increase the concentration of TBG (C) Block the peripheral conversion of T4 to T3 (D) Block the peripheral actions of thyroid hormone (E) Treat the complications of thyroid storm and provide support (F) Identify and treat potential precipitating conditions Supportive care for patient in thyroid storm (A) IV fluids and electrolytes (B) Cardiac monitoring (C) Consideration of pulmonary artery catheterization (central hemodynamic monitoring to guide beta-blocker therapy during hyperdynamic cardiac failure) (D) Cooling measures: blanket sponge bath, acetaminophen, avoid salicylates (risk of increased T4) (E) Oxygen therapy (consider arterial line to follow serial blood gases) (F) Nasogastric tube if patient is unable to swallow (may be only avenue for propylthiouracil administration) 75% 354 THYROID DISEASE Algorithm for management of tyroid serum Admit patient to an obstetric intensive care unit (Consider consults with endocrinology, maternal-fetal medicine, and neonatology) • Initiate supportive measures: send CBC, electrolytes, liver functions, glucose, and renal functions • Do not intervene on behalf of the fetus until maternal stabilization is accomplished • Use position changes, cooling measures, fluids and oxygen therapy to help improve oxygen delivery to the fetus 1. Start electronic fetal monitoring if the fetus is potentially viable 2. IV fluids/electrolyte replacement 3. Cardiac monitoring: continuous ECG (obtain 12-lead at outset) 4. Cooling measures: cooling blanket, sponge bath, acetaminophen 5. Oxygen therapy: pulse oximetry, obtain maternal blood gas at outset 6. Nasogastric tube if patient unable to swallow Give agents to control maternal tachycardia: 1. Propranolol, 1–2 mg/min IV or dose sufficient to slow heart rate to 90 bpm; or 20–80 mg P0 q4–6 h 2. Consider an echocardiogram and/or pulmonary artery catheter to help guide management, especially in cardiac failure Give agents to reduce synthesis of thyroid hormones: PTU (propylthiouracil) followed at least 1 hour later by iodides to block T4 release (IV sodium iodide or oral Lugol’s): 1. PTU orally or via nasogastric tube, 300–800 mg loading dose followed by 150–300 mg q.6h 2. 1 hour after instituting PTU give: Sodium iodide, 500 mg q.8–12 h or oral Lugol’s solution, 30–60 drops daily in divided doses Iodides may be discontinued after initial improvement Give adrenal glucocorticoids to inhibit peripheral conversion of T4 to T3. Consider any of the following options as appropriate: 1. Hydrocortisone, 100 mg IV q.8 h or 2. Prednisone, 60 mg PO every day or 3. Dexamethasone, 8 mg P0 every day 4. Glucocorticoids may be discontinued after initial improvement Plasmapheresis or peritoneal dialysis (to remove circulating thyroid hormones) should be considered when patient fails to respond to conventional management If conventional therapy unsuccessful: Consider subtotal thyroidectomy (during second-trimester pregnancy) or radioactive iodine (postpartum) Hypothyroidism Very common in women. Most frequent causes in the USA are Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis Antithyroglobulin antibodies reported in @ Antithyroid peroxidase antibodies in @ Symptoms Fatigue, cold intolerance, constipation, weight gain, muscle cramps, hair loss, depression, cognitive dysfunction, menstrual irregularities and infertility Diagnosis Elevated TSH, decreased T4 Treatment Levothyroxine – average replacement dose in adults is 1.6 µg/kg of body weight (usually 75–100 µg daily). Dose in elderly patients should be less – typically 12.5–25 µg daily Minimum of 6–8 weeks is necessary between changes in dosage. Improvement in symptoms can usually be seen within 2–3 weeks Hypothalamus → TRH then pituitary → TSH – pregnancy hCG increases thyroid volume by Also increases thyroxine or T4 Placenta increases E2 – increased TBG Recommendations (American Thyroid Association) – age 35 and q. 5 years thereafter If suspect central (secondary) hypothyroidism, draw Miscarriage Draw TSH and anti-thyroid peroxidase antibodies (TPO) Primary hypothyroidism Central hypothyroidism Increased TSH, decreased free T4 Decreased or normal TSH, decreased free T4 60% 90% 10–20% 2–3 × TSH FT4 355 TORCH Primary hyperthyroidism Central hyperthyroidism Decreased TSH, increased FT4, T3 Increased or normal TSH, increased free T4, increased T3 Pregnancy Check TSH and FT4 level every 4–6 weeks. Levothyroxine dose usually needs to be increased by 50% Hyperemesis gravidarum is associated with higher free T4, total T3 and lower TSH levels hCG levels > 10 000 IU/l may be associated with biochemical hyperthyroidism > 30 000 IU/l may be associated with clinical hyperthyroidism (Therefore, sudden development of hyperthyroidism in first trimester should raise the question of a molar pregnancy) TIMED TESTS FSH evaluation Hysterosalpingogram Postcoital test Serum progesterone level for ovulation evaluation Endometrial biopsy for infertility evaluation Day 3 Day 8 Day 14 Day 21 Day 26 TINNITUS IN PREGNANCY Tinnitis is the perception of sound (ringing, whooshing, buzzing, or pulsing) in the ears or head when no eternal source is present. This condition has a reported lifetime prevalence of 33% BEWARE of tinnitus in pregnancy Tinnitus Hearing loss Acoustic neuroma + + Otosclerosis + + Menière’s disease + + Preeclampsia + Benign tinnitus of pregnancy + Pearls Vertigo Hypertension Cranial nerve VII involvement + + + Tinnitus is twice as common in pregnancy and occurs in what % of pregnant women? 25% Indications for otolaryngology referral include hearing loss, vertigo, and facial weakness Always evaluate for signs/symptoms of preeclampsia in gravid women with tinnitus TORCH Toxoplasmosis, other viruses, rubella, cytomegalovirus and herpes simplex virus Toxoplasmosis is seen in what % of females exposed by undercooked meat or cat feces? Toxoplasmosis 1/3 Avoid contaminated meat, unwashed fruit/vegetables, unpasteurized cheese, cat feces What % live births are affected? US demonstrates dilated ventricles, pericardial effusions, echogenic bowel, calcifications in brain Rate of transmission for first trimester is second trimester is third trimester is Spiramycin, pyrimathamine, sulfadiazine will not decrease transmission but can decrease sequelae 0.1–0.6% 25% 54% 75% 356 TORSION Rubella Communicable in < 7 days Rash If exposed at less than 11 weeks’ gestation, risk to infant is 11–12 weeks 13–14 weeks > 16 weeks > 4 days 90% 33% 11% 0% Cytomegalovirus What % mothers already infected? 80% Microcalcifications, microcephaly, MR, etc. MR 55% IUGR and microcephaly 40% Decreased platelets 70% Most common congenital infection in the USA What % of newborns each year are infected? 1% Maternal infection usually asymptomatic What % higher SES vs lower SES are susceptible? 45% vs 15% How many seroconvert during pregnancies? 1–4% What % of these transmit CMV to fetus? 40–50% Most common cause of deafness in the USA Rates of transmission throughout pregnancy 40% Amniocentesis provides the best technique for prenatal diagnosis Herpes What % of pregnancies have + titers? What % of pregnancies shed virus at time of delivery? HSV-I to HSV-II found in genital area Greatest risk to fetus is during primary infection at SVD During recurrent infection, infants only are infected Varicella-Zoster (Chickenpox) Greatest risk on congenital varicella is between 13–20 weeks No clinical risks after 20 weeks VZIG needs to be given within how many hours? 96 The dosage of VZIG is 125 units per 10 kg IM Immunoglobulin and Varivax® not recommended during pregnancy The dose of Varivax between ages 12 months and 12 years is 0.5 ml (1 dose) 0.2–7.4% 0.1–0.4% 15–20% to 80–85% 40% ≤ 1% TORSION Most common size of benign mass that undergoes torsion is 8–12 cm Torsion of a malignant tumor is rare The ratio of torsion on the right as compared to torsion on the left is 3 to 1 Symptoms Acute pain and palpable tenderness Nausea and vomiting Low fever and increased WBCs (due to hypoxia and necrosis) 90% 66% Treatment Laparoscopy Untwist but if vascular compromise do salpingoophorectomy 75% The pendulum of therapy actually swings back and forth for ovarian torsion→ on one hand, conservative laparoscopy is recommended, but because of the fear of thrombus formation in the ovarian vein, thromboembolism could occur, but since this is a minimal risk, untwisting the adnexa became the standard management. Recently, adnexa-sparing laparoscopic procedures for ovarian torsion have been shown to predispose to recurrence of torsion (Pansky M, Smorgick N, Herman A, Schneider D, Halperin R. Torsion of normal adnexa in postmenarchal women and risk of recurrence. Obstet Gynecol 2007; 109:e355–9), but these data are sparse and therefore conservative therapy is still recommended at this time to spare a healthy and normal appearing ovary TRANSVERSE LIE Back up Back down Do low transverse (or vertical if concerned about baby turning) Do vertical incision Incidence 1/360 357 TRAUMA Etiology Multiparity, pre-term fetus, previa, abnormal uterus, increased amniotic fluid, contracted pelvis Women with four or more deliveries have 10 × incidence Diagnosis Course of labor Inspection and palpation of abdomen Retraction ring develops – situation becomes neglected transverse lie If fetus small (< 800 g) and pelvis large, SVD is possible. Fetus delivers doubled up upon itself as conduplicato corpore. Uterus can and does usually RUPTURE Management External version worthwhile ONLY prior to or with early labor if no other contraindications are present. (Hold head in pelvis for several contractions) Vertical incision C-section is likely necessary since neither the head nor the feet are in the pelvis for extraction. (See Back up/Back down) TRAUMA Immediate care MAINTAIN AIRWAY, deflect uterus to left, circulating volume. Exam, control hemorrhage, identify + stabilize serious injuries. Pelvic – check for bleeding or ROM Labs CBC, Kleihauer–Betke (if Rh –), amylase, biochemistries, type and cross match, fibrinogen, platelets, FDP, PT and PTT Fetal evaluation Monitor if ≥ 20–24 weeks Continue to monitor if: tachycardia, late decels, non-reactive NST, > 4 contractions in 1 h, ROM, bleeding or if there is any serious maternal injury. If these are not present then discharge with follow-up plans Anatomic and physiologic changes relevant to trauma management during pregnancy Anatomic/physiologic change Relevance to trauma management Implication/action Increased maternal blood volume Increases by up to 50% in the third trimester Blood loss may be underestimated Increased RBC mass RBC mass increases to a lesser degree than total plasma volume, resulting in decreased hematocrit Hematocrit as low as 30–32% may be physiologic Decreased blood pressure Blood pressure decreases by 10–15% mmHg, particularly in the midtrimester Must be taken into consideration when evaluating for hypovolemia/hemorrhagic shock Increased pulse rate Pulse rate increases by 5–10 beats/min during pregnancy Same as above Decreased gastrointestinal motility Gastric emptying time is prolonged, increasing risk for aspiration Consider use of nasogastric tubes when aspiration is a risk Cephalad displacement of intraabdominal contents Small bowel is compressed within the upper abdomen in latter pregnancy Penetrating trauma to the upper abdomen is likely to cause complex intestinal injuries Respiratory rate increases pCO2 is normally 32 mmHg; pCO2 in the “normal” range (40–42 mmHg) may indicate impending respiratory failure Bladder is displaced superiorly into the abdomen after 12 weeks’ gestation Bladder is subject to blunt or penetrating injury with lower abdominal trauma Suspect bladder injury in traumatic events to the lower abdomen 358 TRAUMA Estimation of blood loss based on clinical variables Class I Class II Class III Class IV Blood loss (ml) Up to 750 Blood loss (% BV) Up to 15% 750–1500 1500–2000 ≥ 2000 15–30% 30–40% ≥ 40% Pulse rate < 100 > 100 > 120 ≥ 140 Blood pressure Normal Normal Decreased Decreased Pulse pressure (mmHg) Normal or increased Decreased Decreased Decreased Capillary blanch test Normal Positive Positive Positive Respiratory rate (min) 14–20 20–30 30–40 > 35 Urine output (ml/h) ≤30 20–29 5–15 Negligible CNS/mental status Slightly anxious Mildly anxious Anxious and confused Confused/lethargic Fluid replacement Crystalloid Crystalloid Crystalloid + blood Crystalloid + blood (3 : 1 rule) Interpretation of diagnostic peritoneal lavage (positive) Indications for diagnostic peritoneal lavage during pregnancy Free aspiration of blood (> 10 ml) Grossly bloody lavage fluid RBC count WBC count Amylase Abdominal signs or symptoms suggesting intraperitoneal hemorrhage Unexplained shock Altered mental status Major thoracic injuries Multiple major orthopedic injuries (including pelvic fracture) > 100 000/mm3 > 500/mm3 > 175 359 TRAUMA Trauma in pregnancy STABILIZATION Maintain airways Deflect uterus to left Maintain circulatory volume Secure cervical spine if head or neck injury is suspected COMPLETE EXAMINATION Control external hemorrhage Identify/stabilize serious injuries Examine uterus Pelvic examination (including speculum exam to identify bleeding or ROM [rupture of membrane]) Obtain initial blood work FETAL EVALUATION ≤ 20–24 weeks ≥ 20–24 weeks Presence of: Document fetal heart tones More than four uterine contractions in any 1 h Rupture of amniotic membranes Vaginal bleeding Serious maternal injury Fetal tachycardia; late decelerations: non-reactive nonstress test (in appropriateaged fetus) Yes Hospitalize; continue electronic monitoring Initiate cardiotocographic monitoring No Other definitive treatment (may be done concomitant with monitoring) • suture lacerations • necessary X-rays 360 TRIPLET PREGNANCY TRIPLET PREGNANCY Incidence Rate recorded in 1998 Increased rate of Intensive prenatal care, antenatal hospitalization, longer perinatal hospitalization Greater risk for Anemia, PIH and gestational diabetes, PPROM and especially PTL 1/570 Anemia in triplet pregnancy occurs approximately what %? What proportion of newborn triplets experience RDS? Stillbirth rate is how many times higher than in singletons? 35% 40% 3× TROPHOBLASTIC DISEASE Incidence Incidence in Orient 1/1000 2/1000 Diagnosis hCG is usually over Ultrasound – echoes in placental mass – “snowstorm” appearance 100 000 Signs and symptoms Vaginal bleeding usually 6–16 weeks’ gestation Large for dates Small for dates Theca lutein cysts Hyperemesis PIH in first or second trimester 80–90% 50% 25–28% 15% 8% 1% Hydatidiform mole Complete Partial 46XX (haploid fertilization by sperm completely replaces maternal contribution) in 46XY (dispermy of empty egg) in No gestational sac or fetus. No fetal vessels. Hydropic swelling.Prominent hyperplasia Invasive mole or choriocarcinoma follows in 90% 10% 15–20% 69XXX (karyotype is triploid due to extra haploid from father) XXY, XYY Gestational sac or fetus is usually present at some point. Vessels are present. Focal swelling only. Focal hyperplasia Risk of subsequent molar 5–10% Invasive mole follows in 4–11% Gestational trophoblastic tumor Invasive mole Mole that penetrates and may perforate the uterine wall Locally destructive and may invade parametrial tissue or blood vessel Hydropic villi may embolize to distant sites as lungs and brain but do not grow in these organs as true metastasis It is associated with persistent elevated hCG Responds well to chemotherapy Choriocarcinoma No ultrasound features Absent vessels Absent swelling Poorly differentiated Risk of subsequent molar Arise in hydatidiform moles Arise in previous abortion Arise from normal pregnancies Arise out of what number of pregnancies in the USA Placenta site tumors Trophoblastic tissue deeply invading the myometrium Low level of hCG. Locally invasive, many are self-limited and cured by curettage What % result in disseminated metastasis and death? Are not sensitive to chemotherapy. Hysterectomy is treatment of choice 10–30% 50% 25% 25% 1/25 000 10% 361 TUBO-OVARIAN ABSCESS Treatment Suction D&C with Pitocin intraop and postop Follow-up how often until two normal hCGs? After three normal hCGs, follow how often for a year? q. 10 days every 3 months Average time for β-hCG to reach nl levels after evacuation Evacuation is curative in > what % of patients? Chemotherapy Poor prognosis 73 days 80% Methotrexate and actinomycin D; for resistance add cyclophosphamide Brain or liver mets, β-hCG > 40 000, symptoms > 4 months, failed chemo. Give multiple chemotherapy MAC LIVER METS carries WORSE PROGNOSIS than BRAIN mets Patients at highest risk (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Pre-evac uterine size > expected dates or > than what gestation? 20 Bilateral theca lutein cysts > 6 cm Age > how many years? 40 Elevated hCG levels over what level? 100 000 Medical complications of molar Repeat hydatidiform mole TUBAL LIGATION SYNDROME Does not exist! It is a nonentity! Tubal ligation has no effect on hormonal parameters or menstrual characteristics when compared with women not having undergone tubal sterilization. (Harlow BL, Missmer SA, Cramer DW, et al. Does tubal sterilization influence the subsequent risk of menorrhagia or dysmenorrhea? Fertil Steril 2002;77:754–60) TUBERCULOSIS SALPINGITIS Granuloma, giant cells, CALCIFIED lymph nodes PIPESTEM proximal to obstruction, multiple STRICTURES along tube, irregularities of ampulla DEFORMITY of endometrial cavity. + Acid fast bacillus with endo bx and culture Treatment PZA and rifampin. Sterile – refer for IVF Tuberculosis in pregnancy Treat essentially the same but shield during CXR Treat active TB with isoniazid with pyridoxine and rifampin Non-pregnant: < 35 years with + PPD, give isoniazid Pregnant: < 35 years with + PPD, start treatment after delivery Exception: < 35 years who likely recently was infected with TB – start prophylaxis (isoniazid) after the first trimester TUBO-OVARIAN ABSCESS What % of patients hospitalized for PID have TOA? 34% Initial offending pathogen in TOA is usually either Neisseria gonorrhoeae or Chlamydia trachomatis Typical pathogens isolated from TOAs include E. coli, B. fragilis, peptostreptococci Risk factors for TOA include use of an IUD, multiple sexual partners, low socioeconomic status, adolescents Classic features of TOA include fever, pelvic or abdominal pain and a pelvic mass Other common signs are nausea and vaginal discharge or bleeding Diagnosis of TOA include ultrasound, CT or MRI but the “Gold Standard” is laparoscopy Treatment with antibiotic regimens include: (1) Cefoxitin 2 g IV q. 6 h or cefotetan 2 g IV q. 12 h with doxycycline 100 mg IV or p.o. q. 12 h (2) Clindamycin 900 mg IV q. 8 h plus gentamicin: loading dose 2 mg/kg; maintenance dose 1.5 mg/kg 362 TUBO-OVARIAN ABSCESS IV antibiotics not considered a “treatment failure” until after 72 h Surgical treatment of choice for TOA is TAHBSO Conservative surgical treatments for preservation of fertility include: Unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy Laparoscopy with endoscopic drainage of the abscess Posterior colpotomy with transvaginal drainage of the abscess Proportion of TOAs occurring in postmenopausal women is 2% Management of the patient with a pelvic abscess Patient presents with fever, tachycardia, elevated WBC count Pelvic mass Imaging studies: Ultrasound or CT scan Uniloculated Thin-walled Uniloculated Thick-walled Antibiotic therapy Antibiotic therapy Resolution No improvement Surgery Follow-up imaging studies Mass resolved Mass persists Surgery Multiloculated Surgical intervention 363 TUBO-OVARIAN ABSCESS Tubo-ovarian abscess Ex Lap with TAHBSO & antibiotics Ruptured Consider Ex Lap with TAHBSO Unruptured TOA Antibiotics* Ex Lap conservative surgery with antibiotics Failure Success Success Failure Pelvic ultrasound in 6 weeks Success *CDC Inpatient Treatment Regimens Regimen A: Cefoxitin, 2 g IV q. 6 h or cefotetan, 2 g IV q. 12 h, plus doxycycline, 100 mg IV p.o. q. 12 h Regimen B: Clindamycin, 900 mg IV q. 8 h plus gentamicin, loading dose 2 mg/kg followed by maintenance dose of 1.5 mg/kg q. 8 h Ex Lap, exploratory laparotomy Ex Lap conservative surgery Failure 364 TWINS TWINS Incidence Dizygous Monozygous Increase in incidence during last decade include accepted reasons of: (1) Advanced maternal age at conception (2) Reduced fecundity at advanced maternal age Fertilization occurs with dizygous (diamniotic/dichorionic) and monozygous (diamniotic/dichorionic) 8/1000 4/1000 0–3 days Monozygous (diamniotic/monochorionic) 3–8 days 30% 70% Monozygous (monoamniotic/monochorionic) Mortality in monoamniotic twins is Deliver by C-section by 8–13 days < 1–3% 40–75% 34 weeks Monochorionic twins with increased incidence of PTL due to hydramnios. Arteriovenous malformations – watch for TTTS Weight gain for twin gestation Division after formation of embryonic disc > day 13 results in conjoined twins 1/50 000 Interlocking twins occur 1/1000 Total incidence of any twins in a pregnancy is 1–1.5% Velamentous insertions are how much more likely in twins? 