The Cold War, as told through Popular Music.

Going Underground: The Impact of the Cold War on Popular Music. When the Cold War began, music exploded. The study of this music enables us to understand and analyse the Cold War because music allows us to access the psyche of a period in time. Throughout the Cold War, popular music was there to explain how ordinary people felt about events that were often out of their control. Jazz, rock and roll, folk music, Vietnam protests, doomsday songs and much more provided a common understanding for people who neither understood, nor agreed with the actions of their government. This essay will demonstrate that when it comes to learning about the Cold War, there is no better cultural reference than popular music. While high culture could be said to be classical music, theatre and art, popular culture is a whole way of life. According to Nachbar and Lausé, popular culture ‘surrounds us the way water surrounds a fish, as a transparent environment crucial to our survival.’1 Culture can be folk, popular and elite, but moving away from the Whig view of history of the top ten percent, social history recognises that no one culture is higher than another.2 Popular culture includes artefacts and events; it reflects and shapes beliefs and values and forms the fabric of everyday life. The 1 Jack Nachbar and Kevin Lausé, ‘Getting to know us: An introduction to the study of popular Russell Nye, ‘Notes for an introduction to a discussion of popular culture’, Journal of Popular Culture, Vol.5, 1971, p.1032 and Jack Nachbar and Kevin Lausé, ‘Getting to know us: An introduction to the study of popular culture: What is this stuff that dreams are made of?’, Popular culture: an introductory text, Ohio, 1992, p.16. 2 1 Zeitgeist – the major beliefs and values that describe the outlook or spirit of a particular culture during a period of time – of the Cold War can be seen by examining music.3 It is popular because lots of people choose to like it and when examined, tells us who we were.4 Studying popular culture is a quest for meaning as it mirrors its audience.5 Popular culture influences the way we think, then we act, influencing popular culture, which then changes to reflect us.6 This ever-changing reflection helps to define a zeitgeist.7 As the “consumers, producers and examiners of popular culture”, we can use it to ascertain its importance in the Cold War.8 The Cold War lasted forty-five years and was driven by the ideological differences of the main players: the United States and the Soviet Union.9 With both sides amassing and testing weapons of mass destruction and convinced that the other should submit to their ideals, the world lived with the fear of the atomic bomb and nuclear war.10 Russia had been allies with the West during the Second World War, which although necessary, did not equate to a trust between them.11 They disagreed over Germany from the 3 Nachbar and Lausé, ‘Getting to know us: An introduction to the study of popular culture: What is this stuff that dreams are made of?’, p.4. 4 Ibid., p.10 5 Ibid., p.6. 6 Ibid., p.7. 7 Ibid., p.4. 8 Toni Johnson-Woods and Vicki Karaminas, ‘Letter from the editors’, The Australiasian journal of popular culture, Vol.1, No.1, 2012, p.4. 9 Patrick Major and Rana Mitter, ‘East is East and West is West? Towards a comparative sociocultural history of the Cold War’, Cold War History, Vol.4, No.1, 2006, p.1. 10 Peter Bastian, ‘Truman: the spread of the cold war,1945-1952’, Bearing any burden: the cold war years 1945-1991, Wareemba, 2003, p.41. 11 Bastian, ‘Truman: the spread of the cold war, 1945-1952’, p.25. 2 start and the relationship between East and West deteriorated rapidly in the years following. 12 The basic details of cultural identity proved impossible to overcome and were an underlying role in the onset of the Cold War. Within a decade, Berlin was being used as a political football by both sides.13 The 1948 June Blockade, where the Soviets cut off West Berlin from supplies, resulted in a ten-month airdrop orchestrated by the United States. The pretense of East – West co-operation in a united Germany had ended.14 For the West, the 1950s was about Cold War defensiveness and the desire to maintain the standard way of life, one of conservatism and uniformity.15 For the East, there was mounting concern that through West Berlin, Western influence was penetrating the Iron Curtain.16 The Russians had every reason to be concerned, for this is exactly what the United States were planning to do and their chosen medium was music. Jazz is an example of cultural diplomacy between West and East. US President Eisenhower sponsored American jazz musicians on a goodwill tour with the intention of imparting cultural influence. This tour visited countries that the West was concerned might be tempted to convert to 12 ‘Turning Points: the rise and fall of the Berlin Wall’, ABC NSW, www.soundcloud.com/abcnsw/turning-point-the-rise-and-fall-of-the-berlin-wall-with-dr-erinihde?in=abcnsw/sets/turning-points, accessed 06 Nov 15. 