10 × Fetal anomalies in singletons are 2–3% compared to actual incidence in twins being 8% PIH increased (probably due to enlarged placental mass) In twins 40% In triplets > 50% (1) 24 lb by 24 weeks’ gestation (2) 40–70 lb total okay Visits for twin gestation (1) Biweekly until 20 weeks and then weekly after 32 weeks (2) House calls p.r.n. (3) Cervical checks (?) p.r.n. US or digital (4) US at 18 weeks (5) US + NST from 28–30 weeks’ gestation (6) BPP if NSTs are non-reactive and equivocal or US demonstrates discordant growth Decrease of physical activity after 28 weeks in twin gestation (1) If IUGR of one or both twins is suspected, patient to be placed on strict bed-rest at home or in hospital to monitor each twin’s growth closely by serial ultrasound measurements of BPB, head circumference and femur length Mean age at delivery Singletons Twins Triplets Quads Management Twins – deliver vaginally if possible Triplets – now may deliver vaginally if ALL can be monitored Quads or > – C - section Ultrasounds for growth every Weekly NSTs after (2) Examine for twin–twin syndrome, etc. 40 37 33 30 weeks weeks weeks weeks 70% 4 weeks 32 weeks 365 TWIN–TWIN TRANSFUSION SYNDROME Intrapartum management for twins to include: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Fetal monitoring throughout labor US needs to be in labor and delivery room in the event that version is required for a second twin Epidural anesthesia is preferred to facilitate manipulation of the second twin in addition to relieving pain OR staff would be required to be on stat back-up secondary to the anticipated vaginal delivery of second twin which may need to be reversed at a moment’s notice C-section might be required if advanced labor with premature twin gestations is noted between 26–34 weeks’ gestation C-section would be strongly considered if the first twin’s presentation is shoulder, transverse or breech If the second twin is breech and the first twin is vertex, the first twin could be delivered if there are no other complications followed by external version, internal version, partial breech extraction with piper forceps of the second twin under general anesthesia using halothane for uterine relaxation p.r.n. (C-section may be required for the delivery of the second twin in these cases) Twin types (8/1000) Diam Dichor Dizygous 0–3 days Monozygous Diam Dichor 3–8 days Diam Monochor 8–13 days Monoam Monochor 13 days Div p formation of embryonic disc. Conjoined twins (4/1000) worldwide 30% 70% < 1% TWIN–TWIN TRANSFUSION SYNDROME Most often occurs with diamniotic/monochorionic twins Incidence in monochorionic twins Mortality with TTTS increased with earlier diagnosis. Diagnosis with serial ultrasounds. Abdominal circumference most reliable Increased neonatal deaths, congenital anomalies, IUGR if Look for same sex, single placental mass, dividing membrane, lack of twin peak sign. There is a “T” sign Abnormal AF volume Oligo Poly EFW discordance Hydrops with skin edema, effusion, ascites Urinary bladder – small with donor, large with recipient 1% 5–10% > 30% ≤ 2 cm ≥ 8 cm ≥ 20% ≥ 5 mm 366 TWO-VESSEL CORD Treatment Amnioreduction, laser, septostomy, percutaneous cord ligation (1) Membrane septostomy results in a prolongation of pregnancy from time of initial diagnosis to delivery compared to amnioreduction according to Johnson and collleagues (Johnson JR, Rossi KQ, O’Shaughnessy RW. Amnioreduction versus septostomy in twin–twin transfusion syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;185:1044–7) (2) Bipolar diathermy may be used in severe twin–twin transfusion in order for one twin to survive according to Taylor and colleagues (Taylor MJ, Shalev E, Tanawattanacharoen S, et al. Ultrasound-guided umbilical cord occlusion using bipolar diathermy for stage III/IV twin–twin transfusion syndrome. Prenat Diagn 2002; 22:70–6) TWO-VESSEL CORD Etiology (1) Fails to form (aplasia or agenesis) (2) Involutes after forming (atrophy) 20% SUA have associated abnormalities Associated with variety of fetal abnormalities Trisomy 18 and trisomy 13 increased rate 10% (0.5–1% normally) When one artery is missing the most common anomaly is one kidney missing (1) Increased rate IUGR (2) Increased rate PTL and preterm birth (3) Increased rate of spontaneous abortion (4) Frequently observed in multiple pregnancies (5) Seen more frequently in conjunction with fetal malformations CNS anomalies Cardiac defects GI defects Esophageal atresia Tracheoesophageal fistula Anorectal atresia Multicystic dysplastic kidneys Limb reduction defects Velamentous cord insertions Sonographic diagnosis x2 x2 x5 x5 x5 increased 2.7 (1% gen OB pts) Many obstetricians have never noticed an umbilical cord with a single umbilical artery in utero (1) Almost impossible to detect a single umbilical artery without a 5-MHz transducer and challenging even with a 5-MHz scan head (2) Not all imaging studies include a careful look at the umbilical cord vasculature (3) May become atretic after the original study is done Once the fetus is determined to have just one umbilical artery: (1) Assess growth and fluid volume (2) See if determination can be made of where the cord enters the placenta (3) Offer amniocentesis (4) Provide PTL information and cautions (5) NSTs > 32 weeks (2 degrees to increased rate stillbirth) 367 TWO-VESSEL CORD Evaluation and management of pregnancy with a two-vessel cord TWO-VESSEL CORD Targeted sonography Fetal echocardiography* YES Vasa previa NO Counsel YES Associated anomalies? Genetic counseling Recommend amnio* or PUBS** Normal or no amnio NO Genetic counseling ? Offer amnio* Abnormal karyotype Normal or no amnio Counsel Follow growth, fluid volume Dysmorphology consult; individualize management IUGR Polyhydramnios Twice weekly NST/AFI Counsel re: likely TEF or esophageal atresia Normal growth and fluid * Fetal echocardiogram, amniocentesis may not be indicated in late pregnancy ** Amniocentesis or percutaneous umbilical cord sampling recommendation. Depends on specific defects and gestational age Consider NSTs/AFIs 368 TZANCK TEST TZANCK TEST What is the % of correlation to positive viral cultures? This is the most COST-EFFECTIVE way to diagnose HSV 2 but not the Gold Standard (cultures) How to do the Tzanck test 94.1% (1) Lesion is scraped at base with scalpel blade (2) Scalpel is touched to slide and allowed to dry per air (3) Apply 0.1% aqueous solution of toluidine blue for 15 s (4) Wash with tap water and dry (5) Apply permanent cover slip (6) Look for multinucleated giant cells ULTRASOUND Specificity on identifying fetus without anomalies? Sensitivity on identifying fetus with anomalies cannot be estimated TI (Thermal index – is estimation of temperature rise due to US) should be MI (Mechanical index – is measurement of compressive and decompressive effects of US pulses) Acoustic output regulations FDA limits for fetal application Manufacturers require the limit to machines to be ALARA As low as reasonably achievable Anomalies and abnormal karyotype Any cardiac abnormality has what rate of aneuploidy? Endocardial cushion defect associated with Coarctation of aorta associated with Conotruncal lesions: Interrupted aortic arch Double-outlet right ventricle Tetralogy of Fallot – deletions of chromosome 22 Thickened nuchal fold – modest increased risk of aneuploidy Choroid plexus cysts – normal karyotype most of the time Nuchal translucency > 99% <1 <1 94 mW/cm2 720 mW/cm2 2–12% trisomy 21 45X 4–14% Approximately this % have anomalies of heart and great vessels 50–90% Prevalence of major cardiac abnormalities increase with increase in NT size First-trimester MS screening combined with NT on US increased detection rate for Down’s Detailed echocardiography should be done in all fetuses with increased nuchal translucency because of the increased incidence of major cardiac abnormalities Ultrasound and its association with b-hCG Ultrasound Days from LMP IRP Second International Standard Sac 34 (4½ weeks) 1 398 914 Fetal pole 40 (6 weeks) 5 113 3 783 Fetal cardiac motion 46 (7 weeks) 17 208 13 178 UMBILICAL CORD BLOOD ACID–BASE ASSESSMENT 369 UMBILICAL ARTERY DOPPLER VELOCIMETRY Umbilical artery S/D ratio is abnl if diastolic flow is either absent or reversed after what week gestation? The absent or reversed flow may suggest serious fetal compromise. In some cases there is a deterioration in the Doppler flow studies prior to deterioration in the biophysical profile in the IUGR fetus • An appropriate transverse sonographic imaging of the umbilical cord is accurate in detecting 2-vessel umbilical cords. Ability to visualize the number of vessels in the cord varies with gestation: 15 weeks 17 weeks to @36 weeks 36 weeks to 40 weeks Ultrasound screening criteria 18–20 weeks 74% 98% 83% • Controversial May or may not be standard of care in some communities. No proven cost-effectiveness UMBILICAL CORD BLOOD ACID–BASE ASSESSMENT Cord blood sample in a syringe flushed with heparin is stable x 60 min Fetal/newborn acidemia (3 types) (1) Respiratory pCO2 high, HCO3 normal (2) Metabolic pCO2 normal, HCO3 low (3) Mixed pCO2 high, HCO3 low Umbilical artery pH and blood gas – adjunct to Apgar scores Technique (1) (2) (3) (4) 10–20-cm cord segment clamped on either end Perform immediately after delivery Aspirate umbilical artery Sample may be obtained from chorionic surface of placenta (arteries cross over veins) (5) 1–2-cc sample aspirated into heparinized syringe (6) Residual air bubble expelled (7) Cord segment sample stable for 1 h at room temp “Normal” umbilical artery pH = 7.27 (mean) ± 2 standard deviations = 7.15–7.39 Pathologic fetal acidemia Traditional threshold < 7.20 Realistic threshold (i.e. pH associated with adverse neonatal sequelae, neurologic dysfunction/death) < 7.0 Birth asphyxia/hypoxia = low Apgars (0–3 at 5 min) + pH < 7 Protocol (1) Doubly clamp cord segment (10–20 cm) immediately after birth in all deliveries and place on table (2) pH and acid–base determinations indicated for: – prematurity – meconium (requiring tracheal visualization, suctioning and/or intubation) – nuchal cord – low Apgar scores (< 7 at 5 min) – abnormal antepartum fetal heart tracing – any serious problem with delivery or neonate’s condition (3) If unable to obtain cord specimen, aspirate artery on chorionic surface of placenta (4) Discard cord segment if 5-min Apgar score satisfactory and newbom stable/vigorous 370 UMBILICAL CORD CLAMPING UMBILICAL CORD CLAMPING Delayed cord clamping at 30–45 s versus 5–10 s decreased intraventricular hemorrhage and sepsis in premature singleton infants (especially males) less than 32 weeks’ gestation according to a study by Mercer JS, Vohr BR, McGrath MM, et al (Pediatrics 2006; 117:235–42) Delayed cord clamping and waiting 2 min rather than 10 s in normal weight, full-term infants helps prevent iron deficiency from developing before 6 months of age, according to the results of a randomized, controlled trial involving almost400 mother–infant pairs in Mexico City (Chaparro CM, Neufeld LM, Tena Alavez G, et al. Effect of timing of umbilical cord clamping on iron status in Mexican infants: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2006; 367:1997–2004) URETERAL INJURY What % of ureteral injuries are recognized intraoperatively? What % occur at uterine artery/cardinal ligament (the distal 3–4 cm)? What % of bladder and ureteral injuries occur at hysterectomy? Gyn surgery causes this % of urinary tract fistula? Abdominal surgery causes Vaginal surgery causes Most injuries to bladder and urethra in developing countries are from OBSTRUCTED LABOR Most common injury is when ligation of ovarian blood supply at the pelvic brim is performed on the infundibulopelvic ligament. Other areas include the level of the uterine artery and lateral to the vaginal cuff Prevent more problems (1) Anticipate especially in patients with previous surgeries (2) Prevent if possible with identification of ureters (3) Recognize as soon as injury occurs – cystoscopy if needed (4) Evaluate fully and plan repair (5) Repair immediately: % that can be corrected by removing suture (6) Test the integrity of the repair (7) Follow up post op to verify the repair remains intact Finding the ureter Locate the umbilical and round ligament. Open the retroperitoneal medial to the external iliac vessels using the umbilical ligament as a landmark. Move the umbilical ligament lateral to ureter as peristalsis is noted as the ureter is palpated or stroked Symptoms The most common symptom is flank pain, which occurs These occur in what % of gyn surgery and C-sections? Ratio of bladder to ureter injury is Diagnosis Subtle rise of serum creatinine > preop levels as early as 24 h IVP or US If BILATERAL injury = anuria, increased BUN + creatinine, unresponsive to fluid challenge Patient without renal disease with an increase in this should really be ALERT Fistula Tampon – give Pyridium® p.o. or methylene blue in bladder. If still not orange or blue, give IV indigo carmine. If blue now, suspect uterovaginal fistula Treatment Double J ureteral stent If at level of uterine vessels (4–5 cm from ureterovesicle junction) URETERONEOCYSTOSTOMY (Boari operation or Psoas hitch) If midureter – ureteroureterostomy Extraperitoneal drain, intubate ureter for 10 days and ureteroureteral anastomosis or if 4–5 cm from bladder – plant into bladder (1) Extraperitoneal drain – use a round Jackson–Pratt (2) Intubation – double J ureteral stent (3) Anastomosis suture – use 4–0 Vicryl on SH needle 25% 75% 75% 75% 75% 25% 69% 33–75% 1% 5:1 0.8 mg/dl 1.5 mg/dl 371 URINARY INCONTINENCE URETHRAL INTRINSIC SPHINCTER DEFICIENCY Diagnosis with low urethral pressures Leak point See Urinary Incontinence < 20–25 cmH2O > 60 cm with Valsalva URETHRAL SYNDROME Dysuria, frequency, non-tender. Negative leucocytes on dipstick with low bacterial count. Most common cause is E. coli or staphylococci, but rule out herpes, vaginitis, etc. Consider gen probe Chlamydia – lacks urgency, hematuria or suprapubic pain. Symptoms gradually > 7–21 days (TCN) GC – pain and hematuria with rapid onset of symptoms Treatment TMP/SMX, nitrofurantoin, Augmentin Patients sleep through the night, sometimes complain of lower abdominal pressure, dyspareunia Diagnosis of exclusion URETHRAL DILATION helpful Interstitial cystitis Symptoms – pts void to avoid pain. Get up all night to void Dxn – glomerulations × 3 or Hunner ulcers Rx – ELMIRON (pentosan polysulfate sodium) corrects defect in the mucosal GAG layer Hyperdistention URINARY INCONTINENCE Nearly 50% of women > 45 years of age will, at some time, complain of urinary incontinence (Sherburn M, Guthrie JR, Dudley EC, et al. Is incontinence associated with menopause? Obstet Gynecol 2001;98:628–33) Risk factors SUI is influenced by caucasian race, high waist-to-hip ratio, hx of diabetes, age, parity, mode of delivery and possibly genetics SUI is influenced most strongly by mode of delivery in middle-aged women. Later in life, genetic factors play a more important role in risk of SUI. Elective cesarean protects only against stress incontinence – not other urinary or fecal symptoms Urge incontinence (DI) is strongly influenced by heritability in both middle-aged and older women Causal agents Diuretics, caffeine, anticholinergics, alcohol, narcotics, psychotropics, adrenergics, calcium channel blockers Common causes Loss of pelvic support structures, ISD or increased BMI Diagnosis Evaluation (1) History – medical/surgical, obstetric, medications. SUI or DI? (2) Physical (a) Neurologic (sphincter tone, motor/sensory exam) (b) Pelvic – assess for estrogen deficiency and loss of pelvic support (c) Become accustomed to massaging the anterior vaginal wall underneath the urethra. Any discharge or excretion of fluid from the urethral meatus as massage takes place is pathognomonic for urethral diverticulum. Voiding cystourethrography or MRI will confirm the finding (3) Labs – urine analysis/culture if U/A is abnormal. Urine cytology if patient is over 50 with irritative symptoms, smoking history, or hematuria (4) Testing in office establishes diagnosis 75–90% (a) Voiding studies – postvoid residual volume normal is < 50 to 100 ml (b) Urethrovesical junction mobility – pelvic, US and Q-tip test < 30 372 URINARY INCONTINENCE (c) Stress test (standing cough test and/or Bonney test) Patient coughs with full bladder of @ 250 ml Leakage of urine suggests presence of GSUI Bonney test (also known as Marshall test) – repeat stress test with anatomic correction (fingers lightly correcting anatomy or other device such as tampon). Should correct leak if GSUI (d) Single channel standing cystometry (passes first urge test) Criteria (1) History of pure SUI without urgency, frequency, nocturia or urgency (2) Normal neuro exam (3) Normal postvoid residual volume (4) Urethrovesical junction hypermobility (+Q-tip test) (5) Urine leakage during stress test. (6) Stable bladder during cystometry Figure 22 GYNECARE TVT SECUR™ system. This is the third generation of TVTs. ©ETHICON, INC. Reproduced with permission. What % require more urodynamic testing? Urodynamics in office – UA/UC SUI is more reliably diagnosed via urodynamic testing than is detrusor overactivity Office cystometry (1) Treatments for SUI (1) Incontinence dish – lubricate with estrogen or other cream prior to use. Clean every Autoclave with 5# pressure at 250°F (121°C) or cold cidex or boil (2) Pelvic floor exercises or biofeedback? 10–25% Cath for residual < 30–50 cc Residual should be what after corrective surgery? < 100 cc What amount of residual urine is consistent with overflow incontinence? > 50 ml Postvoid residual volume greater than what is considered abnormal? 200 ml (2) First urge to void 150–200 cc Most can maintain continence to 400–500 cc This finding makes DI very unlikely. Also unlikely if plungerless syringe demonstrates no excursion up to 400 cc Bladder capacity is @ 300 cc Q-tip test should be < 30–40 degrees Urethra length 3–5 cm 4–6 weeks × 10 min × 15 min 373 URINARY INCONTINENCE (3) HRT in postmenopausal women can increase the blood flow around the bladder neck thus improving SUI after 3 months of treatment (4) Biofeedback has been shown to be more effective than pelvic floor exercises in treating genuine SUI (5) FES (functional electrical stimulation), vaginal weights, mechanical devices and extracorporeal magnetic innervation are additional methods that can be used in bladder training (6) Retropubic urethropexy (Burch) – attach endopelvic fascia to iliopectineal ligament (Cooper’s) Poorly suited for patient with small vaginal size or poor vaginal mobility. Success rate is Complication rate is Enterocele develops postop with change in pelvic axis in @ Significant higher failure rate with laparoscopic Burch (7) Paravaginal repair – attach arcus tendineus (white line) to endopelvic fascia and bilateral superior anterior vaginal sulcus. This is for lateral defects of the vagina causing SUI or prolapse. The Capio Suture Capturing Device by Boston Scientific (Urology/Gynecology, Natick, MA) can be used laparoscopically to suture during the Burch or the paravaginal repair (8) Suburethral sling – SUI with ISD (intrinsic sphincter deficiency) See also Sling Procedure Diagnosis 80% 20% 8% ISD – low urethral pressures ≤ 20 cm H2O and/or leak point with Valsalva that is > 60 cm Consider low urethral pressure ≤ 35 cm H2O if patient supine. Excellent procedure with urethral hypermobility and/or ISD. See Sling Procedure; to see how these procedures are informed, see Turrentine JE. Surgical Transcriptions and Pearls in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2nd edn. London: Informa Healthcare, 2006. Graft used is either cadaveric fascia lata, Repliform (Lifecell Corporation, Woodlands, TX; distributed by Boston Scientific, Urology/Gynecology, Natick, MA), DermMatrix (Carbon Medical Technologies, St Paul, MN), Pelvisoft, and others. EndoSurgical Inc., Boston Scientific, American Medical, and many other companies manufacture many TVT and/or TOT kits. In regards to drilling procedures, Precision Twist (Boston Scientific, Urology/Gynecology, Natick, MA) is preferred drill. However, In-Fast drill (American Medical Systems, Minnetonka, MN) is also OK. TVTs, TOT (Also TOP) are even better alternatives that can be performed – these are quicker, easier, and do not require drilling into posterior pubic bone. There are many options available for these procedures. PelviSoft, Gynecare TVT, Synthetic Mesh as IntePro or Biologic Grafts as InteXen LP, and other new innovations are excellent grafts (9) Durasphere is a good alternative if urethra is not hypermobile and/or if the patient is high risk for major surgery (Carbon Medical Technologies, St Paul, MN; distributed by Boston Scientific, Urology/Gynecology, Natick, MA) (10) Needle suspension procedures – success rate over 5 years is < 50% Pereyra – no vaginal dissection, small abdominal incision and #30 silver wire suture Stamey – endoscopic at bladder neck. #1 cm Dacron to buttress fascia to avoid or decrease risk of suture pulling through fascia (11) Kelly’s operation (bladder neck plication usually with ant. rep) Long-term success rate is 35–65% Reserved for those who do not have significant SUI but have cystocele (12) Vaginal tape procedure may be useful in the treatment of not only incontinence but also a variety of subgroups of incontinence (Mutone N, Mastropietro M, Brizendine E, et al. Effect of tension-free vaginal tape procedure on urodynamic continence indices. Obstet Gynecol 2001; 98:638–45). However, trials evaluating efficacy of the tension-free vaginal tape operation for urinary incontinence as compared with other established incontinence operations are lacking (Tamussino KF, Hanzal E, Kolle D, et al. Tension-free vaginal tape operation: results of the Austrian registry. Obstet Gynecol 2001;98:732–6) 374 URINARY INCONTINENCE Testing after surgery for voiding dysfunction Detrusor instability (DI) (1) Voiding efficiency can be predicted in 92% of patients who voided > 50% of 300 ml of instilled sterile water. 100% of patients who voided > 68% of 300 ml of instilled water. If the patients void < 50% of their postresidual – leave catheter!!! Whenever possible, however, remove an indwelling catheter and teach the patient intermittent self-catheterization. If patients are unable to void for up to 2 weeks, offer intermittent self-catheterization. (Kleeman S, Goldwasser S, Vassallo B, et al. Predicting postoperative voiding efficiency after operation for incontinence and prolapse. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 187:49–52) (2) Check the Operative Report. If a large cystocele was also repaired during a sling procedure, it is common for there to be some form of retention or voiding dysfunction for 2 weeks or longer. However,if a midurethral sling was done but with no other procedure and there was still retention at 2 weeks post-op, consider the sling may have been placed too tightly (3) Is there actual (or impending) lower-tract injury or foreign body penetration? Endoscopy of the urethra, vesical neck, and bladder walls will rule this out (4) Can the patient relax the pelvic floor when she voids? Valium may help the patient relax to void. Avoid urethral dilatation, as it might cause urethral erosion of the sling. Also avoid meds such as bethanechol, as it is ineffective and can cause discomfort (5) Consider cutting the sling but inform the patient of possible recurrent incontinence. Usually cutting the sling will result in normal voiding. With synthetic, allograft, and xenograft slings, SUI recurs in at least 50% of patients over time compared with an autologous sling, whereas recurrence rates are less than 10%. With synthetic slings, consider reoperating in a few weeks. For a patient with retention who has an autologous, allograft, or xenograft sling, it is best to wait approximately 3 months before operating OAB is caused by involuntary bladder contractions, which create bladder pressures high enough to overcome the continence mechanism Symptoms and diagnosis Urgency, frequency, nocturia. Urgency prior to urinary leak Decreased postvoid residual volumes. CMG to definitely diagnose Treatment options (1) Bladder retraining – “Bladder drills” micturate at regular intervals and suppress urge to void between these times 66% success Start with behavorial therapy for DI first Avoid bladder irritants (caffeine, nicotine, spicy foods) (2) Pharmacotherapy (A) Anticholinergic/antispasmodic agents: Oxybutynin (Ditropan®) XL (5 mg t.i.d.) or 10–15 mg daily Oxybutynin Transdermal Patch (Oxytrol): Patch applied twice weekly (B) Tricyclic antidepressant; locally antispasmodic and also acts centrally: Imipramine (Tofranil) 10 mg b.i.d. (C) Muscarinic receptor antagonists: Tolterodine tartrate (Detrol) 2 mg b.i.d. or Detrol 4 mg LA daily Solifenacin succinate (Vesicare) 5 mg and 10 mg daily Trospium chloride (Sanctura) 20 mg b.i.d. Darifenacin (Enablex) 7.5 to 15 mg daily (D) Pain drug for OAB: Tramadol (Ultram) 100 mg b.i.d. for 12 weeks Tramadol was effective for reducing the number of urge incontinence episodes Both oxybutynin and tolterodine reduced urge incontinence, but oxybutynin also reduced urinary frequency 375 URINARY INCONTINENCE Overflow incontinence Symptoms – constant wetness, intermittent dribbling, SUI (not GSUI), voiding difficulty, recurrent infections, suprapubic discomfort Diagnosis – postvoid cath > 50 cc (usually exceeds 350 cc) Treatment – clean intermittent self-catheterization Caused by abdominal or pelvic surgery, fecal impaction, infection, L&D, neuro conditions, obstructions, pharmacologic, diabetes, MS, spinal cord tumors and psychiatric Potential incontinence Occurs temporarily when severe prolapse is mechanically reduced such as use of a pessary Mixed incontinence What % of patients have both GSUI and DI? What % are corrected with surgery? Mixed incontinence can be better determined by urodynamic studies, aided by a provocative measure, such as a cough or standing heel bounce. It results in a leakage of urine that appears to be stress induced, but actually is caused by a detrussor contraction Increase fluid volume intake Weight watchers, increased fluid. Voiding diary to diagnose How much fluid intake per day is correct? @ 1600 cc One should drink when thirsty or until urine is clear. Drinking eight 8-ounce glasses of H2O per day is calculated for 70 kg man Could be too much Extraurethral incontinence Involuntary loss of urine due to anatomic bypass of normal continence mechanisms (i.e. vesicovaginal fistula, ectopic ureter, urethral diverticulum) Multichannel urodynamics (cystometrics) Indicated for: (1) Failed non-surgical intervention (2) Failed incontinence surgery (3) High postvoid residual volumes or “continuous leakage” (4) Older female with medical problems (5) Neurological disease What % of neuro disease is present with incontinence? Other tests Levator ani electromyography Useful when diagnosis of neurogenic bladder is suspected to more fully assess degree of neurologic deficit 30% 50% 16–25% Cystourethroscopy Indicated: (1) If lesions of bladder or urethra are suspected (2) Hematuria (3) Persistent discomfort Maximal urethral closure Indicated to evaluate if ISD is present (1) Maximal urethral closure pressure in the supine position is 38.45 cm ± 2.58 cm of water (2) Maximal urethral closure pressure in the sitting position is 22.80 cm ± 3.2 cm of water According to one study, the cutoff point for diagnosis of intrinsic sphincteric deficiency should be raised to 35 cm of water as compared to 20 cm of water when the supine position is used for measurement (Krissi H, Pansky M, Halperia R, Langer R. Maximal urethral closure pressure <20 cm H2O: Does it predict ISD? J Reprod Med 2005; 50:824–6) Other treatments Biofeedback treatment (1) Magnetic neuromodulation – extracorporeal magnetic innervation effective for SUI, urge or mixed UI. Patient sits in chair – magnetic pulses. 10 min at 5 Hz then 10 min at 50 Hz twice weekly for 8 weeks (2) Pelvic power program – disk on wrist vibrates when to perform Kegel’s every 2 h – rings when patient is to urinate. Can be programmed to change length (3) FemiScan – home muscle monitor with headset. Instructions. Visits – computer based in office 376 URINARY INCONTINENCE (4) Estring – soft, flexible, silicone ring that is inserted like a diaphragm into upper part of vagina. Releases estrogen × 3 months at rate of 7.5 µg /24 h × 90 days (normally takes 2–3 weeks for symptoms to manifest). Improves vaginal and urinary symptoms and mucosal appearance without provoking bleeding (5) Anti-incontinence devices (a) Incontinence dish or ring (Milex 1-800-621-1278) If estrogenized, remove only for coitus and check every 3–4 months. If unestrogenized, need to remove nightly or every other night Risk of vaginal erosion – check every 2–3 months (b) Conveen continence guard One time polyurethane foam that expands to vagina. It absorbs vaginal secretions and worn morning to night. European manufacturer recommends removal every 4 h during menses due to theoretical risk of toxic shock (c) FemAssist (Insight Medical, Marlboro, MA 1-800-232-4344) External urethral cap that may be used for 1 week (2 sizes) (d) FemSoft Insert (Rochester Medical Corp., Stewartville, MN 1-507-533-9600) Transurethral device (silicone) inserted into urethra. Must be changed at every void or after 6 h. Cost is < $2 per insert Rate of UTI is 22% (e) Complex valve catheters that have one-way valves to allow urination while insert is in place are under investigation/not on the market as of this publication (6) Transvaginal electrical stimulation – twice daily for 8 weeks Cure rate for DI is 50% Cost is $500 (7) Sacral Neuromodulation Stimulation (SNS, “Interstim”) Approved for pharmacological and behavioral failures. Pain, wound problems, or lead fracture led to surgical revision 15.5% See how procedure is performed in Turrentine JE. Surgical Transcriptions and Pearls of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2nd edn. London: Informa Healthcare, 2006 (8) Botulinum A toxin is a promising alternative to first-line drug therapy for refractory detrusor overactivity. (Kuo H-C. Urodynamic evidence of effectiveness of botulinum A toxin injection in treatment of etrusor overactivity refractory to anticholinergic agents. Urology 2004; 63:868–72) Urinary innervation of bladder CNS – continence, norepinephrine, sympathetics MAP – parasympathetic, acetylcholine, contraction Urological endoscopes Urethroscope – lens is what degree? sheaths are Cystoscope – lens is what degree? sheaths are Urine residual increased MS, recent surgery, post herpes simplex genital infection, recent delivery, hypotonic bladder dysfunction (DM or hypothyroidism) Nerve supply for bladder and urethra Sympathetics Parasympathetics and pudendal nerve Nerve testing Bulbocavernosus reflex (lateral labia minora) and clitoral reflex test the nerve supply + when anal sphincter reacts. (Evaluate estrogen effect at this time too) Fistula evaluation Tampon – methylene blue 200 ml in bladder – ambulate 15 min – STAIN – vesicovaginal fistula Tampon – indigo carmine IV – repeat ambulation 15 min – STAIN – ureterovaginal fistula Evaluation for sling? 0 15F, 18F, 24F 30 and 70 17F, 19F and 21F (for bx) T11–L2 S2–S4 Urethroscopy Withdraw till UVJ closes 1/3 way then “Hold urine” or “squeeze rectum” – closes “Strain” or “cough” – opens Mobility during above procedures or flaccid, short, open entire distance = Type III incontinence of Blavius associated with decreased urethral closure or ISD 1 ml 377 URINARY INCONTINENCE Treatment would require sling, periurethral collagen or artificial sphincter. The Q-tip test may be unnecessary in patients who demonstrate any advanced pelvic prolapse since virtually all of these patients will have urethral hypermobility. (Cogan SL, Weber AM, Hammel JP. Is urethral mobility really being assessed by the pelvic organ prolapse quantification (POP-Q) system? Obstet Gynecol 2002; 99:473–6) CMG (cystometrogram) Indications (1) Urgency, urge incontinence, frequency (2) Sudden urinary loss or GSI to rule out DI (3) GSI for possible surgery or > age 50 (4) Recent incontinence after surgery Pressure should not rise > 15 cmH2O This is a study of pressure/volume relationship in bladder during fill Multichannel urodynamics Multiple transducer catheters Vagina – intra-abdominal pressure Urethral closure pressure – urethra/bladder pressure 40–60 cmH2O True detrusor pressure – bladder/intra-abdominal pressure 2.5–3.5 cmH2O Diagnosis – GSI when urethral closure pressure at cough without DI = 0 Damaged urethral sphincter with urethral closure pressure < 20 cmH2O sitting Pearls Suspect detrusor instability if urethral opening is uncontrollable with or without leaking @ scope. Urethral syndrome – suspect if exudate is seen when withdrawing urethroscope with finger against urethra through bladder. Diverticula are usually seen posterior and lateral and are multiple what % of the time? Inhibit voiding Antispasmodics Oxybutynin (Ditropan XL) 5–10 mg t.i.d. Tolterodine tartrate (Detrol) 4 mg daily (Detrol is a potent antimuscarinic to decrease detrussor symptoms) Bentyl® 10 and 20 mg capsules Urispas® (flavoxate) 100 mg 2 q.i.d. Tricyclics Tofranil (imipramine) 50–150 mg daily. (Good for mixed and detrusor instability especially for nocturnal frequency and urge incontinence due to sedative effect.) Start with 25 mg b.i.d. Sinequan® (doxepin) 75–150 mg/day Anticholinergics Pro-Banthine® (propantheline bromide) 15 mg t.i.d. – q.i.d. Cystospaz® (hycosymine) 0.15 mg t.i.d. – q.i.d. or Cystozpaz® M 0.375 mg t.i.d. – q.i.d. Urethral contraction Tofranil (imipramine) 50–150 mg daily (Tofranil is supplied in 25, 50 and 100 mg tablets) Ephedrine Phenylpropanolamine (Propagest®) 75–150 mg q. daily. (Good for mild to moderate SUI) Promote voiding Urethral relaxants Aldomet (methyldopa) 250–500 mg b.i.d. Phenothiazines Phenoxybenzamine (Dibenyline®) Bladder contractants Prostigmine® (neostigmine) Urecholine® (bethanechol) 25 mg b.i.d. 50% 378 URINARY INCONTINENCE Incontinent patient Overflow Urge Mixed Total Stress (R/O fistula) Urinalysis (blood) – Drugs for overactive bladder* Check PVR VCUG ± Sudafed 30 mg p.o. b.i.d. Poor contractility IVP ± Biofeedback Timed voiding Double voiding Cystoscopy ± E-stim Biofeedback Urodynamics Urodynamics CIC Surgery Surgery Urodynamics + R/O CA Kegels Surgical history BOO Drugs: Cardura®, Biofeedback Hytrin®, Flomax® Sacral stimulation Surgery Surgery Surgery *Dicyclomine HCl 10–20 mg t.i.d. Flavoxate HCl (Urispas) 100–200 mg t.i.d. Imipramine HCl (Tofranil) 10–50 mg b.i.d. Oxybutynin HCl (Ditropan) 2.5–5.0 mg t.i.d.– q.i.d. Controlled-release oxybutynin (Ditropan XL) 5–20 mg q.d. Propantheline bromide (Pro-Banthine) 15 mg t.i.d. Tolterodine (Detrol) 2 mg b.i.d. + Pyridium Plus (Pyridium 150 mg + hyocyamine HBr 0.3 mg + butabarbital 15 mg) one q.i.d. 379 URINARY INCONTINENCE Interstitial cystitis (IC): diagnosis and treatment algorithm 1998 ICD-9 and CPT codes INITIAL EVALUATION 99205 PATIENT PRESENTATION Urgency Frequency Pain/discomfort Medical history – Recurrent 'UTI-like' symptoms with negative cultures? – Chronic non-bacterial prostatitis or prostatodynia? Physical examination O'Leary-Sant symptom and problem indices 788.1 788.41 788.9 No bacteriuria Bacteriuria 599.0 URINALYSIS 81001 IS PATIENT AT RISK FOR BLADDER CANCER? Exposure to industrial chemicals Cigarette smoking Family history of bladder cancer Age >50 years (particularly male patients) Urine C&S 87088 Antibiotics Yes No Negative Strongly suspect interstitial cystitis Urine cytology 88151 Cystoscopy/hydrodistention under anesthesia 52260 Positive BLADDER CANCER SUSPECTED Biopsy 52204 Option 1 Option 2 Definitive diagnosis Empiric diagnosis Cystoscopy/hydrodistention under anesthesia 52260 Optional KCl test 51700 Glomerulations or Hunner's ulcers, terminal hematuria INTERSTITIAL CYSTITIS 595.1 IC TREATMENT Diet modification 99213 + Self-help + ELMIRON (pentosan polysulfate sodium) 99213 ALSO, TREAT AS APPROPRIATE Allergic component – Antihistamine 99213 Sleep deprivation, depression – Antidepressant 99213 Severe pain – Hydrodistention under anesthesia 52260 – Intravesical treatment (short-term relief) 51700 380 URINARY TRACT INFECTION (UTI) URINARY TRACT INFECTION (UTI) Cystitis Increased risks are sexual activity or decreased estrogen Diagnosis – RBCs indicative of cystitis 10 to 5th CFU (colony forming units) correlates with unspun magnification (400 ×) with + bacteria moving 2–6 WBCs per HPF or clumps of leukocytes with minimal epithelial cells Dipstick + nitrites Produced by bacterial enzyme, nitrate reductase on dietary nitrates Lower UTI (1) (2) (3) Cystitis Acute urethritis Chronic urethritis Treatment – 3-day course of TMP/SMX 160/800 mg #6 every Nitrofurantoin 100 mg #6 every Fluoroquinolones → very effective × 3 days but very expensive Ciproxin®, Noroxin®, Floxin® or Penetrex® Reserve these for recurrent infections or allergies Cephalosporins and ampicillin → increased expense and increased complications and resistance Recurrent cystitis – treat with quinolones (Tequin 400 mg daily or Levaquin 500 mg daily) Consider continuous or postcoital therapy using nitrofurantoin or TMP/SMX Upper UTI 12 h 12 h Pyelonephritis Treatment Outpatient → TMP/SMX 160/800 mg p.o. q. 12 h or a quinolone (Tequin or Levaquin) daily In hospital (if evidence of sepsis) (1) Ceftriaxone 1–2 g IV q. 24 h (2) Gentamicin 1 mg/kg of body weight IV q. 8 h with or without ampicillin 1 g IV every 6 h (3) Ofloxin or ciprofloxacin 200–400 mg IV q. 12 h If evidence of sepsis – ceftriaxone IV every 24 h Most common organism E. coli Increased risk Decreased estrogen and increased sexual activity Urethral syndrome Dysuria, frequency, non-tender. Negative WBCs on dipstick, decreased bacterial count Rule out HSV, do GENPROBE to rule GC and Chlamydia. Could be E. coli and/or staphylococci 1–2 g 35% UTERUS (ABNORMAL) Septate Bicornuate Partial resorption of midline septum Total failure – long vaginal septum (double vagina) Increased PTL and spontaneous abortion rate Dxn – vag US and MRI. Evaluate urinary tract Treatment – Resect with hysteroscopy Partial lack of fusion of Müllerian ducts Relatively common. Pregnancy outcome near normal Increase PTL and spontaneous abortion rate Treatment – Strassmann metroplasty. Use tourniquets at cervix and infundibular ligaments. CD recommended unless performed hysteroscopically Uterus didelphys Abortion rate Treatment – Jones–Tompkins Uterus unicollis Abortion rate Treatment – McDonald’s cerclage Chance of live-born infant with septate and bicornuate uterus is Chance of live-born infant with unicornate and didelphic uterus is 88% 70% 30% 15% 60% 40% 381 UTERINE ARTERY EMBOLIZATION Most common associated anomaly with unicornate uterus is RENAL AGENESIS. IVP diagnosis 30–50% (Usually opposite side) Septate uterus Bicornuate uterus UTERINE ABLATION Methods Laser, roller ball, roller barrel Uterine balloon ablation (Thermachoice, Gynecare, Somerville, NJ). Cryoblation therapy (“heroption” – CryoGen, San Diego, CA) Bipolar mesh (Novacept, Palo Alto, CA) Hydro ThermAblator (Boston Scientific, Urology/Gynecology, Natick, MA) UTERINE ARTERY EMBOLIZATION How the procedure is done (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) Patient is hydrated intravenously Given conscious sedation after informed consent is given 1% lidocaine given for local anesthesia 5-French vascular cath is placed in right common femoral artery 5-French “hook-shaped” cath advanced into abdominal aorta (Omni Flush Angiodynamics Inc., Queensbury, NY) AP and oblique abdominal digital subtraction arteriograms done Withdraw hook cath so tip ”straddles” iliac bifurcation Floppy-tipped guidewire is advanced “up and over” bifurcation “Hook-shaped” cath withdrawn and exchanged for hydrophiliccoated ‘hockey stick-shaped’ cath (JB!, Bentson-Hanafee-Wilson 1, Glide Cath, Meditech, Boston Scientific, Urology/Gynecology, Natick, MA) This cath is advanced into main trunk of contralateral (left) internal iliac artery and mapping via fluoroscopy is done to map the tortuous path of the uterine artery PVA (polyvinyl alcohol particles 500–710 u) are suspended in contrast material and injected until stasis of left uterine artery is achieved (PVA by Contour, Boston Scientific, Urology/Gynecology, Natick, MA; Meditech, Target Therapeutics, Fremont, CA). Stasis is when forward flow stops The cath is withdrawn, tip into ipsilateral (right) internal iliac artery and same done on other side Future pregnancy? Gelfoam can be used rather than the permanent PVA. However, longterm studies will have to be conducted before questions of fertility and ovarian function can be answered (small % have ovarian failure) Post UAE care Patient needs about 1–2 weeks before resuming her routine. Most common complaint after UAE is pelvic pain – PCA is given IV antiemetics are given every 8 h on fixed dose schedule. IV antibiotics are continued for 24 h Follow-up care is at 3, 6 and 12 months. (MRI at 6- and 12-month visit) Outcomes Technical success rate Bleeding and other fibroid-related symptoms resolved Complications Substantial pain for Less severe pain for the following Fever of 38°C (100.4°F) is experienced by Ischemia-related postembolization syndrome Permanent amenorrhea 98% 80–90% 8–12 h 3–5 days 33% 10% 2% 382 UTERINE BLEEDING Deaths from septicemia 2/6000 (known worldwide cases) Pyometria and expelling necrotic fibroids vaginally rare but has occasionally happened Radiation exposure 22.34–162.32 cGy for UAE. This compares to: Hysterosalpingography 0.04–0.55 cGy CT of trunk 0.1–1.9 cGy Pelvic irradiation for Hodgkin’s disease 263–3500 cGy UAE is “unlikely to result in acute or long-term radiation injury to the patient or to a measurable increase in the genetic risk to the patient’s future children.” (Nikolic B, Spies JB, Lundsten MJ, et al. Patient radiation dose associated with uterine artery embolization. Radiology 2000; 214:121–5) Durability of the procedure Unknown at the time of this publication UTERINE BLEEDING Decreased Oligomenorrhea – infrequent, irregular episodes of bleeding How many days between cycles? Hypomenorrhea – regular but decreased bleeding Amenorrhea – no period for how many months? > 37 6 Increased Menorrhagia – excessive bleeding in amount and duration What is the amount and duration? 