13 Ibid. 14 Bastian, ‘Truman: the spread of the cold war, 1945-1952’, p.37. 15 Michael Sturma, ‘The Politics of Dancing: When Rock ‘n’ Roll Came to Australia’, Journal of Popular Culture, Vol.25, No.4, 1992, p.125. 16 Unknown, ‘Berlin Situation Easing’, The Toowoomba Chronicle and Darling Downs Gazette, 3 April 1959, p.2. 3 communism.17 It was a propaganda campaign against the Soviet Union, as jazz was viewed as free and democratic and, of course, had its origins in America, which was keen to show that culture and capitalism fitted together.18 Jazz was seen as the musical enactment of the principles of American democracy. A number of jazz musicians were black and sending them overseas as ambassadors of the United States was designed to portray a message of racial equality. However, despite the positive image of race relations that America presented to the outside world, it was not the case at home.19 The Soviets, on the other hand, had a desire to show that a degree of freedom of expression was permitted in their communist society and allowed the tours. As popular culture is a way of life, the use of jazz as an ambassador of capitalism was designed to demonstrate how one way of life was superior to another.20 A major concern for the West was that its citizens, particularly the youth, continued to conform to the principles of a conservative society, including possessing the Western value of sex being only between married couples. Behaving otherwise would have been an indication that you were not loyal to your country and therefore at risk of being a communist. It was a time 17 David Carletta, ‘Those white guys are working for me; Dizzy Gillespie, jazz and the cultural politics of the cold war during the Eisenhower administration’, International Social Science Review, Vol.82, pp.3-4. 18 Alex Ross, ‘Brave New World: The Cold War and the Avant Garde of the fifties’, The rest is noise” listening to the twentieth century, New York, 2007, p.400. 19 Carletta, ‘Those white guys are working for me; Dizzy Gillespie, jazz and the cultural politics of the cold war during the Eisenhower administration’, pp.3-4. 20 John Rickard, ‘Cultural history: the high and the popular’, Australian cultural history, Surry Hills, 1988, p.178. 4 of McCarthyism and everything that deviated from the norm represented a threat to society.21 Within this context emerged a very persuasive new form of music: that of rock and roll. Fifties rock and roll was met with both political and adult disapproval. The youth listening and dancing to it were said to be delinquent and there was a genuine fear that this music could undermine capitalism. These so called juvenile delinquents were acting outside accepted boundaries and with conservative Cold War fears this was seen as a direct threat to established society. Rock and roll represented freedom and standing up to parental authority.22 It was a failure to conform, rebelling against the norm and moral panic about juvenile delinquency and sexual license was widespread.23 Popular culture can be said to be what most people choose to do for most of the time and by 1959, the youth of the United Kingdom were spending eight pounds a week on consumables, including music.24 Over the course of the decade, a general acceptance had been formed for the music of rock and roll and it was no longer regarded as such a threat to national security.25 Rock and roll did change the Western world though, as it placed music as an integral part in the popular culture of youth and became for them, a way of expressing themselves.26 This expression and group participation in concerts and 21 Sturma, ‘The Politics of Dancing: When Rock ‘n’ Roll Came to Australia’, p.125. Ibid., p.129. 23 Ibid., p.137. 24 Juliet Gardiner, From the bomb to the Beatles: the changing face of post-war Britain, 19451965, London, 1999, p.145 and Nachbar and Lausé, ‘Getting to know us: An introduction to the study of popular culture: What is this stuff that dreams are made of?’, p.35. 25 Sturma, ‘The Politics of Dancing: When Rock ‘n’ Roll Came to Australia’, p.136. 