85 cc or > 7 days Metrorrhagia – usually not excessive, occurs irreg intervals Menometrorrhagia – usu. excessive occurring at irreg intervals Polymenorrhea – frequent but regular episodes of uterine bleeding, usually occurring at intervals of how many days or less 21 Management in adolescents Within the first year of menarche approximately 55% of cycles are anovulatory. The hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis takes time to mature and to develop its finely tuned feedback system. Up to a third of adolescents still have anovulatory cycles in the fifth year of menarche Possible causes of menorrhagia Anovulation Hypothalamic dysfunction Polycystic ovary disease Pregnancy-related conditions Threatened or spontaneous abortion Retained products of conception after elective abortion Primary coagulation disorders Systemic diseases Diabetes mellitus Hepatic dysfunction Renal dysfunction Thyroid dysfunction Trauma Accidental injury Coital trauma Sexual abuse Lower reproductive tract infections Chlamydia Pelvic inflammatory disease Neoplasms Endometrial hyperplasia Hormonally active ovarian tumors Leiomyoma Vaginal tumors Iatrogenic causes Exogenous hormone use Ingestion of medications containing estrogenic activity 383 UTERINE CANCER Office evaluation of bleeding (1) A complete menstrual history, including the following: (a) Date of menarche (b) Frequency and regularity of menstrual cycles (c) Date of onset of most recent period or bleeding episode (d) An estimate of the number of pads used per day (e) Whether the patient has cramps or pain, clotting or symptoms of syncope or nausea with menses (2) Ask about history of excessive bleeding after surgical or dental procedures and any family history of endocrine or coagulation disorders (3) Ask the patient whether she has been sexually active; whether she has used any method of contraception; and whether she feels there is any possibility of pregnancy. This interview must be done in privacy, after an explanation to mother and daughter of the importance of confidentiality in the relationship of a physician to an adolescent Laboratory tests Complete blood counts Platelet counts Pregnancy test Thyroid function test For severe bleeding bleeding time partial thromboplastin time prothrombin time serial hemoglobin and hematocrit type and screen Therapy A patient who is mildly anemic will benefit from hormonal management (1) Combination low-dose oral contraceptive; then re-evaluate after 3–6 cycles to decide whether to continue this regimen (2) An alternative is: medroxyprogesterone 5–10 mg/day for 10–14 days Patients with heavy bleeding, but who are stable, will require higher-dose hormonal therapy (1) Monophasic OC (Ovral) two pills until stop bleeding – then one daily Acute bleeding: emergency management (1) Either conjugated estrogens 25–40 mg IV every 4–6 h or oral estrogen 2.5 mg every 6 h, will be effective × 24 h (2) If not, a D&C is indicated (3) The failure of hormonal management suggests that a local cause of bleeding is more likely (4) If IV or oral estrogen controls the bleeding successfully oral progestin therapy must be added and continued for several days to stabilize the endometrium. This therapy can be accomplished by switching to a combination oral contraceptive (5) Remember that up to 19% of patients hospitalized with heavy uterine bleeding had an underlying coagulation disorder UTERINE CANCER For stages of uterine cancer, see Oncology, under Uterus Increased risks Nullip Menopause and > 52 years of age Overweight by 21–50 pounds over 50 pounds Unopposed estrogen therapy Diabetes Other risk factors → early menarche, late menopause, increased B/P, estrogen-secreting tumors, history of pelvic radiation therapy Work-up for endometrial cancer Endometrial biopsy and ECC Fractional D&C 2–3 2–3 3 10 8 2 × × × × × × 384 UTERINE INVERSION Examine: (1) Cervix, vagina, parametria and adnexa (2) Supraclavicular and inguinal nodes (3) Abdomen Obtain: (1) CXR (2) Labs (electrolytes, CBC, liver and renal status, U/A) Consider: (1) Sigmoidoscopy/colonoscopy (2) IVP (3) CA-125 (4) CT and/or MRI Endometrial cancer and radiation Survival rate similar with and without radiation plus surgery especially with Grade 1 + 2 lesions. However, if poorly differentiated – radiation and surgery Stage I 10% medically inoperable. D&C after how many months to reassess? TAHBSO and cytology Controversial TAHBSO and cytology with pelvic and periaortic node dissection Radiation therapy – poor prognostic factors or inoperable. Positive lymph node involvement? Positive cytology is controversial. Second opinion is good policy Survival rate for Stage I is Stage II Stage III and IV 3 months Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 85% TAHBSO and cytology with pelvic and periaortic lymph node dissection (patients with lymphadenectomy did better without radiation) Endometrial cancer with endocervical involvement – radical hysterectomy with pelvic lymphadenectomy and periaortic lymphadenectomy Survival rate for Stage II is 60% Individualize Usually hormone rx or chemo rx or both in addition to surgery and radiation therapy Survival rate for Stage III is Survival rate for Stage IV is 30% 10% Low risk Grade 1 or 2 with superficial or no myometrial invasion 1/3 Intermediate risk Grade 1 or 2 with mid 1/3 invasion (no external uterine spread) High risk Grade 3 or outer 1/3 invasion into myometrium. Give whole pelvis radiation UTERINE INVERSION Incidence Corpus to cervix Corpus through cervix Uterus to perineum Vagina with uterus Treatment 1/2000–1/2500 Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 (1) Johnson technique – do not remove placenta until replaced Except with decreased B/P, RELAX uterus with IV Brethine® or with nitroglycerine Slow MgSO4 if hypotensive (2) Round ligament technique (3) Midline vertical posterior incision Give two large IV lines Give Pitocin or Hemabate after replacement of uterus 250 µg 125 µg 2–4 g 385 UTERINE INVERSION Management of acute puerperal uterine inversion Diagnosis of acute uterine inversion Treat hypovolemia or shock (present in 1/3 cases) Attempt manual replacement of uterus with placenta in place, if attached* Unsuccessful Uterine relaxants MgSO4 2 g IV over 5–10 min or terbutaline 0.25 mg IV (avoid if shock or hypotensive) Re-attempt manual replacement (Johnson technique) Successful Unsuccessful General endotracheal anesthesia with halothane Re-attempt manual replacement Manually remove placenta Manually explore uterus Provide uterine massage Administer uterotonic agents Consider antibiotics Successful Unsuccessful LAPAROTOMY AND SURGICAL TECHNIQUE** (A) Spinelli (1899) Transvaginal approach, with incision of anterior cervical ring (B) Haultain (1901) Transabdominal approach, with incision of posterior cervical ring, uterine repositioning, and repair of incision (C) Huntington (1921) Transabdominal approach with traction on round ligaments and uterine fundus to restore uterine anatomy *The placenta should be removed until after the uterus is replaced through the cervix **Try (C) first. If (C) fails make “classical” midline vertical incision on the posterior aspect of lower uterine segment and lift fundus as in (B) 386 UTERINE RUPTURE UTERINE RUPTURE While there are specific risk factors associated with uterine rupture, the prediction of who might rupture their uterus and how to prevent it is extremely difficult. (Diaz DS, Jones JE, Seryakov M, et al. Uterine rupture and dehiscence: ten-year review and case–control study. South Med J 2002; 95:431–5) Incidence 1 in 1148–2250 Types of uterine rupture (1) (2) Complete Incomplete Classic signs (1) Vaginal hemorrhage (2) Shock (3) Cessation of labor (4) Recession of the presenting part 78% of patients with uterine rupture have evidence of fetal distress prior to onset of bleeding or pain. Fetal distress and loss of uterine contractions in patients with a history of previous uterine scar puts diagnosis of uterine rupture high on differential diagnosis Examine uterus directly after delivery of placenta and before uterus contracts Management (1) Silent dehiscence (a) SVD – observation with expectation of spontaneous healing – plan repeat C-section (b) Repeat C-section – repair at time of repeat C-section (2) Symptomatic rupture – emergency hysterectomy Causes of emergency hysterectomy: (a) Atony 43% (b) Placenta accreta 30% (c) Uterine rupture 13% (d) Extension of low transverse scar 10% (3) Complete rupture (a) Intact uterus 13.5% maternal mortality (b) Scarred uterus 0% maternal mortality (c) Intact uterus 76% fetal mortality (d) Scarred uterus 32% fetal mortality 387 UTERINE RUPTURE Suspect uterine rupture HISTORY: Previous uterine surgery (C-section, hysterotomy, myomectomy, metroplasty) manual trauma (MVA, Ab, Exc fundal pressure, MFR, PPD&C, manual removal of placenta, penetrating wounds, uterine manipulations) Inappropriate use of Pitocin Multiparity Fetal factors (macrosomia, malposition, anomalies) Uterine anomalies (acquired – gest neoplastic dis, adenomyosis, cocaine abuse, ART reprod techniques) Overdistention (hydramnios, multiple pregnancies) SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS: Maternal anxiety Fetal distress/demise Pain not assoc with contractions Vaginal bleeding Vascular instability & shock Cessation of labor Recession of presenting part Easily palpable fetal parts @ abdomen Point tenderness of uterus US evidence of rupture Extrusion of uterine contents Decompression of IUPC Signs of peritoneal irritation (chest pain/shoulder pain) Firmly contracted uterus and cardiovascular collapse with or without heavy vaginal bleeding Silent dehiscence Symptomatic Found at time of SVD or VBAC Found at time of C-section Emergency hysterectomy Observe Repair Compress aorta to save time p.r.n. Plan repeat C-section at next pregnancy Consider saving uterus only in rare instances if patient desires conservation of fertility. (Hysterectomy is Rx of choice) 388 UTERINE TACHYSYSTOLE UTERINE TACHYSYSTOLE How many contractions in 10 min? 6 or > VACCINES May give these as if non-pregnant: Tetanus (post exposure prophylaxis) Rabies (post exposure prophylaxis) I nfluenza (underlying diseases, patient request, health-care worker) P neumococcus (same as non-pregnant) Hepatitis B (with indications) In pregnancy NEVER GIVE THESE: MMR Pertussis May give others if high risk or traveling to endemic areas – hepatitis B, yellow fever, cholera, polio, etc. Live attenuated viruses – MMR and varicella Killed viruses – hepatitis B, influenza, rabies, polio (Salk) Killed bacteria – cholera, meningococcus, pneumococcus, typhoid, plague and pertussis Toxoids – anthrax, tetanus–diphtheria Indications for hepatitis B vaccination – drug abuse, health-care worker, newborn, sexual promiscuity Evidence for immunity against measles and rubella: Birth before 1957 Serologic evidence of immunity. Documentation of physiciandiagnosed infection (for measles and mumps but not rubella). Documentation of adequate vaccination Passive immunization of the fetus achieved through maternal vaccination is likely with: Protection against neonatal tetanus Reduced neonatal morbidity of influenza in newborns Potential to decrease neonatal morbidity associated with respiratory syncytial virus and Haemophilus influenzae b VACCINES Immunizations – general Vaccinate according to age group and risk factors Age 13–18 Tetanus–diphtheria booster (age 14–16 × 1) At-risk groups: (1) Child-bearing age and no evidence of immunity – MMR (2) Blood products, household/sexual contacts of Hep B carriers, multiple sexual partners in past 6 months – Hep B vaccine Age 19–65 Tetanus–diphtheria booster (every 10 years) Influenza vaccine (every year starting at age 55) At-risk groups: (1) Child-bearing age and no evidence of immunity – MMR (2) IV drug users; blood products recipients; health-care workers; household/sexual contacts of Hep B carriers; multiple sexual partners in past 6 months – Hep B vaccine (3) Chronic cardiopulmonary disease; metabolic diseases; diabetes, hemoglobinopathies, immunosuppression, renal dysfunction – influenza vaccine annually (4) Conditions prone to pneumococcal infection (i.e. immunosuppression), chronic cardiopulmonary disease, sickle cell disease, renal disease, s/p splenectomy, diabetes, alcoholism, cirrhosis – Pneumovax Age 65+ Tetanus–diphtheria booster (every 10 years) Influenza vaccine (annually) Pneumovax (once) At-risk groups: (1) Exposure to blood products; household/sexual contacts with chronic Hep B carriers – Hep B vaccine Immunizations in pregnancy Theoretical concern of congenital infection by live vaccines during pregnancy (no reported cases) Must weigh several factors: risk of exposure, maternal risk, fetal risk, risk from vaccine/toxoid Rule of thumb: No live vaccines unless: (1) Susceptibility/exposure probable and (2) Disease threat to woman/fetus – vaccine risk Only routinely administered immunizations during pregnancy: (1) Tetanus–diphtheria toxoids (2) At-risk group for Hep B virus (see above) MMR: 3 months before pregnancy or immediate postpartum Polio/yellow fever vaccine – when traveling to endemic area Immune globulins: (1) After exposure to: measles, Hep A, B, tetanus, chickenpox or rabies (2) VZIG for newborns of mothers who develop chickenpox 5 days before, until 2 days after delivery (3) All women without a history of chickenpox should be passively immunized with VZIG within 96 h of an exposure to chickenpox 389 390 VACCINES Indications for vaccines and immune serum globulins during pregnancy Immunizing agent Indications Vaccines Live virus Poliomyelitis (Sabin) Immediate protection against poliomyelitis for previously unimmunized individuals Travel to endemic areas Contraindicated Contraindicated Contraindicated Yellow fever Measles Mumps Rubella Live bacteria Tularemia Bacille Calmette-Guérin Rabbit handlers, laboratory workers Not recommended Killed virus Hepatitis B Pre- and postexposure prophylaxis for individuals at high risk Chronic cardiopulmonary or renal disease; diabetes mellitus Travel to epidemic areas; laboratory workers Exposure to potentially rabid animals Influenza Poliomyelitis (Salk) Rabies Killed bacteria Cholera Meningococcus Plague Pneumococcus Entry requirement for some countries Epidemic meningococcal–non-B disease Laboratory workers; travel to areas with human disease Cardiopulmonary disease, splenectomy, alcoholism, Hodgkin’s Household contact with chronic carrier; travel to endemic areas Not recommended Typhoid Pertussis Toxoids Anthrax Tetanus–diphtheria Laboratory workers; handlers of furs and animal hides Primary immunization; booster Immune globulins Pooled human Hepatitis A Measles Pre- and postexposure prophylaxis Postexposure prophylaxis Hyperimmune Hepatitis B Rabies Tetanus Varicella zoster Postexposure Postexposure Postexposure Postexposure prophylaxis prophylaxis prophylaxis prophylaxis Horse serum Botulism Diphtheria Immunizations for children Treatment of infection Treatment of infection Although we do not give immunizations to pediatric patients, we are often asked by mothers about the times when children are due for their immunizations. This list should help answer those questions. Adults might also require some of these vaccines Hepatitis A Two doses needed 6 months apart. (Brands can be used interchangeably) 391 VACUUM EXTRACTION Hepatitis B 1 month (Hep B-1) 2 months (Hep B-2) 12–15 months (Hep B-3) 11–12 years (Hep B*) (For those who have not completed the full series of three doses) Tdap (tetanus and diphtheria toxoids with acellular pertussis) or Tp ( DTP) 2 months 4 months 6 months 15–18 months 4–6 years 11–16 years Td (Tetanus booster) A one-time dose of Tdap should replace a dose of Td for any adult younger than 65 years, either as part of a primary series of tetanus and dipththeria toxoid or as a 10-year booster. Certain adults should get Tdap with an interval of 2 years or less following their previous Td dose if they are (1) a parent or caregiver of a child younger than age 12 months, (2) a healthcare worker having direct patient contact, or (3) at risk for pertussis due to increased pertussis activity or during outbreaks H. influenzae type b 2 months 4 months 6 months 12–15 months Polio 2 months 4 months 15 months 4–6 years Measles, mumps, rubella 12–15 months 4–6 years or 11–12 years Two doses are needed for an adult – no sooner than 4 weeks apart Varicella 15 months 11–12 years Two doses are needed if an adult – 4 to 8 weeks apart Human papillomavirus 9–26 years Gardasil is a 3-dose series with #2 dose given 2 months after first dose and #3 dose given 4 months after the #2 dose Meningococcal Give MCV4 to those at risk (college freshmen living in dorms, etc.) One dose and repeat every 5 years if risk of disease continues VACUUM EXTRACTION Need for CAUTION FDA reported how many deaths in @ 4 years? How many serious injuries did the FDA report? This calculates to 1 event per The incidence of severe fetal injury or death from vacuum extraction ranges from 0.1–3 cases per 1000 cases What is the diameter of the soft cups? How many centimeters should the cup be placed in front of the posterior fontanelle? The VE pressure should not exceed what? The Green Zone pressures are 12 9 45 455 65 mm 3 cm 580 mmHg or 10 lb/in2 35–45 cmH2O 350–450 mmHg 392 VACUUM EXTRACTOR Vacuum extraction requires less general and regional anesthesia than do forceps deliveries because it is not applied against the vaginal walls The center of the cup should be placed over the sagittal suture, 3 cm in front of the posterior fontanelle, no maternal tissue should be trapped along the edge and underneath the cup Coordinate pulls with maternal expulsive efforts. Do not exceed limits. No consensus on pulls … some say limit traction pulls to → A vacuum procedure should not exceed 30 min, with a total suction time of less than 10 minutes A vacuum should not be used to deliver fetuses under 36 weeks’ gestation Vacuum + forceps criteria 3–5? • Presented with an OP presentation, would you rotate? • There are definitely some risks. It would depend on the experience of the practitioner. One would also need to evaluate if the fetal head was large, not floating and individualize each particular case VACUUM EXTRACTOR Types Malmstrom metal cup with diameter 40–60 mm Soft cups (polymeric silicone). Introduced in 1973 65 mm VE cups indicated for outlet and low OA < 45° extractions: Soft cups (silicone or plastic) Kiwi ProCup and Tender Touch cups Standard Mityvac and Soft Touch cups Silc, Gentle Vac, and Secure cups Silastic, Reusable, and Vac-U-Nate cups Rigid “anterior” cups (plastic or metal) Kiwi OmniCup M-Style Mityvac cup Flex cup Malmstrom, Bird, and O’Neil anterior cups VE cups indicated for low OA > 45°, OP, OT extractions Rigid “posterior” cups (plastic or metal) Kiwi OmniCup M-Select Mityvac cup (i.e. One-piece Mystic MitySoft Bell Cup) Bird and O’Neil posterior cups Advantage of vacuum over the use of forceps Vacuum extraction requires less general and regional anesthesia than do forceps deliveries because it is not applied against the vaginal walls Technique Place center of cup over sagittal suture 3 cm in front of posterior fontanelle. Check to make sure NO maternal tissue trapped under along edge. Coordinate pulls with maternal expulsive efforts A 5-cm cup with 600 mmHg of vacuum provides 16 kg (35 lb) of attachment force Green Zone 35–45 cmH2O or 350–450 mmHg VE pressure – NEVER EXCEED 580 mmHg or 10 lb/in2 Pearls How many pulls can one perform? NO CONSENSUS, but some have recommended only 3–6 A VE procedure should not exceed 30 min, with a total suction time of less than 10 min Incidence of severe fetal injury or death per 1000 VE procedures is in the range of 0.1–3 cases A vacuum should not be used to deliver fetuses under 36 weeks’ gestation It is suggested that all infants undergoing VE have an umbilical cord hematocrit to monitor for changes that could signify a subgaleal bleed Shoulder dystocia is the most prominent risk factor for brachial plexus palsy in the setting of vacuum extraction 1.1% In the U.S., VE is used 2–3 times more often than forceps for operative delivery 393 VAGINAL BIRTH AFTER C-SECTION VAGINAL ANATOMY (1) Longitudinal vaginal septum – “double-barrel vagina” Failure of fusion of lower Müllerian ducts Difficulty using tampons, dyspareunia, possible infertility of repeated ab if outside didelphic uterus EXCISE SEPTUM. IVP to rule out other anomalies (2) Transverse vaginal septum – incidence 1/2100–72 000 Etiology unknown. Incomplete fusion between Müllerian duct and urogenital sinus Most (what %) occur at junction of upper 1/3 and lower 2/3 of vagina? 46% Hydrocolpos or HEMOCOLPOS (> puberty). Complete – cyclic pain with no menses Partial – dyspareunia or routine exam I&D then delay surgery 6–8 weeks. Usually not associated with urological or other anomalies VAGINAL AGENESIS Primary amenorrhea and absence of Müllerian structures Complete Müllerian agenesis Complete androgen insensitivity (M-R-K-H syndrome) 46XX 46XY Normal ovaries Often have undescended testes Defect is Müllerian Defect is in androgen receptor 50% renal and vertebral defects Scant pubic and axillary hair is noted IVP to check for R&V defects Check karyotype prior to gonadectomy FSH, LH, testosterone – normal Testosterone (same or elevated more than in normal males) LH is elevated secondary to resistance of hypothalamic–pituitary to androgen Remember Complete Müllerian agenesis Mayer–Rokitansky–Kustner–Hauser syndrome Normal ovaries Defect also associated with renal or vertebral defects in Check vertebra and renal system. Do an IVP These labs are all normal – FSH, LH, testosterone Complete androgen insensitivity Often have undescended testes Defect in androgen receptor. The axillary and pubic hair is scant Prior to gonadectomy, check this karotype These labs are elevated – testosterone Increased due to resistance of hyp-pit to androgen 46XX 50% 46XY LH VAGINAL BIRTH AFTER C-SECTION Incidence of uterine rupture After one C-section After one low transverse C-section After two C-sections Has been reported as low as Incidence of rupture with low transverse PRIOR to labor rare After a classical or T-shaped incision CD (Cesarean delivery) Has been reported as high as Incidence of rupture with classical or vertical PRIOR to labor After an unknown scar < 1% 0.2–1.5% 2–5% 1–1.3% 4–9% 12% 33% ? 394 VAGINAL CREATION After rupture of the lower uterine segment After rupture of upper uterine segment Spontaneous rupture of an UNSCARRED uterus 6% 32% 1/15 000 TOL (trial of labor) success rate should be #VBACs/# pts with prior CDs × 100 #VBACs/# pts who had TOL after CD × 100 Overall success rate is Success rate with history of CD for breech Success rate with history of CD for fetal distress Success rate with history of CD for dystocia 60–80% VBAC rate VBAC success rate 75% 90% 80% 70% Previous vaginal delivery lowered the uterine rupture rate Definition Rupture – separation of entire incision, ROM, fetus out, increased bleeding Dehiscence – separation of part of the incision, intact membranes, fetus in, no or minimal bleeding Symptoms of rupture include Decreased FHR (severe variable decelerations) are the most common early symptom seen in what % of patients? Loss of station, decreased uterine activity and shock are symptoms Acute abdominal pain is seen in Prognosis 80% 10% Fetal mortality rate is 50–75% Maternal mortality rate is 44% The less time between deliveries, the more likely is uterine rupture Personally review the prior operative note before attempting a trial of labor Srinivas demonstrated that significant clinical variables (prelabor and labor) cannot reliably predict VBAC failure (Srinivas SK, Stamilio DM, Stevens EJ, et al. Predicting failure of a vaginal birth attempt after Cesarean delivery. Obstet Gynecol 2007; 109:800–5) Treatment Prompt diagnosis, STAT SURGERY, blood and antibiotic therapy VBAC criteria Females deliver vaginally after previous LTCS in the USA @ Literature does not set policy one way or another. Recently VBAC was discouraged after it had been encouraged – it waffles back and forth depending on rise in C-section rate Some key points; (1) Selection criteria useful for identifying candidates for VBAC include: a limit of 1 prior low-transverse Cesarean, clinically adequate pelvis, no other uterine scars or previous rupture, and no contraindications (2) Offer VBAC only if obstetric care and anesthesiology are available throughout active labor, in case emergency Cesarean is necessary (3) Single-layer uterine closure may increase the risk of rupture during subsequent labors (4) Epidural anesthesia is safe for women undergoing a trial of labor Candidates 1 prior C-section, adequate pelvis, no other uterine scars, and STAT available staff Contraindications Vertical or T-shaped classical or fundal incisions, contracted pelvis, medical complications, previous uterine rupture, contraindications to vaginal birth, and/or inability to do STAT C-section VAGINAL CREATION Neovagina 60% Split-thickness skin graft Easiest, mold Cong abs of vagina, status post-vaginectomy or stenosis after radiation 27% VAGINAL INTRAEPITHELIAL NEOPLASIA (VAIN) 395 Myocutaneous graft Use after exenteration Gracilis flaps Pressure sensitivity excellent. Increase skin loss What % of these flaps are lost due to vascular compromise? 10–20% Vulvobulbocavernosus cutaneous graft Tactile sensation increased due to neovagina tissue enervated by pudendal nerve VAGINITIS (See also Vulvovaginitis) Normal vaginal pH 3.8–4.2 Yeast Negative whiff test and pH < 4.5 BV Positive whiff test and pH > 4.7 VAGINAL INTRAEPITHELIAL NEOPLASIA (VAIN) Two factors that predict the recurrence of VAIN are: (1) Multifocality (2) Method of treatment Risk of recurrence according to treatment: • Risk of recurrence when treatment is with 5-FU is • Risk of recurrence when treatment is with CO2 laser is • Risk of recurrence when treatment is with partial vaginectomy • Interestingly, age, smoking, HRT use, grade of VAIN, location of VAIN and association with either CIN or VIN were not predictive of recurrence VAIN is associated with CIN and VIN 5-FU is no longer considered a good treatment for VAIN and may not even have any indication for the use of 5-FU in lower genital tract Imiquimod 5% (Aldara®) might be an option prior to excision Most VAIN occurs in the upper vagina 59% 38% 0% 396 VAGINAL INTRAEPITHELIAL NEOPLASIA (VAIN) Vaginal or vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia (VAIN/VIN) Vaginal or vulvar intraepithelial neoplasia, dysplasia of the vulvovagina, and papillomatosis are often noted on vaginal/vulvar cytology prior to and after hysterectomies. Although many sources are now recommending discontinuance of Pap smears after hysterectomy, this is empirically continued at least once every 3 years secondary to the continued findings of this vaginal pathology in our area Colposcopic directed biopsy VAIN or VIN 5-Fluorouracil (Efudex) or cryotherapy Imiquimod 5% (Aldara) or 85% trichloroacetic acid or cryotherapy Persistent abnormal cytology Laser treatment Wide excision or superficial skinning vulvectomy VAGINAL INTRAEPITHELIAL NEOPLASIA (VAIN) 397 Informed consent and instructions for 5-fluorouracil cream You have been given a prescription for 5-fluorouracil (5-FU, Efudex®) cream for the treatment of lesions on your vagina and/or cervix. 5-FU has been used for more than 25 years in treatment of various lesions or growths of the skin. However, this medication has not been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in treating warts or other precancerous growths on the genitals. A number of studies have proven the effectiveness of this drug in treating warts and “dysplasias” or abnormal growths from the wart virus. One of the major concerns using the drug is its effect on pregnancy. It is therefore vital that you are not pregnant while you are using 5-FU cream because its safety for the developing fetus is unknown. You should use close to perfect birth control (birth control pills, sterilization, abstinence, IUD or condoms and diaphragm together) Side-effects of this medication are mainly vaginal or vulvar irritation or burning which may be significant enough to stop treatment temporarily. If you notice this happening, please call the office for further instructions. Instructions for vaginal use (1) Use only the specially marked applicator that has been given to you or the prefilled applicators (2) If you do not have the prefilled applicators, please fill your applicator to the 2.0-g mark. Double check this for the correct level (3) Put the applicator with the cream high into your vagina and push the plunger in (4) Take the applicator apart and wash with warm soapy water or throw away the prefilled applicator container (5) Go to bed (6) In the morning, get into a tub of warm water and wash out the vagina as well as you can with your fingers (7) You should not have intercourse for 24 h after each cream dose (8) You should repeat this procedure using one dose every week for a total of 10 doses or 10 weeks Instruction for vulvar or external use (1) Dab a small amount (size of pea or bean) of cream onto the entire vulva while looking into a mirror. This would be best done at bedtime. Rub the white cream entirely into the vulvar skin until the cream disappears. Leave no patches of cream on the skin. Check again with a mirror (2) Repeat this procedure two times a week for 10 weeks (3) The morning after the treatment, sit in a tub of warm water and wash off any remaining cream After either the vaginal or vulvar use, you should make an appointment for a repeat colposcopy 6–8 weeks after completing your last dose. If you have any questions, please call. INFORMED CONSENT I understand that the medication 5-FU has been prescribed for me to treat condyloma (warts) or skin changes believed to be from the wart virus. I understand that the FDA has not approved this medication for use. I also understand that it is unsafe to become pregnant while using this medication as its effects on pregnancy are unknown and that it is my responsibility to avoid pregnancy. I have had the opportunity to ask any questions I might have regarding this medication. PATIENT’S SIGNATURE DATE PROVIDER/PRACTITIONER 398 VAGINAL CIS VAGINAL CIS VAIN – most commonly in upper 1/3 of vagina. Pap – colpo with biopsy to diagnose Symptoms Asymptomatic, occasionally postcoital bleeding Risks: increased with HPV, radiation, immunosuppressive therapy and previous history of CIN/cervical cancer. Most often multifocal so get Paps from multiple sites Treatment (1) Local excision of small lesions (2) 5-FU and/or laser therapy for larger size or multiple lesions (3) Upper colpectomy or total vaginectomy VARICELLA-ZOSTER VIRUS What % of patients are immune to varicella virus? 90% Primary infection is chickenpox with maculopapular/vesicular rash with symptoms + fever × 3–5 days No evidence that zoster increases frequency of congenital abnormalities of varicella Complications of chickenpox Maternal Most common is secondary skin infections (streptococcal and staphylococcal) Most serious is pneumonia that develops in Varicella pneumonia has what % mortality? 20% 35% Fetal The risk of congenital varicella is increased during 13–20 weeks There is NO risk after what week gestation? 20 weeks There is an increased risk if fetus exposed to virus just prior to or during delivery. VZIG to be given @5 days prior to delivery or 2 days postpartum Treatment Acyclovir 10 mg/kg IV q. 8 h, O2, ventilation p.r.n. VZIG @ 96 h after exposure in dose of Prevent with Varivax 0.5 ml – recommended for ages Suspected adults and adolescents CONTRAINDICATED IN PREGNANCY 125 u per 10 kg IM 12 months thru 12 years 2 doses 6 weeks apart VARICOCELES Present in what % of postpubertal males (either unilateral or bilateral)? 15% VASA PREVIA Incidence 1/2000–1/3000 Diagnosis ELUSIVE DIAGNOSIS Palpable abnormalities and color flow Doppler? Must have a high degree of clinical suspicion. Sometimes one might palpate abnormalities in the fetal membranes at the level of the cervix Definition Velementous insertion when some vessels cross os Presents usually with SUDDEN VAGINAL BLEEDING associated with unresponsive fetal bradycardia Treatment STAT C-section Prior to amniotomy – stain blood with Wright’s stain for nucleated fetal RBCs Not always time for APT test Fetal mortality rate 70–75% 399 VITAMIN THERAPY VASECTOMY What % of men develop sperm antibodies in serum after a vasectomy? 50% VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM Incidence General population Affects this % of pregnancies What % of untreated DVT will develop pulmonary embolism? The mortality for pulmonary embolism is Treating DVT will reduce the incidence of the occurrence of pulmonary embolism to The reduced mortality of pulmonary embolism will be 0.1–0.3% 0.05–0.3% 24% 15% 4.5% 1% Symptoms of VTE Tachypnea Dyspnea Pleuritic chest pain Apprehension Cough 90% > 80% < 70% 60% 50% Diagnosis of VTE Ascending venography – most accurate test for DVT 5 rads Doppler US and impedance plethysmography PaO2 usually associated with O2 < 85 mmHg EKG – tachycardia most commonly seen What wave inversion is seen only in massive PE? T Perfusion and ventilation lung scanning – most useful for suspected PE Pulmonary angiography – gold standard Treatment Heparin IV 5–10 days then SC q. 12 h during pregnancy PTT to be kept or INR 1.5–2.5 × out 2–3 x How much PROTAMINE will neutralize 100 u of heparin? 1 mg VERSION See External cephalic version VIOLENCE What % of all lone-offender violence against women was perpetrated by those who knew victim? 75% What % of men who abuse partners also abuse children? 50% Violence usually begins or escalates during pregnancy Race or ethnicity are not associated with an increased risk Domestic violence Hot Line is 1 - 800 - 799 - SAFE VITAMIN THERAPY Vitamin A Minimum human teratogenic dose of Vit A is probably at least this IU daily 25 000–50 000 Risk begins with as little as how much per day? 10 000 IU Risks include neural tube defects, cleft lip and palate defects RDA of Vit A for non-pregnant females and not increased during pregnancy is 800 retinol eq/day RDA for pregnancy and lactation is 2700 IU/day A balanced diet usually has how much Vit A per day? 7000–8000 IU/day Most women in the U.S.A. have adequate stores of Vit A in their livers Supplementation of how much should be considered maximum intake (p.r.n.) 5000 IU Balanced diet provides how much Vit A? 7000–8000 IU 400 VULVAR ANATOMY Vitamin B6 Decreases homocysteine which is a significant risk factor in CHD, MI, stroke and VTE Vitamin B12 Vegetarians need more of this. Also decreases homocysteine Vitamin C May need extra for women with limited sun exposure RDA for pregnancy and lactation is Risks include hypercalcemia (fatigue, depression, confusion, anorexia, nausea and vomiting) Risk of toxicity usually after chronic ingestion of over Vitamin D 400 IU 50 000 IU Vitamin E Decreased risk of CHD and Alzheimer’s Folate Need this much periconceptional 0.4 mg/day Need to increase with multiple gestations to 1 mg/day Need to increase with epileptics, hemoglobinopathies and previous history of NTD to 4 mg/day Ferrous sulfate Give how much t.i.d.? How much iron is in a 325 mg tablet? Only this % is absorbed from the tablet 325 mg 60 mg 10–20% VULVAR ANATOMY Ischiocavernosus m., bulbocavernosus m. and transversus perinei m. Clitoris Ischiocavernosus muscle (erector clitoridis) surrounds clitoris Vestibular bulb Urethra Bulbocavernosus muscle Vagina Bulbocavernosus muscle (contractions decrease vaginal orifice) Transversus perinei (contraction fixes central tendon of pelvis) Transversus perinei Anus Inferior hemorrhoidal artery External anal sphincter Iliococcygeus muscle VULVAR ATYPIA Squamous cell hyperplasia Lichen sclerosus Intraepithelial neoplasia Mild dysplasia Moderate dysplasia Severe dysplasia VIN I VIN II VIN III Others Paget’s disease Melanoma in situ Level I 401 VULVAR MASS (OR LABIAL MASS) VULVAR HEMATOMA Signs are subacute volume loss or vulvar pain – can be severe Blood loss is limited by: (1) Colle’s fascia (2) Anal fascia (3) Urogenital diaphragm If small, treat expectantly If severe – I&D and obliterate cavity If no bleeding sites, pack cavity for Blood replacement p.r.n., catheterize for how many hours? Pressure dressing for how many hours? 12–24 h 24–36 h 12 h VULVAR INTRAEPITHELIAL NEOPLASIA (VIN) Average age for VIN Average age for vulvar cancer Signs and symptoms Asymptomatic in what % of cases? Pruritis is predominant symptom. VIN lesions are hyper- or pseudopigmented in about 40 70 50% 30%of cases Etiology HPV is associated with VIN in what % of cases? Diagnosis (1) History and physical (inspection) (2) Colposcopy Multifocal more common in premenopausal women Unifocal more common in postmenopausal women (3) Biopsy with 4–6 mm Keyes Punch Derm Use Gelfoam × 24 h for bleeding • Biopsy is essential for correct diagnosis of VIN What % of females evaluated for VIN had vulvar cancer? 20% VIN I Mild dysplasia VIN II Moderate dysplasia VIN III Severe dysplasia VIN IV Carcinoma in situ 80–90% Treatment (1) Wide local excision with disease-free border of ≥ 5 mm 5-FU has a failure rate in VIN treatment of 50% Multifocal lesions – vulvectomy + skin graft. Laser, cryo, cautery increase ulcer formation (2) Laser is treatment of choice for multifocal disease Main complaint after laser therapy is PAIN Post-laser therapy care includes – topical steroids, Sitz baths, local anesthesia and pain meds especially for 3–4 days postop Vaporization of the vulva should be limited to the following depths: (a) Labia minora (hair-free) 0.5 mm (b) Labia majora (hair-containing) 1.5–2 mm If CIS is present, SIMPLE VULVECTOMY (20% have invasion) If cancer present, RADICAL VULVECTOMY AND BILAT INGUINAL LYMPHADENECTOMY Lymph node dissection is the single most important factor in decreasing mortality from early recurrence of vulvar cancer VULVAR MASS (OR LABIAL MASS) Differential Bartholin’s cyst Papilloma Vulvar varicosity Testes 402 VULVAR ULCER Leiomyoma Gartner’s duct cyst Lymphogranuloma venereum Sebaceous cysts VULVAR ULCER Differential (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Herpes 3–7 days’ incubation, painful, vesicle formation LGV 1–4 days’ incubation, painless, superficial tender lymph nodes Granuloma inguinale 8–10 weeks’ incubation, painless, red base with rolled elevated edge Trauma Syphilis 10–60 days’ incubation, painless, indurated with raised edges, solitary or “kissing” lesions Chancroid 2–6 days’ incubation, painful, tender, irregular, undermined lesions Red “halo” with bubo – inguinal adenopathy – chronic drainage Crohn’s disease Scabies VULVAR VESTIBULITIS Severe pain and dyspareunia. Little known. Culture any raw areas Hallmark of vestibulitis: Severe pain on touch, with tenderness localized with the vestibule in a horseshoe pattern Etiology Questionable. Possibly associated with: (1) (2) (3) (4) Candida albicans Human papillomavirus Neurologic Psychologic (marital conflict, history of sexual abuse, somatic) Rule out (5) Herpes vulvitis (6) Contact dermatitis (7) Focal infection (8) Vulvar dystrophy Many patients have depression. Rx with antidepressants Tricyclic antidepressants (amitriptyline HCl) Do NOT use benzodiazapines! Symptoms Exquisite sensitivity to touch (especially laterally from hymenal ring to HART line of labia min) Burning pain/pressure for how many months? 3 months or > Application of this causes exquisite pain 3–5% acetic acid Bartholin’s glands often are dilated. Digital exam may be associated with levator ani spasm Treatment Triamcinolone 0.1% then reduce to hydrocortisone 1%. Topical lidocaine 2% gel may be used prior to intercourse. Kegel pelvic floor exercises, biofeedback or behavioral therapy. Injectable interferon Many treatments but BEST cure in this % is surgical excision in 60–80% If excision is to depth of 2 mm Vulvar vestibulitis is associated with a decreased incidence of sexual activity in what % of cases? > 80% Patients most likely to benefit from vestibulectomy are those patients who are totally unable to have intercourse (Schneider D, Yaron M, Bukovsky I, et al. Outcome of surgical treatment for superficial dyspareunia from vulvar vestibulitis. J Reprod Med 2001; 46:227–31) Electromyographic biofeedback of pelvic floor musculature may be an effective treatment (McKay E, Kaufman RH, Doctor U, et al. Treating vulvar vestibulitis with electromyographic biofeedback of pelvic floor musculature. J Reprod Med 2001; 46:337–42) 403 VULVODYNIA VULVODYNIA Chronic vulvar discomfort, especially that characterized by the patient’s complaint of burning, stinging, irritation, or rawness Vulvodynia pain may never subside completely Classification of vulvodynia (vulvar pain) Dermatologic: (1) Contact dermatitis (2) Erosive lichen planus (3) Rare dermatoses (Behçet’s, pemphigus, cicatricial pemphigoid) Atrophic vulvovaginitis Chronic infections: (1) Yeast (Candida glabrata) (2) HPV (3) Herpes genitalis Neoplasia: (1) VIN (2) Cancer of the vulva Vestibulitis Others Rule out contact irritants or sensitizing agents of the vulvar skin Examples of irritants Laundry detergents, fabric softeners and dryer sheets Body soap Pads and panty liners (especially if scented) Perfumes Synthetic underwear and pantyhose Povidone-iodine and other surgical skin cleansers Agents used for treatment of warts (5-FU, podophyllin and Aldara) Deodorants, douches, moistened wipes, powders Washcloths Urinary or fecal incontinence Vaginal discharge and menstrual flow Semen Topical medications in the form of creams or gels (ETOH/glycol, etc.) Lubricants and lubricated condoms Spermicides Examples of sensitizers Topical antibiotics (neomycin) Spermicides Dyes (found in clothing) Rubber (exam gloves/condoms) Nickel (pierced jewelry) Corticosteroids Topical anesthetics (benzocaine) Fragrances Preservatives in topical meds (parabens, formaldehyde) Emollients in topical meds (lanolin) General skin care of vulvodynia (1) Avoid contact irritants and sensitizers as much as possible (see above) (2) Use laundry detergent free of perfumes and enzymes (3) Whenever possible use medications in the form of ointments rather than creams or gels (4) Use only water and the hand to wash the vulva (5) Wear cotton underwear during the day and do not wear any underwear in bed at night (6) Use vegetable oil as lubricant for intercourse (7) Use non-lubricated condoms with vegetable oil (8) Apply a bland ointment free of fragrances regularly as an occlusive skin protectant (zinc oxide or A+D) (9) Soak with baking soda for 15 min daily (4–5 tablespoons of baking soda in bathtub of lukewarm water) Diagnosis and management of various forms of vulvodynia (1) Contact dermatitis – erythema and edema – triamcinolone 0.1% b.i.d. × 1 week, daily x second week, then 3 × weekly for 2–4 weeks then use hydrocortisone 1% cream for residual or recurrences 404 VULVOVAGINITIS If no improvement – consider allergic contact dermatitis → refer for patch testing (2) Erosive lichen planus Dyspareunia worsens as the disease progresses. Erosions in vagina. Adhesions of labia minora. Micro demonstrates immature cells (basal and parabasal epithelial cells) and many white blood cells. Tacrolimus 0.1% ointment for severe cases. Mild steroid treatment for less severe cases (3) Atrophic vulvovaginitis Discharge is brownish with spots of blood. Erythema and erosion. Skin may appear thin. Estrogen therapy and sometimes low potent steroids (4) HPV (human papillomavirus) Acetowhite changes along post fourchette and Hart’s line of inner labia minora. Imiquimod (Aldara) 3 × per week for at least 6 weeks (5) Herpes genitalis Isolate and identify by culture. Acyclovir, valacyclovir or famciclovir (6) VIN I–II – biopsy. Treat same as HPV VIN III → CIS – biopsy. Wide local excision. Vulvectomy as last resort (7) Cancer Usually does not produce pain unless fissuring of lesions occur. Radical vulvectomy with bilateral inguinal lymphadenectomy (8) Vestibulitis – etiology unclear. Many. See Vulvar vestibulitis (9) Others (a) Sjögren’s syndrome – autoimmune disease causing dryness and burning of the vagina, mouth and eyes. Amitriptyline 10–25 mg at night. Topical 0.25% menthol in aquaphilic ointment (b) Gabapentin 100–3000 mg daily 64% patients had 80% relief VULVOVAGINITIS RECURRENT Normal vaginal pH is Physiologic pH is Suspect BV or Trich if pH C. albicans