26 Nachbar and Lausé, ‘Getting to know us: An introduction to the study of popular culture: What is this stuff that dreams are made of?’, p.5 22 5 dances paved the way for the active youth engagement of the sixties.27 During the sixties, music changed and started to deal more seriously with issues that were relevant to the teenagers listening, including civil rights, sex, drugs and war.28 The Arms Race was continuing, with both sides increasing their number of bombers and nuclear weapons, all the while improving and demonstrating their respective capacities. The Cold War situation had also increased in Germany and so tense was the situation, that United States President John Kennedy feared the Russians would go to war over the issues in Berlin, thereby bringing about the globally feared Mutually Assured Destruction.29 By 1961, three million people had left the Soviet Union.30 In August of that year, the East erected The Berlin Wall, a border stretching 155 kilometres, for the express purpose of preventing those in the East from entering the West.31 It became a symbol, at least for the West, of people trying to escape the tyranny of communism, with The Brandenburg Gate representing a division between two ways of life.32 Both sides accepted that the wall was better than a war, but the tensions did not 27 Sturma, ‘The Politics of Dancing: When Rock ‘n’ Roll Came to Australia’, p.138. Robert A. Rosenstone, ‘”The Times They Are A-Changin’”: The Music of Protest’, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.382, 1969, p.133. 29 Walter Laqueur, Europe In Our Time: A History 1945-1992, New York, 1992, p.314 and John Lewis Gaddis, ‘Death and Lifeboats’, The Cold War, London, 2005, p.80. 30 Laqueur, Europe In Our Time: A History, 1945-1992, p.113. 31 Berlin Wall Online, www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/index.html, accessed 24 Nov 15. 32 Turning Points: the rise and fall of the Berlin Wall, ABC NSW, www.soundcloud.com/abcnsw/turning-point-the-rise-and-fall-of-the-berlin-wall-with-dr-erinihde?in=abcnsw/sets/turning-points, accessed 06 Nov 15. 28 6 stop.33 The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis brought the world to the brink of nuclear war, with pressure increasing during the decade.34 The Berlin Wall became the physical embodiment of the Cold War and while the East banned Western books, magazines and jammed Western radio, music, particularly the protest song, had a huge impact on people in the West.35 One of the biggest examples of this was the 1965 Barry McGuire hit ‘Eve of Destruction’.36 With emotionally charged lyrics about impending disaster and a music video depicting a junkyard in a destroyed world. This example of socio-political propaganda argued that the East and West were on the brink of Mutually Assured Destruction.37 Lines such as “The Eastern world it is explodin’ / violence flarin’ and bullets loadin’ / you’re old enough to kill, but not for votin’ / if the button is pushed, there’s no more running away / they’ll be no one to save, with the world in a grave” and “take a look around you boy/ bound to scare you boy/ and you tell me over and over and over again / ah, you don’t believe we’re on the eve of destruction” were designed to highlight ignorance in the general population.38 Such is the 33 ‘Turning Points: the rise and fall of the Berlin Wall, ABC NSW, www.soundcloud.com/abcnsw/turning-point-the-rise-and-fall-of-the-berlin-wall-with-dr-erinihde?in=abcnsw/sets/turning-points, accessed 06 Nov 15. 34 Laqueur, Europe In Our Time: A History, 1945-1992, p.320. 35 Ibid., p.113. 36 Barry McGuire, Eve of Destruction, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RdARD9Qi8w0, accessed 11 Jan 16. 37 R. Serge Denisoff and Mark H. Levine, ‘The Popular Protest Song: The Case of “Eve of Destruction”’, The Public Opinion Quartely, Vol.35, No.1, 1971, p.119 and McGuire, Eve of Destruction, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RdARD9Qi8w0, accessed 11 Jan 16. 38 McGuire, Eve of Destruction, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RdARD9Qi8w0, accessed 11 Jan 16. 