is culprit in RVVC @ what %? Management 3.2–4.2 < 4.5 > 4.7 90% (1) Clotrimazole, butoconazole, miconazole, nystatin, terconazole, tioconazole (Monistat®, Femstat®, Terazol® ) for 14 days, then weekly × 6 weeks Ketoconazole (Nizoral®) 400 mg daily for 14 days, then 100 mg daily × 6 months Watch hepatic enzymes, GI distress, rash, headache. No Seldane® (3) Diflucan 150 mg, then 100 mg weekly × 25 weeks (2) Symptomatology Vulvar/vaginal burning, discharge Evaluate vagina Inspect external genitalia (r/o excoriations, blisters, ulcerations erythema, edema, atrophy) Examine vaginal discharge – gross and microscopic pH level: > 4.5 (bacterial vaginosis OR trichomoniasis) < 4.5 (physiologic OR uncomplicated candidal vaginitis) Whiff test: + fishy odor = amines = anaerobic bacteria (10% KOH) – fishy odor = normal flora Rule out allergic/chemical irritation – careful history Candidal vaginitis Part of normal vaginal flora Self-diagnosis, telephone nurse diagnosis, and even clinician diagnostic workups are often inaccurate or incomplete Risk factors: Recent Abx, diabetes (2 h GTT – 75 g), immunosuppression (HIV) Diagnosis: History – pruritus, burning (worsened with urination/sexual activity) Physical exam – non-malodorous, thick, white “cottage cheese” discharge; vagina hyperemic/edematous 405 VULVOVAGINITIS Diagnostic tests – pH < 4.5 (normal) – microscopic – hyphal forms/budding yeast – a woman with complicated candidiasis should have a yeast culture to find out what species of yeast is causing her infection Treatment: Topical (first line) – terconazole, butoconazole, clotrimazole, miconazole, tioconazole Oral (second line) – fluconazole 150 mg (not in pregnancy) Resistant vulvovaginal candidiasis (RVVC) (1) Fluconazole 100 mg orally every week × 6 months (2) Boric acid capsules 600 mg per vagina q.d. × 14 days Treatment for uncomplicated candidiasis Agent Brand name Dosage Butoconazole 2% cream Femstat* 5 g intravaginally × 3 days Clotrimazole 1% cream Gyne-Lotrimin* 5 g intravaginally × 7–14 days Mycelex-7 5 g intravaginally × 7–14 days Gyne-Lotrimin vaginal inserts* One 100 mg insert × 7 days Mycelex-7 vaginal inserts* One 100 mg insert × 7 days Mycelex-G vaginal tablets One 500 mg tablet Fluconazole oral tablets Diflucan tablets One 150 mg tablet Miconazole 2% cream Monistat 7* 5 g intravaginally for 7 days Miconazole suppositories Monistat 7* One 100 mg suppository × 7 days Monistat 3 One 200 mg suppository × 3 days Terconazole 0.4% cream Terazol 7 5 g intravaginally × 7 days Terconazole 0.8% cream Terazol 3 5 g intravaginally × 3 days Terconazole suppositories Terazol 3 One 80 mg suppository × 3 days Tioconazole 6.5% vaginal Vagistat-1 5 g intravaginally once Clotrimazole vaginal tabs *Available without prescription Bacterial vaginosis History: pruritus burning, malodorous discharge (worsened during menses/ after intercourse) Physical exam: discharge, malodorous, thin, grey, homogenous Diagnostic tests (traditionally diagnosed when 3 of 4 Amsel’s criteria are met. These criteria include: (1) pH > 4.5 (2) +Whiff test (3 out of 4) (3) Clue cells at least equal to 20% of epithelial cells (4) White or gray homogenous discharge Treatment: Topical – 0.75% metronidazole (Vandazole or MetroGel) gel, intravaginal × 5 days (not for ophthalmic, dermal, or oral use!) – 2% clindamycin cream, intravaginally q.d. × 7 days Oral – metronidazole 500 mg b.i.d. × 7 days (or 250 mg t.i.d. × 7 days) – clindamycin 300 mg b.i.d. × 7 days – twice weekly intravaginal metronidazole greatly reduces relapse 406 VULVOVAGINITIS Treatment for bacterial vaginosis Agent Brand name Dosage Metronidazole oral tablets Flagyl One 500 mg tab twice daily for 7 days or Metronidazole 0.75% gel Metrogel-Vaginal 5 g intravaginally twice daily × 5 days* or Clindamycin phosphate 2% cream Clindesse 1 prefilled applicator vaginally one time or Clindamycin 2% cream Cleocin 5 g intravaginally × 7 days or Clindamycin oral tablets Cleocin HCl capsules Two 150 mg capsules twice daily × 7 days *Some recommend that Metrogel can be used once daily at night for 5 days, especially for milder infections Trichomonas vaginalis History: discharge (copious, yellow-green, homogenous, malodorous), vulvovaginal irritation, dysuria Physical exam: frothy, malodorous discharge, “strawberry cervix” Diagnostic tests (If purulent, requires exclusion of cervicitis, PID, estrogen deficiency plus finding of elevated pH and inflammatory cells): (1) pH > 4.5 (2) wet mount (mobile, flagellated organisms) (3) trichomonads on Pap Treatment: Oral metronidazole – 2 g p.o. × 1 dose or 500 mg b.i.d. × 7 days Resistant trichomoniasis Combination oral/vaginal metronidazole Culture for resistant strains Confirm treatment of partner IV metronidazole (requires hospitalization) Atrophic vaginitis Thinning of vaginal epithelium, loss of rugae, friable Treatment: Oral – 0.625 mg conjugated estrogens q. day. Topical – estrogen cream 2–4 g q.d. × 2 weeks and then q.o.d. × 2 weeks. Maintenance: estrogen 1–3 × week GAS (Group A streptococcal purulent vaginitis) DIV (desquamative Young mothers Immediate family history of GAS pharyngitis/proctitis Children (prepubertal): – Vulvitis – Proctis Usually misdiagnosed as Candida Clue – Lack of response to antimycotics – Saline microscopy – increased PMNs, cocci, and increased pH Diagnosis – culture Treatment – penicillin Noninfectious forms of purulent vaginitis include DIV and erosive lichen planus – Chronic inflammatory process that involves the vagina but not the vulva inflammatory vaginitis) • Unresponsive to estrogen therapy alone • Typically seen in perimenopausal Caucasian women but very rare in African-American women and other minorities • May be an autoimmune disease Symptoms – purulent discharge, irritation, soreness, burning, and pain Diagnosis – high pH, increase in PMNs and parabasal cells, absence of lactobacilli, and an overgrowth of other organisms Rule out T. vaginalis, cervicitis, endometritis, atrophic vaginits, ELP and pemphigus syndromes Treatment – 10% hydrocortisone cream or 2% clindamycin cream or in treatment-resistant cases, with both agents ELP (erosive lichen planus) • May affect the mouth and throat, vagina, vulva, and vestibule Diagnosis – may cause gingival erythema and erosion or white reticulate lesions • If ELP of skin involved, diagnosis is easy • Complications – can frequently involve fibrosis and synechia that may become lifelong causing shortening or obliteration of the vagina or lead to neoplasia • Treatment – high-dose intravaginal steroids sometimes with clindamycin cream 2% and/or topical tacrolimus gel • 407 WEIGHT Symptom complex Pruritus, burning, dysuria, discharge History, physical, wet mount, whiff test, pH Negative hyphae Positive hyphae pH >4.5 Trichomonads pH <4.5 Adherent white discharge Negative whiff No trichomonads 3 or 4 present: (1) pH >4.5 (2) Clue cells (3) Positive whiff (4) Homogenous discharge Atrophic vaginitis ORAL METRONIDAZOLE Antifungal Rx Antifungal Rx Topical/oral ? Recurrent candidiasis Treat for bacterial vaginosis Topical/oral estrogen Vagifem 25 µg q. hs Estring x 3 months Premarin cream Estrace cream Fluconazole q. week x 6 months OR Boric acid capsules x14 days WEIGHT BMI = Wt (kg) / ht squared (m2) Normal weight is BMI between 19–25 kg/m2 Overweight is BMI between 25.1–29.9 kg/m2 Obesity is BMI over 30 kg/m2 Rapid weight loss of how much during the first week can cause gallbladder dysfunction? 2–5 kg or 4–11 lb Then continued weight loss of how much per week thereafter can cause GB dysfunction? 2.2–4.5 lb What % of patients develop gallstones while losing weight rapidly? 50% 408 WOUND CLOSURE Weight gain during pregnancy Approximate wt gain recommended since 1960s If patient obese If patient underweight Recommended extra calories per day while pregnant 25 lb 15 lb 30–37 lb 300 WOUND CLOSURE Continuous suture closure is (1) Faster (2) Cost-efficient (3) Decreased risk of infection Suture is to be left how far apart and how far back from fascial edge? 1 cm Dexon and polyglactin 910 lose half tensile strength in 2 weeks Maxon loses half tensile strength in 3 weeks PDS loses half tensile strength in 6 weeks Vaginal repair of bladder injuries If you are going to be doing ANY vaginal surgery including minimally invasive surgeries – you will eventually injure the bladder and need to know how to repair it (1) Lacerations 2 cm or less in size are usually amenable to vaginal repair (2) Make sure the the perforation is well away (> 1 cm) from the ureteral orifices and there is free efflux from both orifices (3) Close the defect from the vaginal side in 3 imbricating layers, being careful to keep the suture knots out of the bladder lumen (4) Dissect the overlying vaginal mucosa off the endopelvic fascia for 1 cm around the defect to expose the bladder adventitia (5) Reapproximate the bladder adventitia by placing the first suture in a running layer horizontally using a 3-0 synthetic rapid absorbable monofilament suture (Monocryl) (6) Place the 2nd layer in a running fashion to imbricate the first suture line extending just beyond the angles of the first layer using a 3-0 delayed absorbable synthetic monofilament suture (PDS) for this layer (7) Place the third-level suture in the adventitia to imbricate the second suture line, also extending this layer just beyond the ends of the second-layer suture. (3-0 PDS or some type of delayed absorbable synthetic monofilament suture) ZIDOVUDINE (AZT) Administration in pregnancy Two-thirds relative reduction in vertical transmission (control 26%, treatment group 8% transmission) Transient neonatal anemia noted in some study subjects Consider treatment for all HIV-positive pregnant women after 14 weeks’ EGA All patients to receive zidovudine should be counseled regarding benefits/ risks above Antepartum therapy Zidovudine 100 mg p.o. 5 ×/day Intrapartum therapy Recommended for any woman in pre-term labor requiring IV tocolytics and those scheduled for elective C-section Loading dose (2 mg/kg) Zidovudine _____ mg in 50 ml 5% dextrose in water. Administer over 60 min or Zidovudine _____ mg in 50 ml 1.0% NaCl. Administer over 60 min Maintenance infusion Zidovudine 500 mg or 250 ml D5W. Rate: _____ mg/h or Zidovudine 500 mg or 250 ml 0.9% NaCl. Rate: _____ mg/h Zidovudine _____ is stable in both NS and D5W Choice of diluent dependent on patient needs (e.g. diabetic) No data on IV compatibility of zidovudine, therefore, requires separate IV line for infusion 409 WOUND CLOSURE The concentration of the maintenance solution is 2 mg/ml. To calculate the rate for the infusion, divide the patient’s weight (in kg) by two and round to the nearest whole number. Infuse at this rate until the patient delivers. Alternatively, the following chart can be used: Patient’s weight (kg) Rate (ml/h) 50 25 52 26 54 27 56 28 58 29 60 30 62 31 64 32 66 33 68 34 70 35 72 36 74 37 76 38 78 39 80 40 82 41 84 42 86 43 88 44 90 45 92 46 94 47 96 48 98 49 100 50 411 Appendix KNOW THESE FOR THE BOARDS OR STAY AT HOME Development of secondary sex characteristics B Breast bud → thelarche P Pubic hair → pubarche A Axillary hair → adrenarche M Menstruation → menarche Average age is 12.8 years The maximum growth spurt is just prior to menarche Catheter French = 3× diameter in millimeters For example: Uterine weight 24 French = 8 mm diameter Normal is 60–90 g Myometrial hypertrophy begins at 120 g Blood loss normally from menstruation is approximately Menorrhagia is 30–35 cc > 80–85 cc or > 7 days of bleeding Definition of amenorrhea is No period for at least 6 months (some define it for at least 12 months) Definition of oligomenorrhea >37 days between cycles Do you know the significance of the color of the tanks in the operating room? If you do not know this one, you are in trouble. This has actually been asked during oral boards Oxygen Nitrous oxide Carbon dioxide CIS is found on cervical biopsy. What should be done prior to hysterectomy? Green Blue Gray Conization Why are normal ovaries sometimes removed? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Patient’s desire Family history of epithelial ovarian cancer Family member or friend had to have a reoperation Cancer risk is 1/70 for ovarian cancer 5—20% later have reoperation for pathology involving ovaries List the steps to manage a shoulder dystocia Adenomyosis is defined by what? Endometrial glands and stroma invading myometrium by one of the following: (1) 1 low-power field (2) 2 high-power field (3) 3 mm Müllerian structures All reproductive structures except the ovaries (arises from genital ridge) and lower 1/3 of the vagina (arises from urogenital sinus) Name some ingredients that are in Premarin: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) What dose of Premarin is the Estrone Equilin Equilenin 17α-estradiol 17α-dihydroequilin 17α-dihydroequilenin Yellow pill? White pill? Dark red pill? Name the five characteristics of serous tumors of the ovary: Serous Single loculation Ciliated 1.25 mg 0.9 mg 0.625 mg 412 APPENDIX Psammoma bodies Pseudostratified epithelium Preterm labor (term is 37—42 weeks’ gestation) Why do we hydrate patients with preterm labor? Because oxytocin and ADH is produced in the posterior pituitary and there are two theories why hydration may work: (1) Flood gate theory — oxytocin spills with ADH when one becomes dehydrated (2) Similar structure theory (oxytocin and ADH are similar structures) Target heart rate with exercise Formula is (220–age) × 0.8 for non-pregnant female The maximum BPM desired is (220–age) × 0.7 for pregnant female 140 BPM for pregnant female Know the unit of measurements of the relevant hormones Estradiol Estrone Estriol Progesterone 17-OH progesterone Androstenedione DHEA Testosterone Prolactin FSH LH TSH pg/ml pg/ml pg/ml ng/ml ng/ml ng/ml ng/ml ng/ml ng/ml mlU/ml mlU/ml micU/ml Know the treatment of PID Know Apgar scoring (1) Tone (2) Respirations (3) Heart rate (4) Color (5) Grimace 0 1 2 Absent >6 s <100 >100 Know what is in the various blood products and when to use the each for specific indications Maternal mortality Ratio = # maternal deaths per 100 000 live births Rate = # maternal deaths per 100 000 women of reproductive age Perinatal death 22 week’ gestation to 28 days postpartum Neonatal death Early Late Infant death Death that occurs anytime from birth through 12 months Birthrate # of live births per 1000 Fertility rate # of live births per 1000 females aged 15–44 Cardinal movements of labor Remember mnemonic–‘Every Darn Fool In Egypt Eats Elephants’ First 7 days after birth 7–29 days after birth Engagement Descent Flexion Internal rotation Extension External rotation Expulsion Describe the biophysical profile What is the definition of engagement? The BPD passed the plane of the inlet with the presenting part is at the ischial spines 413 APPENDIX Estimated fetal weights for gestational age Weeks 20 28 32 (+250 g/week > 34 weeks) Weight (g) 500 1000 1600 34 2000 36 40 Low birth weight Very low birth weight Extreme low birth weight 2500 3500 <2500g <1500g <1000g Ultrasound findings associated with hCG level Sac seen With vaginal probe With abdominal probe Cardiac motion with either probe hCG level 1500 6000 10 000 Explain the Bishop scoring system Factor Possible points Dilatation Effacement Station Consistency Position of cervix 3 3 3 2 2 Total possible points 13 Know how to diagnose and treat hyperemesis: Hyperemesis gravidarum Normal specific gravity 1.020—1.030 Ketones acetone, aceto-acetate, β-OH butyrate Labs to obtain CBC, lytes, U/A, TSH, LFTs, amylase Treatments Phenergan = Category C and causes sedation Zofran ODT or oral = Category B with no sedative effects. This is an excellent choice for working pregnant women as it does not sedate Disadvantage compared to Zofran is that it is more expensive Fetal cord gases (normal) pH pCO2 pO2 Arterial 7.26 46 19 Venous 7.36 36 29 Pelvic configurations Gynecoid Oval and round 50% Arch wide, sidewalls straight Android Spines prominent, sidewalls converge 1/3 of women Worse prognosis Anthropoid AP diameter > long transverse OP frequent Platypelloid 1/4 of women 1/2 black women and 1/4 white women Short AP and wide transverse 3% OT frequent Clinical pelvimetry Inlet (average transverse diameter of pelvic inlet is 13.5 cm) Diagonal conjugate should be OB conjugate should be Midpelvis Interspinous diameter should be A–P (anterior–posterior) diameter should be Pelvic outlet Transverse diameter should be AP diameter should be between Posterior sagittal diameter should be Biischial diameter (fist measurement) should be ≥11.5 cm ≥10 cm (10.5 cm is normal) ≥10 cm ≥11.5 cm ≥11 cm 9.5–11.5 cm ≥7.5 cm >.8 cm 414 APPENDIX Pelvic conjugates e A-P dia me ter of m jugat l con idp elv is O ona Diag P m nju co ate jug on Bc Sy e Tru te ga P, sacral promontory Sym, symphysis IMPORTANT TOPICS OFTEN DISCUSSED DURING ORALSV Examples are given of how the author discussed or would have discussed some of these issues. Keep in mind that many examiners may be very opinionated one way or another regarding a particular subject How would you predict shoulder dystocia? The US predictability for > 4000 g has an average predictability error of >300—400 g. All methods of predictability have comparable sensitivities of no more than 60%. Therefore, it is very difficult to predict shoulder dystocia. One could only assess the patients’ risks and alert her of that possibility if one was suspicious How do you manage a post-term patient? It would be reasonable to follow a patient after 42 weeks with a BPP or other protocol. However, one could justify induction as a reasonable alternative if the cervix was favorable or there were other mitigating circumstances keeping in mind that perinatal mortality rates double by 43 weeks and increase 4—6 times by 44 weeks’ gestation How do you calculate a Pitocin infusion? For the Dublin Protocol (active management II) 10 units in 1000 cc 10 000 milliunits 10 milliunits in 1 cc 1 milliunit in 0.1 cc × 60 = 6 cc per min What are the Rh antigens? E, D, C, e, c (small d has not been identified) FHR monitoring criteria No differences have been seen in patients who were monitored electronically versus intermittent Doppler auscultation Depends on the standard of care for the community Ultrasound screening criteria Controversial No proven cost-effectiveness May or may not be standard of care in some communities VBAC criteria 27% of females deliver vaginally after a previous LTCS in the USA Literature does not set policy one way or other Evaluate on individual case by case basis: (1) Candidate? (2) Type of uterine incision (3) Unknown scar? 415 APPENDIX Anesthesia Some studies seemingly show or support postponing epidurals until the cervix is 4–5 cm. One could use Sublimaze® (fentanyl) or other narcotic until the initiation of active labor. However, if a narcotic does not relieve the pain, it is feasible to administer the epidural earlier. In the author’s own experience of over several thousand epidurals, it seems reasonable in that it seems to help the patient relax and enjoy her labor more Breech criteria Consider breech delivery if the obstetrician is experienced in this type of delivery and if: (1) Well-flexed head (2) Frank breech (3) Zatuchni—Andros Score is >5 (Parity, age of gestation, EFW, dilatation, station and previous breech) having been scored ECV criteria Completion of 36 weeks Reactive NST or BPP US prior to and after INFORMED CONSENT Scoring system (parity, dilatation, station, EFW, placent) ≥8 Rh p.r.n. Terbutaline p.r.n. especially for nullipara VE criteria There is need for caution FDA reported 12 deaths in a 4-year period and nine serious injuries in that time. This calculates to one event per 45 455 One needs to check placement, not exceed recommended pressures and limits Forceps AND vacuum criteria Presented with an OP presentation, would you rotate? There are definitely some risks. It would depend on the experience of the practitioner. One would need to evaluate the size and station of the head and individualize each particular case Name the indications for forceps or VE use (1) (2) (3) (4) Febrile morbidity Maternal exhaustion Prolonged second stage Fetal bradycardia Maternal cardiac condition Defined as two temperature elevations to ≥38°C (110.4°F) outside the first 24 h > delivery or surgery and a temperature ≥ 38.7°C (101.5°F) at any time Why was or might a hysterectomy be done in the secretory phase of endometrium? The husband may have had a vasectomy or the patient may have had a tubal ligation. Both these situations essentially rule out possibility of an early pregnancy When should a LEEP or conization be done? (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) When When When When When biopsy does not explain abnormal cells ECC has CIN there is microinvasion on biopsy atypical epithelium extension to endocervical canal abnormal cytology with no visible colposcopic lesion Incidence of accreta and previa Previa Previa Previa Previa Previa Previa with with with with with increased AMA >35 increased AMA >40 history of one C-section history of two C-sections history of three C-sections Creta Creta with placenta previa Creta with placenta previa and history of C-section Creta with placenta previa and history of two C-sections Creta with placenta previa and history of > three C-sections Percent of placenta previa with creta that will have C-hysterectomy is 1/200 1/100 1/50 1% 2% 4% 5% 25% 50% >60% 66% 416 APPENDIX Four conditions associated with a 25—50% mortality risk during pregnancy: (1) (2) (3) (4) Pulmonary hypertension Eisenmenger’s syndrome Marfan’s syndrome with aortic involvement/aortic root >4 cm Coarctation of the aorta GBBS prophylaxis (ACOG) Selective prophylaxis to all at risk, regardless of culture Risks: (1) ROM equal or > 18 h (2) LBW (3) Preterm < 37 weeks (4) Chorioamnionitis (5) Intra-amniotic infection (6) Previously affected infant (7) GBBS bacteriuria in pregnancy (8) Temperature > 100.4°F Treatment: Penicillin G 5 million units IV load, then 2.5 million units IV q. 4 h or ampicillin 2 g IV load, then 1 g IV q. 4 h Allergy: clindamycin 900 mg IV q. 8 h till delivery Etiology of cervical cancer E6 and E7 viral proteins produced by high-risk type HPV → binds and disables p53 and Rb host proteins Bowel prep Give Golytely (polyethylene glycol electrolyte) 1 liter/hour on day prior to surgery. None > 4 liter or 4 h or phospho soda (4 oz at 1–3 p.m. then 4 oz at 5–7 p.m. on the day prior to surgery Give either one of these till rectal effluent is clear Cefotan 1 g or Unasyn 3 g IV @ 30 min to 1 h prior to surgery Low versus outlet forceps–definition Outlet: Visible scalp Fetal skull on pelvic floor Sagittal suture in essentially the OA position Fetal head on the perineum Rotation can occur, but only up to 45 degrees Low-forcep delivery: Station of at least 2 + Rotation can be more than 45 degrees Mid-forcep delivery: Station above 2 + Engaged head LFD vs outlet LFD–2 + station or rotation > 45 degrees Ectopic dosage of methotrexate 50 mg /m2 or Outlet–3 + station and rotation < 45 degrees 1 mg/kg Mean arterial pressure 70 mg for 70 kg woman Systolic – diastolic / 3 + diastolic = MAP Example: 100/70 = (100 – 70) / 3 + 70 = 80 mmHg Placenta previa — painless third-trimester bleeding Management (1) Marginal → to the os–expectant (depends on quantity of bleed) (2) Partial → partially covers os–expectant (depends on quantity of bleed) (3) Total → covers os completely–C-section Placental abruption — painful third-trimester bleeding Can only be a normally implanted placenta Hemorrhage may be concealed US only 5–10% accurate Causes of high FSH (1) 99% ovarian failure (2) 0.9% 17β-hydroxylase deficiency (3) 0.1% oat cell cancer 417 APPENDIX Induction with VBAC Vaginal vault prolapse • PGE2 → dinoprostone preparations → two are approved (Cervidil and Prepidil) by FDA • PGE1 → misoprostol (Cytotec → given for PUD for patients on NSAID) → NOT approved by FDA or for prior C-section per ACOG. Dose is 25 µg q. 3 h or 50 µg q. 6 h. The 50 µg dose increases risk of tachysystole, meconium and uterine hyperstimulation Non-surgical management: Pessary (#3 donut is usual) Surgical management: (1) Sacral spinous ligament fixation (describe pulley stitch, Miya hook, 2 cm medial to right of ischial spine) (2) Abdominal sacral colpopexy with retropubic urethropexy and modified Halban’s culdoplasty (describe vaginal vault, Marlex mesh or synthetic graft, sacrum, middle sacral artery – bone wax and sterile thumb tacks on table) Hirsutism Most patients with androgen excess can be screened efficiently by measuring = total serum testosterone and serum DHEA-S Free testosterone is hormonally active, but measurement of total testosterone is suffieient for clinical test Principal clinical entity that is associated with an increase in testosterone is PCO Testosterone-secreting tumors are usually associated with testosterone levels >200ng/dl Ovary and adrenal glands make roughly equal amounts of testosterone DHEA-S is produced almost entirely by adrenal gland Measurement of DHEA-S indicates if there is significant adrenal component Very increased levels of DHEA-S (>700 µg/dl) consistent with rare adrenal tumors Treatment: Low-dose OCPs are as effective as higher-dose preparations Spironolactone is helpful in the treatment of idiopathic hirsutism because this drug competes for the androgen receptor at the site of the hair follicle and decreases 5α-reductase activity (associated with peripheral conversion of testosterone to DHT) Neural tube defects Why does folic acid reduce the incidence of neural tube defect? Although NTD is multifactorial, the cause is an abnormal gene that is a variation of the gene that normally produces an enzyme (5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase) which is critical for folate use This is why folic acid reduces the incidence of NTD by 50% Thrombosis factors Factor VIII Leiden V Homocysteine Protein 20280 Protein C deficiency Protein S deficiency Tay–Sachs 25% 20% 10% 6% 3% 1–3% Highlights to remember: (1) Autosomal recessive disease (2) Lysosomal storage disease in which GM2 gangliosides accumulate throughout body (3) Increased incidence in Jews of East European descent (Ashkenazi) 1/30 (4) French Canadian and Cajuns have an increased incidence too Chemotherapy reactions to remember using mnemonics (1) Pulmonary fibrosis–Taxol, bleomycin ‘TB’ (2) Alopecia–ifosfamide, 5-FU, doxyrubicin, methotrexate ‘I’ve 5 hairs on my Dang Mutt’ (3) Severe inflammatory/ulcerative reactions–doxyrubicin, mitomycin-C, actinomycin D ‘Dang My Arm’ (4) Bone marrow toxicity–doxirubicin, vinblastin, methotrexate, carboplatinum ‘Death Via Marine Corps’ (5) Others to remember: Hemorrhagic cystitis Cytoxin 418 APPENDIX Leukemia Coma Cerebellar ataxia Bone toxicity Neurotoxicity Renal toxicity Alkeran Ifosfamide 5-FU Vinblastine Vincristine Cisplatin Chemotherapy basics S-DNA synthesis phase: Alkylating agents Antitumor antibiotics Antimetabolites Synthetic compounds Mitosis phase: Vinca alkaloids (Most sensitive to radiation) Shoulder dystocia basics Incidence 1% Head-to-body delivery time–normal Approximately 24 s Shoulder dystocia > 60 s No compromise if up to but not over 2½ min or 150 s Morbidity and mortality–brachial plexus injury, fractured clavicle or humerus, Erb’s palsy, severe asphyxia or death. Erb’s palsy involves C5–6, sometimes C7 Risk factors – diabetes, obesity, post-term Unpredictable Management: (1) HELP (2) Episiotomy (extend if already present) (3) Suprapubic pressure (NOT fundal) (4) McRobert’s (5) Wood’s (6) Posterior arm (7) Fracture (8) Zavenelli Drugs to consider for leaking bladder, remember: Continence Norephinephrine Sympathetic Adrenergic Infant with ambiguous genitalia Micturition Acetylcholine Parasympathetic Cholinergic Incidence 1/5000–1/15 000 Female with classic CAH (congenital adrenal hyperplasia) to be ruled out since this is most common Classic CAH is characterized by either: (1) Salt-wasting 21-Hydroxylase deficiency (90%) (2) Non-salt-wasting No salt-losing crises have been reported < 7 days of age Say to parents at birth, ‘Your baby appears healthy, but the sexual organs have not completely developed’ MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS WITH PERCENTAGES AND NUMBERS Death of one remaining twin following MFPR 15% Success rate of abdomino-pelvic I&D of abscess 80% Risk of recurrence for many major anomalies Risk of woman getting breast cancer (iifetime) if mother had bilateral breast cancer 2—4% 40—50% % of women who are infected with Trichomonas that are asymptomatic 50% % of twin pregnancies that require at least one admission prior to labor 50% % of Rh sensitization in current pregnancy without RhoGAM 2% Risk of Rh sensitization after first Rh + child 8% Risk of Rh sensitization after fifth Rh + child 50% APPENDIX 419 Incidence of asymptomatic bacteriuria 5% Asymptomatic bacteriuria that develop into pyelo if untreated Asymptomatic bacteriuria that develops into pyelo if treated Sickle cell trait increases risk of pyelo 25% 2% 2× If a pt is pregnant with dizygotic twins and couple are both carriers for Tay—Sachs, one twin affected? 44% % of females that cease menstruation after age 50 25% Approx. distance from plane of pelvic inlet to level of ischial spine 5 cm Risk of primary peritoneal cancer after prophylactic oophorectomy in increased risk pts 2–15% VBAC success rate after prior C-section for delay of descent in second stage of labor (Netherlands) 80% If a sickle cell pt has children by a man known to have SC trait, chance each child will have disease 50% What % of eclamptic patients will be eclamptic in a subsequent pregnancy? <5% Atypical endometrial hyperplasia (if unrxed) progresses to endometrial cancer in @ what % pts? 25% Risk of a woman becoming infected with HIV after transfusion with a unit of allogenic blood 1/680 000 Approximately how many pts in the USA receive the wrong unit of blood each year? 1000 % women who will get ab rx if current strategies are used to prevent GBS disease in newborn 25% 2 Each unit increase (1 kg/m ) in body mass index in pregnancy is associated with what % increase in odds of C-section? Women most often begin to smoke during what years of age? Increased incidence of venous thrombophlebitis in pregnant women compared to women using second-generation oral contraceptives is 7% 11–14 2× Risk of HIV infection after percutaneous exposure to HIV infected blood 0.3% The reported incidence of shoulder dystocia varies with definition, but the range is 1–5% Probability of delivering viable infant after recurrent pregnancy loss in pt with septate uterus who does not have surgical therapy Probability of delivering viable infant after three consecutive spontaneous abortions 80% 60% (50—70%) Balanced translocation Of surviving offspring, the theoretically affected 33% OBSERVED RISK (maternal) 10% OBSERVED RISK (paternal) 3% Addition (affected) 25% Deletion (usually fatal) 25% Carrier of translocation 25% Normal 25% Germ cell tumors (malignant) 50% Epitheliai cell tumors (malignant) 70% Approx. risk of congenital rubella at 7–8 weeks’ gestation exposure with maternal symptoms and incidence (1:160 titer) Perinatal mortality for pt with chronic htn with superimposed PIH Massive hydramnios (over 3000 ml) is associated with congenital malformation 25–50% 20% 20–30% Consanguinity: Share autosomal recessive traits 1:4 First cousins 1/8 Second cousins Perinaiai mortality rate in eclampsia 1/16 20% 420 APPENDIX GFR (during pregnancy) increases as much as 50% Achondroplasia caused by mutation accounts for this % of cases 90% Risk of uterine rupture in presence of previous LTCS is 1% Chance that a couple unable to conceive after 1 year (all test WNL) will conceive after 3 years trying 50% In using GnRH agonist, headaches occur in what % of patients? 25% Rhabdomyosarcoma accounts for this % of malignant disease of children under 15 years old? 4–8% Hyperreflexia is present with PIH in what % of cases? 80% Theca lutein cysts occur in association with hydatidiform mole in what % of cases? 50–60% Theca lutein cysts occur in association with choriocarcinoma in what % of cases? 5–10% The false-negative Pap smear rate is 10–19% or 15–40% Quantitative hCG doubles normally every 48 h in what % ectopics? 20% Another ectopic will occur following salpingostomy in what % cases? 15% Fetal occult blood screening for colorectal cancer can detect 70% Accuracy of crown–rump length measurement for estimated gestational age 95% ± 4.7 days Untreated atypical hyperplasia progresses to carcinoma of endometrium in what % patients? 25% % of USA population that does not use any means of birth control 33% % of female homicide victims due to domestic violence 40–50% Rate of shoulder dystocia in macrosomic (over 4000 g) of diabetic mothers 30% Females with gestational diabetes who will develop overt DM in 5–15 years after pregnancy 60% Combined incidence of carcinoma (both invasive and in situ) of cervix in pregnancy <0.5% G6PD homozygous deficiency is present in African-American females in what %? 2% Ovarian dysgenesis are chromatin-positive 38% Chromosomal abnormalities in live-birth infants <1% Drop in urethral closing pressure at rest and during stress in a postmenopausal patient is 30% Earliest time for a reliable Hgb determination after transfusion of PRBCs 15 min Incidence of vulvar carcinoma (% of gyn malignancies) 8% Incidence of vaginal carcinoma (% of gyn malignancies) 2% Fetomaternal transfusion of over 30 ml has been found in less than what % of pts at delivery? 1% Interspinous diameter of the pelvis should be at least equal to 10 cm Sickle cell disease – if one parent has the disease and one the trait, what % children will have disease? 50% Couples who suffer habitual abortion – rate of chromosomal abnl disease 25% MHC (major histocompatibie complex) in humans is located on what chromosome? 6 % of reproductive-age couples unable to conceive after 1 year of coitus without contraception is Ureter at its closest position from the cervix is separated by 15% 12 mm or 1.2 cm Overall subsequent conception rate in women with an ectopic pregnancy is In a high-risk obstetric population undergoing antepartum fetal testing, perinatal mortality rate is Of women with an ectopic pregnancy, the number who have subsequent live birth is about Genuine SUI evaluated by the Q-tip test, if + will dem urethral—vesical hypermobility Perinatal loss in twins weighing more than 1000 g is greater than singletons by 60% 12/1000 1/3 67% 3× What % of DUB is associated with the ovulatory menstrual cycle? 20% In the second half of pregnancy, changes in fetal skeletal muscle are responsible for this % of fetal wt increase 25% Women at risk for osteoporosis + not treated – the % of bone mass loss per year after menopause 1–1.5% Childhood sexual abuse is reported when questioned in what % of chronic pelvic pain pts? 60–70% 421 APPENDIX Unilateral ureteral compromise is most often associated with what degree of increase in ser creatinine? 0.8 mg/dl The ratio of infused crystalloid solution to estimated blood loss should be approximately 3:1 Fetal loss resulting from minor trauma in pregnancy is approximately 1.7% Approximately what % of pregnancies in the USA are unplanned? 50% What % of women at risk for osteoporosis who were prescribed estrogen rx, continue for 1 year? 50% After 10 years of annual mammographs, estimated cumulative risk of at least one false + mammography screening is 50% After 10 years of annual exams, estimated cumulative risk of at least one false + screen test by PE of breast is 25% National rate of false-positive results for a single screening mammography test is 8–9% Combining results of mammography and exam of breast, age group with lowest cumulative false + rate 70–79 Increased mortality is observed in women consuming more than how many alcoholic drinks per day? 2½ Diagnostic accuracy of clinical assessment in IUGR is 35% Use of DeLee catheter by an Ob clears upper airway of meconium in what % of cases? 90% Correct dose of naloxone to neonate showing signs of respiratory depression due to meperidine 0.01 mg/kg What % of SGA infants will still be less than two standard deviations below normal wt at 3 years old 50% In term infant, hypoglycemia is defined as blood sugar below what level on two occasions during first 72 h of life? 30 mg/dl Klumpke’s palsy usually involves which branches of the brachial plexus? C8 & T1 Anemia of the newborn is defined as Hgb of less than what level? 12 g Indomethacin therapy in the newborn is successful in @ what % of infants with PDA? 75% What % of patients with spina bifida will have the communicating type of hydrocephalus? 75% What % of infants with neural tube defects will be identified by a MSAFP screening program? 80% What % of neural tube defects will have a skin covering the defect (i.e. closed defect)? 5% Using X-ray techniques, how early can the distal femoral epiphysis be visualized? 32 weeks The crown–rump length as determined by ultrasound is accurate with what range of error? 5 days Using the 10th percentile for birth weight to ID the growth-restricted fetus, what % of nl fetuses? 7% What % of the placental tissue would have to be altered by infarction for fetal compromise to occur? 50% What % of post-term pregnancies will be associated with a macrosomic infant? 25% What % of macrosomic infants (>4000g) of diabetic mothers have shoulder dystocia? 30% Necrotizing fasciitis secondary to an episiotomy site infection has been reported to be associated with what degree of mortality with aggressive surgical treatment? 50% What % of pts after C-section will experience bacteremia secondary to uterine infection? 20% What % of pts presenting in preterm labor are candidates for long-term therapy to prevent PTD? 15% Percentage of women who have eclampsia without evidence of severe hypertension In what % of couples who have had two or more spontaneous abortions, will one member of couple carry a balanced recessive translocation? 20—25% 3% What % of pts with acute pyelo experience transient decrease in GFR in conjunction with a rise in blood creatinine? 10% What % likelihood of a successful pregnancy for pt on chronic hemodialysis? 20% What level of creatinine would denote severe renal insufficiency in prepregnancy renal dysfunction evaluation? What % of Caucasians are Rh negative? What period of time does one have to give RHIG prophylaxis if not given within 72 h of delivery? To undertake an elective abortion at 10 menstrual weeks’ gestation, the correct size of suction cannula is What % of elective abortions are second-trimester abortions? 10 mg/100 ml 15% 28 days 8 mm 10% 422 APPENDIX What % of pts thought to have clinically certain DVT are found to have normal venography? 45% What % of pulmonary arterial circulation must be included for diagnosis of massive pulmonary embolism? 50% What period of time would umbilical cord blood gases be considered valid if put on ice? 3h Risk of perinatal transmission of the HIV virus is 35% A dietary increase of how many calories is necessary to maintain body weight during lactation? 500 Best estimate of the risk for developmental defects in man secondary to drug exposure during pregnancy is 3% A pt with neg EEG plans pregnancy, what seizure-free period should pass before withdrawal of anticonvulsants? 4 years Hereditary ovarian cancer syndromes (Lynch syndrome II, Ca Fam syndrome, etc.) account for ovarian cancers < 15% Likelihood of another required surg after resection of endometriosis after hysterectomy but leaving ovaries < 10% Chance that asymptomatic pt whose mother just had hysterectomy for endometriosis will develop endometriosis? 6—8% Emergency contraception reduces pregnancy by Moniliasis is caused by treatment of UTIs by ampicillin and tetracycline by 55—94% or 75% 25% What % of UTIs resolve without therapy? 50% Reversal of sterilization performed by clips/bands has success rate of 70% What % of sexual assaults occur in the victim’s home? 50% PID Lower abdominal pain 90% Mucopurulent cervical discharge 75% Sed rate > 15 75% WBC > 10 000 50% Third-trimester bleeding Placenta previa 20% Abruption 30% HIV – risk of perinatal transmission is about 25% Risk of malformations in an insulin-dependent diabetic pregnancy with HgbAic > 8.5 is 22% Varicella zoster % of maternal infections resulting in evidence of fetal infection 25% % of first-trimester maternal varicella resulting congenital varicella syndrome <3% % of pregnant women that develop varicella pneumonia Mortality rate of varicella pneumonia is 10—30% 40% Rubella fetal infection depends on stage of gestation < 11 weeks – risk on cong infection 90% 11–12 weeks 33% 13–14 weeks 11% 15–16 weeks 24% > 16 weeks 0% Rubella anomalies First month 50% Second month 25% Third month 10% Second trimester <1% 16–20 weeks 20 weeks Cytomegalovirus (CMV) complicates what % of pregnancies? sensory only no reported cases 0.2–2% 423 APPENDIX What % of mothers have already been infected with CMV? 80% Toxoplasmosis rate of infection First trimester 15% Second trimester 30% Third trimester 60% Herpes shedding occurs at time of delivery in what % of all patients? 0.1–0.4% Recurrence risk of abruptio placentae is 5–16% Recurrence risk of abruptio placentae rises to what % after two previous abruptions? 25% Oxygen consumption increases how much % in pregnancy? 25% Postpartum blues (mild transient depression) occurs within 1–2 weeks of delivery – its incidence 10% What % of untreated climacteric women have hot flashes for more than 5 years? 25% The diagnostic accuracy of clinical assessment in IUGR is @ 35% Sarcoidosis most likely relapses in puerperiurn: Disease onset is abrupt 25% Asymptomatic at discovery 10% Interstitial pneumonitis is hallmark of pulmonary involvement with permanent X-ray changes in 50% Lymphadenopathy especially in mediastinum is present in 75—90% Uveitis present in 25% Skin involvement (usually erythema nodosum) 25% Overall prognosis good but % patients that die is 10% The maternal X is missing in Turner’s syndrome in what % of cases of Turner’s? 70% Two unaffected parents who just delivered a child with cleft lip have what % chance of delivering another with cleft lip? 4% Adolescents aged 15—19 years old that use birth control, use oral contraceptives in what %? 44% Among typical large group of insurers (indemnity plans) @ what % cover no contraception whatsoever? 49% What % of women with breast cancer in pregnancy have positive lymph nodes? 50—80% What is the daily folic acid requirement or recommendation for twin pregnancy? 1 mg For daily recommendation prior to and during normal pregnancy? 0.4 mg For pregnancy complicated with history of NTD or epilepsy, etc? 4 mg GnRH analog flare usually lasts 5 days Longest time period during which fetal body movements are absent 13 min Mean length of the quiet or inactive state for term fetuses (i.e. ‘sleep cyclicity’) 23 min Maternal mortality in the USA is 8/100000 live births Postpartum development of pulmonary embolism is relatively uncommon with an incidence of about 1:5000 Varicoceles are found in approximately what % of the general population? 15% Normal Sims—Huhner test should reveal at least how many motile sperm per high-power field? 1–20 Time required for the full effect of an increase in oxytocin dosage to be evident is Pheochromocytoma is known as the ? % tumor because it is bilateral, outside the adrenal and malignant? The Copper T380A (ParaGard) IUD is approved for what maximum duration of use? % of American women who will develop breast cancer sometime in their lives 70-year-old debilitated patient receiving D5LR at rate of 125 cc/h – what is 24-h total calorie input pt is receiving? % of estriol from FETAL source of placental estriol precursors How many new cases of ovarian cancer are diagnosed in the USA each year? 30–40 min 10% 10 years 12% 600 calories 90% 20 000 424 APPENDIX By what % is a patient’s risk of ovarian cancer felt to decrease with each child that she delivers? 20% Incidence of ovarian cancer among the overall population of American women today is approximately what? 1:70 Incidence of ovarian cancer among American women under age of 40? PID indicates that incidence of tubal infertility is @ 12%, 23% and 54% after one, two and three episodes – what is the risk of ectopic pregnancy after PID? Number of annual deaths related to ectopic pregnancy is 1:424 6–7 times 25–50 The 5-year survival rate of Stage II uterine cancer is 60% Transfusion rate with placenta previa 30% Normal infant, after normal delivery, will have a normal adult pH in about CT can detect pelvic masses as small as After an ectopic pregnancy, the risk of subsequent ectopic pregnancy is increased by how many fold? Normal daily fluid requirement in the average adult is 1h 2 cm 10 2000–3000 ml An MI is treated with tPA — how many days after the discontinuance of tPA will pt be able to undergo major surgery? 10 days False-positive rate for a contraction stress test 25–75% False-negative rate of a contraction stress test 15% What % of women who have abnormal bleeding will have endometrial polyps in the uterine cavity? 25% % of endometrial polyps that undergo malignant transformation? 0.5% % of endometrial polyps that are solitary 80% % of endometrial polyps that are multiple 20% Clonal rearrangement of what chromosome is common in the mesenchymal (stromal) ceils of the polyp? 6p21 Hysteroscopy is best method of management of endometrial polyps because only ? % are removed with curettage? 25% Placenta accreta, increta and percreta (incidence) What % of pts with placenta previa/placenta accreta will have to have Cesarean hysterectomy? What is the chance that there will be subsequent developmental delay at 32 weeks’ gestation if a fetus is noted to have ventriculomegaly? 1:7000 66% >25% Long-term condom use reduces infertility use by what %? 40% Long-term condom use reduces invasive cancer of the cervix by what %? 60% Invasive prenatal diagnosis for the detection of fetal aneuploidy should be offered to women with twin gestation at what age? In relationship to all gyn cancers, the frequency of cancer of the fallopian tube is 31 years >1% Hydatidiform mole Present with vaginal bleeding Hyperemesis Therapy is curative 75% 8% 80% Twin-twin transfusion Monochorionic pregnancies (does not occur in dichorionic) 1% Birth weights discordant by 20% Hemoglobin differences 5g/dl Poor prognosis Dermoid chance of malignant transformation (usually squamous) Dermoids are bilateral Struma ovarii (what % ovarian teratoma?) Hyperprolactinemia with only galactorrhea is < 10% survival 2% 25% 2–3% 62% 425 APPENDIX With galactorrhea and amenorrhea 88% Have hypothyroidism with it (measure TSH) 3–5% Microadenoma <1 cm Macroadenoma >1 cm Duodenal atresia Is often identified in third trimester % have associated anomalies 50% % have trisomy 21 30% Ureteral injury Incidence 0.1—2.4% Due to gyn procedures 52% What % recognized intraoperatively? 20—30% Most occur beneath the uterine artery 75% Most asymptomatic postop but flank pain is present 33—75% Serum creatinine increases ×24 h up above preop levels 0.8 mg/dl Postop creatinine of ? in pt without renal disease? 1.5 mg/dl At what stage of fetal development is feminization of the external genitalia complete? 250—300 mm crown—rump length The pO2 of the umbilical venous blood is approximately 30—35 mmHg The perinatal mortality in IUGR is higher than in normally grown fetuses by 5—10 times Haif-iife of progesterone is 30 min Cocaine can generally be detected in the urine for no longer than 3 days Antibodies to the HIV virus take how long to develop? 6—12 months % of chronic pelvic pain patients who report childhood sexual abuse when questioned is Recommended IV dose of epinephrine in patients with cardiovascular collapse is 60—70% 5 ml of 1:10000 solution The human conceptus is most susceptible to teratogens at which embryonic week (week since conception)? 6 In performing a menstrual extraction 6—7 weeks after the LMP, what size suction cannula is recommended? 6 mm Remission after the use of single agent chemo for non-metastatic trophoblastic disease is how many normal weekly hCG titers? 3 Rx of good prognosis gestational trophoblastic disease, how many courses of chemotherapy should be given after a negative titer? 1 Average interval between IM injection of DMPA and resumption of ovulation is approximately how many months? With high-grade dysplasia, laser vaporization and destruction of tissue should be carried to a depth of Hemoglobin F is what % of the total hemoglobin at birth? Average transverse diameter of the pelvic inlet in the female measures 7–9 5–7 mm 75% 13–14 cm Max contractile response occurs when intracellular Ca* increases to 500 nm USP categorizes suture material as non-absorbable if tensile strength is maintained for more than 60 days Fertilized ovum reaches uterus in Extra calories per day required for pregnancy are The empiric risk for a fetus with a balanced translocation, to have anomalies or to develop mentail delay Basal O2 consumption increases by the second trimester by Exposure to rubella at 7—8 weeks’ gestation — days later rash and titer to 1:160 when seen at 11 weeks — what is @ risk of fetus having serious congenital abnormalities? 5–6 days 300 10% 20 ml/min 25–50% 426 APPENDIX Chorioamnionitis Occurs in term pregnancies Occurs in preterm pregnancies Increased infant mortality in term infants 1–5% 25% 1–4% Increased infant mortality in preterm infants 15% Increased FHR abnormalities (increased tach and dec variability) 75% Chorioamnionitis Increased dysfxn labor Require oxytocin Require C-section During the last month of pregnancy, the fetus grows at a rate of @ Oogenesis begins between what weeks of development? Rate of shoulder dystocia in macrosomic infants >4000 g of diabetic mothers is Increased incidence of venous thrombophlebitis in pregnant women compared with women using second-generation OCPs Fetal breathing movements may be totally absent for 75% 34–40% 250 g/week 11–12 weeks 30% 2× 120 min (2 h) Normal vaginal pH 3.8–4.4 Immunity from hepatitis B vaccine appears to last at least 8 years Detection of anencephaly is effective as early as LGSIL regresses spontaneously in what % of cases? Hereditary ovarian cancer syndromes account for what % of ovarian cancers? What is the shelf-life of whole blood? Contractions decrease uterine blood flow by what %? Maximal contractile response occurs when intracellular calcium increases to If pt has esophageal candidiasis — HIV is + then do CD4 count or CD4%, if CD4 count is <? or CD4% is <?, pt has AIDS What % of newborns weigh >4000 g? Over 4500 g? Overall incidence of shoulder dystocia is If a woman weighs >300 lb, what is the risk that her fetus will be macrosomic? Define shoulder dystocia in time from head-to-body delivery How much time does one have to deliver the baby without compromise to neonatal outcome? 1o weeks 60% <15 40 days 60% 500 nm <200, <14% 5.3% and 0.4% 0.6—1.4% 30% >60 s 150 s (2½ min) ABBREVIATIONS ABBREVIATIONS 17-OHP 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ab antibiotics ABG arterial blood gas abnl abnormal AC abdominal circumference ACIS adenocarcinoma in situ of the cervix ACOG American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone AD Alzheimer’s disease AED anti-epileptic drug AF amniotic fluid AFE amniotic fluid embolism AFI amniotic fluid index AFP alpha-fetoprotein AFV amniotic fluid volume AGCUS atypical glandular cells of undetermined significance AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome ALL acute lymphoblastic leukemia ALT alanine aminotransferase AMA advanced maternal age AML acute myelogenous leukemia AMP adenosine monophosphate ANA antinuclear antibody ANP arterial natriuretic peptide AP anterior–posterior APLA antiphospholipid antibodies APP apolipoprotein APT aspartate transaminase APTT activated partial thromboplastin time ARDS acute respiratory distress syndrome AROM artificial rupture of membranes ASA acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) ASCUS abnormal squamous cells of undetermined significance ASD atrial septal defect ASHD atrial septal heart defect AST aspartate aminotransferase AZT zidovudine b.i.d. bis in die (L. twice a day) B/P blood pressure BBT basal body temperature BE barium enema BMD bone marrow depression; bone mineral density BMI body mass index BNP brain natriuretic peptide BOO bladder outlet obstruction BPD biparietal diameter BPM beats per minute 427 428 ABBREVIATIONS BPP biophysical profile BS bowel sounds BSO bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy BTB breakthrough bleeding BUN blood urea nitrogen BV bacterial vaginitis Bx biopsy Ca carcinoma CAD coronary artery disease CAH congenital adrenal hyperplasia CBAVD congenital bilateral absence of the vas deferens CBC complete blood count cc clomiphene citrate CD Cesarean delivery CEA carcinoembryonic antigen CEE conjugated equine estrogen CF cystic fibrosis CFTR cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator CHD congestive heart disease CHF congestive heart failure CHO carbohydrate CIN cervical intraepithelial neoplasia CIS carcinoma in situ CKC cold knife conization CMV cytomegalovirus CNS central nervous system COH clomid ovarian hyperstimulation COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease CP cerebral palsy CPD cephalopelvic disproportion CPM confined placental mosaicism CPR cardiopulmonary resuscitation C–R crown—rump length CRF corticotropin releasing factor CSE combined spinal /epidural C-section Cesarean section CST contraction stress test CT computed tomography CVP central venous pressure CVS chorionic villous sampling CXR chest X-ray cysto cystoscopy D&C dilatation and curettage D&E dilatation and evacuation D/c discharge DCIS ductal carcinoma in situ DES diethylstilbestrol DHEA dehydroepiandrosterone DHEA-S dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate DI detrusor instability, diabetes insipidus ABBREVIATIONS DIC disseminated intravascular coagulation DKA diabetic ketoacidosis DM diabetes mellitus DMPA depo medroxyprogesterone acetate DOC deoxycorticosterone DTaP diphtheria—tetanus—acellular pertussis DUB dysfunctional uterine bleeding DVT deep vein thrombosis DXA dual energy X-ray absorptiometry Dxn diagnosis E2 estradiol EBL estimated blood loss EBT electron beam tomography EC emergency contraception ECC endocervical curettage ECV external cephalic version EDC estimated date of conception EDD estimated due date EDRF endothelium-derived relaxing factor EFM external fetal monitoring EFW estimated fetal weight EGA estimated gestational age EKG electrocardiogram ER Emergency Room ER estrogen receptor ERCP endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography ERT estrogen replacement therapy ET embryo transfer ETON ethyl alcohol F/u follow-up FBS fasting blood sugar FDA Food and Drug Administration FDP fibrinogen degradation product FEV forced expiratory flow rate FFN fetal fibronectin FFP fresh frozen plasma FH fetal heart FHR fetal heart rate FIGO International Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology FL femur length FLM fluorescent polarization test FMH family medical history FSH follicle stimulating hormone FSI Foam Stability Index FSP fibrinogen split product FT4 free thyroxine GABA gamrna-aminobutyric acid GAG glycoaminoglycan GBBS group B beta streptococcus 429 430 ABBREVIATIONS GC gonococcal GDM gestational diabetes mellitus GERD gastroesophageal reflux disease GFR glomerular filtration rate GH growth hormone GI gastrointestinal GnRH gonadotropin releasing hormone GSUI genuine stress urinary incontinence gtt guttae (L. drops) GTT glucose tolerance test GV great vessels Gyn gynecology H&H hematocrit and hemoglobin H&P history and physical HAMA human antimouse antibody HC head circumference hCG human chorionic gonadotropin Hct hematocrit HDL high-density lipoprotein HF heart failure Hgb hemoglobin HGSIL high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion HIV human immunodeficiency virus HLA human leukocyte antigens hMG human menopausal gonadotropin HNPCC hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer HPF high-power field HPL human placental lactogen HPV human papilloma virus hs hora somni (L. at bedtime) HRT hormone replacement therapy HSDD hypoactive sexual desire disorder HSG hysterosalpingography HSV herpes simplex virus ht height HT hormone therapy htn hypertension hx history l&D incision and drainage l&O intake and output IBS irritable bowel syndrome IBW ideal body weight ICU intensive care unit IGD isolated gonadotropin deficiency IGF-1 insulin-like growth factor-1 IgG immunoglobulin G IgM immunoglobulin M IM intramuscular IMP intermediate progestational INR international normalized ratio ABBREVIATIONS IPPB intermittent positive pressure breathing IRP International Reference Percentiles ISD intrinsic sphincter deficiency ITP idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura IUD intrauterine device IUFD intrauterine fetal demise IUGR intrauterine growth restriction IUI intrauterine insemination IUP intrauterine pregnancy IUPC intrauterine pressure catheter IV intravenous IVF in vitro fertilization IVFs intravenous fluids IVH intraventricular hemorrhage IVIG intravenous immunoglobulins IVP intravenous pyelogram JVD jugular venous distention L left LA long acting LBW low birth weight LCIS lobular carcinoma in situ LDH lactate dehydrogenase LDL low-density lipoprotein LEEP loop electrocoagulation excision procedure LES lower esophageal sphincter LFT liver function tests LGSS low-grade endometrial stromal sarcoma LGSIL low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion LH luteinizing hormone LHF left heart failure LMP last menstrual period LOP left occipitoparietal Lp(a) lipoproteln(a) LPF low-power field LR Ringer’s lactate LTCS low transverse C-section MAM menstrually associated migraine MCV mean cell volume MG myasthenia gravis MHC major histocompatibility complex MI myocardial infarction MIF Müllerian inhibiting factor MIVH minimally invasive vaginal hysterectomy MPA medroxyprogesterone acetate MRI magnetic resonance imaging M-R-K-H Mayer-Rokitansky-Kuster-Hauser syndrome MS multiple sclerosis MSAFP maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein MSH melanocyte stimulating hormone 431 432 ABBREVIATIONS Mtx methotrexate MVP mitral valve prolapse NCEP National Cholesterol Education Program NE nectrotic enteritis NG nasogastric NGU non-gonococcal urethritis NIDDM non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus nl normal NMG neonatal myasthenia gravis NPH isophane insulin NPO non per os (L. nothing through the mouth) NS normal saline NSAID non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug NST non-stress test NTD neural tube defect N&V nausea and vomiting Ob obstetrics OCP oral contraceptive pill ODT oral disintegrating tablet OHSS ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome OP occiput posterior OTC over-the-counter p.o. per os (L. by mouth) p.r.n. pro re nata (L. as required) PAC premature atrial contraction Paps Papanicolaou PATs premature atrial tachycardia PCN penicillin PCO polycystic ovary PDA patent ductus arteriosus PE pulmonary embolism PEFR peak expiratory flow rate PG phosphatidylglycerol PGD prenatal genetic diagnosis PGE prostaglandin E PH pregnancy hypertension PID pelvic inflammatory disease PIF prolactin inhibiting factor PIH pregnancy-induced hypertension plts platelets PMP postmenopausal patient POC products of conception POP pelvic organ prolapse postop postoperative PP postprandial; placenta previa ppd packs per day PPD purified protein derivative (TB skin test) PPH postpartum hemorrhage PRBC packed red blood cells PROM premature rupture of membranes ABBREVIATIONS PS pulmonary stenosis PST placental site tumors pt patient PT plasma thromboplastin PTB preterm birth PTD preterm delivery PTL perinatal telencephalic leukoencephalopathy PTT partial thromboplastin time PTU propylthiouracil PUBS percutaneous umbilical cord sampling PUD peptic ulcer disease PUVA psoralen plus ultraviolet A PVC premature ventricular contraction PVR post-voiding residual PZA pyrazinamide q. quaque (L. every) q.d. quaque die (L. every day) q.i.d. quater in die (L. four times a day) R right r/o rule out RBC red blood cell RDA recommended daily allowance RDS respiratory distress syndrome RF rheumatic fever Rh rhesus RHIG RhoGAM immune globulin RLQ right lower quadrant ROM rupture of membranes ROP right occipitoparietal RPF renal plasma flow RPR rapid plasma reagin RPW recurrent pregnancy wastage RR respiratory rate RTO return to office RUQ right upper quadrant R&V rectovaginal Rx treatment SAB spontaneous abortion SAD sexual aversion disorder SBE self breast examination SBO small bowel obstruction SC subcutaneous SCCA squamous ceil carcinoma SDLDL small-density low-density lipoproteins sed sedimentation SERM selective estrogen receptor modulator SGA small for gestational age SGOT serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase SHBG sex hormone binding globulin SICU surgical intensive care 433 434 ABBREVIATIONS sig sigmoidoscopy SIRS systemic inflammatory response syndrome SLE systemic lupus erythematosus S&O salpingo-oophorectomy SOB shortness of breath SPT septic thrombophlebitis SS somatostatin SSLF sacrospinous ligament fixation SSPE subacute sclerosing panencephalitis staph staphylococcus STD sexually transmitted disease STS serological test for syphilis SUI stress urinary incontinence SVD spontaneous vaginal delivery T testosterone T3 triiodothyronine T4 thyroxine TAB therapeutic abortion TAH total abdominal hysterectomy TBG thyroid binding globulin TC total cholesterol TDF testis-determining factor TE thromboembolism TEF tracheoesophageal fistula TENS transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation TG triglyceride TIA transient ischemic attack TIBC total iron-binding capacity t.i.d. ter in die (L. three times a day) TIUV total intrauterine volume TNF tumor necrosis factor TOA tubo-ovarian abscess TOL trial of labor TPN total parenteral nutrition TRH thyrotropin releasing hormone Trich Trichomonas TSH thyroid stimulating hormone TSS toxic shock syndrome TTTS twin-twin transfusion syndrome TV tidal volume TVH total vaginal hysterectomy TVUS transvaginal ultrasound U/A urinalysis UADV umbilical artery Doppler velocimetry UOP urine output URI upper respiratory infection US ultrasound UVB ultraviolet B VAC vincristine, actinomycin D, cyclophosphamide VBAC vaginal birth after Cesarean ABBREVIATIONS VCUG voiding cystourethrogram VDRL venereal disease research laboratory VLDL very low-density lipoprotein VSD ventricular septal defect VTE venous thromboembolism VZIG varicella zoster immune globulin WBC white blood cell WNL within normal limits wt weight yo year old ZDV (or AZT) zidovudine 435 CLINICAL PROTOCOLS in OBSTETRICS and GYNECOLOGY THIRD EDITION The first edition of Clinical Protocols in Obstetrics and Gynecology (published in 2000) quickly became known as ‘the tan book’ and was used as a definitive reference by physicians and other health-care practitioners, residents, and students alike. With the topics in simple alphabetical order, the layout made it easy to locate solutions to everyday clinical problems and to ensure that everyone in an office or hospital team worked consistently. Now enlarged, revised, and updated in a third edition, the book retains and enhances the straightforward layout, flow charts, and simple presentation of relevant statistics that made its previous editions an international bestseller and includes some further illustrations also. This up-to-date and authoritative Ob/Gyn compilation should help anyone pass the ACOG written or Oral Board examinations and be invaluable for use as a quickreference while practicing Obstetrics and Gynecology. FROM REVIEWS OF PREVIOUS EDITIONS: A strong point of this edition is the wide range of topics that are covered. Not only are all the subspecialties represented, but medically related topics, including primary care medicine, are also included. Fertility and Sterility There is a lot of groundwork behind these seemingly simple rules… it certainly is a valuable contribution to this particular category of medical literature… It will be of use to specialists in hospitals and private practice, residents, students and the nursing staff. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica ABOUT THE AUTHOR: John E Turrentine MD DMin is Clinical Professor of Obstetrics and Gynecology for the Medical College of Georgia and Director/Instructor for Dalton State College for Surgical Technology, University of Georgia, USA. ISBN 978-0-415-43996-1 www.informahealthcare.com 9 78041 5 43996 1