7 power of music, that conservative radio stations banned the song.39 This did little to affect sales though, with the song reaching number one in the charts within weeks and remaining the best selling 45rpm record in the United States for many more.40 ‘Eve of Destruction’ is an example of music infiltrating mass popular culture and the fear of nuclear war would go on to inspire many songwriters.41 While McCarthyism and the rapid anti-communist witch-hunt had seen folk move underground during the fifties, its revival in the sixties was a direct reaction to politics.42 The song ‘If I Had A Hammer’ was originally recorded in the fifties, but was so relevant to the sixties that it was rerecorded by a number of artists including Johnny Cash, Aretha Franklin, Martha and the Vandellas, Leonard Nimroy and Peter, Paul and Mary.43 With obvious Soviet undertones of the hammer and sickle in “If I had a hammer” and lyrics about “singing out a warning”, referring to the McCarthy witch-hunts, the song proved popular with artist and audiences and drew the attention of McCarthy.44 War and music are intrinsically linked, but before Vietnam, songs about 39 Rosenstone, ‘”The Times They Are A-Changin’”: The Music of Protest’, p.136. Denisoff and Levine, ‘The Popular Protest Song: The Case of “Eve of Destruction”’, p.119. 41 Jerome L. Rodnitzky, Popular Music As A Radical Influence 1945-1970, 1980, p.5 and Ron Eyerman, ‘Politics and music in the 1960s’, Music and social movements: mobilising traditions in the twentieth century, New York, 1988, p.124. 42 Eyerman, ‘Politics and music in the 1960s’, pp.119-121. 43 Peter, Paul and Mary, If I Had A Hammer, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HTvr79Oe5w8, accessed 11 Jan 16. 44 Peter, Paul and Mary, If I Had A Hammer, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HTvr79Oe5w8, accessed 11 Jan 16. 40 8 war tended to champion traditional ideals, praise bravery and military success and defend nationalism and patriotism.45 The majority of songs about the Vietnam conflict, by comparison, did not champion war or fighting for the cause, but questioned government policy.46 Music played a big part in helping people express their outrage towards the situation they found themselves in. Just as popular culture can reflect both stability and change, the sixties saw populations of many countries question the actions of their government. 47 Anti-Vietnam music displayed confusion and agitation. It asked questions and when those questions were not answered, lyrical hostility toward war increased.48 The public resonated with the music they heard and folk songs became part of their culture.49 ‘Universal Soldier’, recorded in 1964 by Donovan, makes no mention of Vietnam, but expresses sentiments of anti-war to both East and West, with the soldier blamed for their willingness to fight, thereby perpetrating war.50 “He’s the one who gives his body / as a weapon of the war / and without him all this killing can’t go on”.51 Marches and protests saw group singing and social bonding and as public sentiment turned against the war in Vietnam, the 45 Lee B. Cooper, ‘Rumours of war: lyrical continuities, 1914-1991’, Continuities in popular culture: the present in the past and the past in the present and future, Ohio, 1993, p.131. 46 Ibid., p.131. 47 Nachbar and Lausé, ‘Getting to know us: An introduction to the study of popular culture: What is this stuff that dreams are made of?’, p.5 48 Cooper, ‘Rumours of war: lyrical continuities, 1914-1991’, p.131. 49 Ibid., p.132. 50 David James, ‘The Vietnam War and American Music’, Social Texts, No.23, 1989, p.123 and Donovan, Universal Soldier, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UC9pc4U40sI, accessed 11 Jan 16. 51 Ibid. 9 power of folk music had a noticeable increase in popular culture.52 Country Joe and the Fish recorded ‘I-feel-like-I’m-fixing-to-die-rag’ in 1967, which was specifically about Vietnam.53 The song argued that the war was pointless and that death was inevitable for all those involved. You could be “the first in your block / to have your boy come home in a box”.54 Uncle Sam is “in a terrible jam / way down yonder in Vietnam”.55 “And it’s one, two, three / what are we fighting for / don’t ask me I don’t give a damn / next stop is Vietnam”.56 The band criticised Wall Street for profiteering from war “there’s plenty good money to be made / by supplyin’ the army with the tools of the trade”.57 It placed the listener as the soldier about to depart for war. 58 “And it’s five, six, seven, open up the pearly gates / Well there ain’t no time to wonder why, whoopee, we’re all gonna die”.59 Bob Dylan’s ‘With God On Our Side’ is a finger-pointing song that questions war and the actions of the past then turns to the Cold War fear of Russians.60 “I’ve learned to hate Russians / all through my whole life / if another war comes / it’s them we must fight / to hate them and fear them / to run and to 52 James, ‘The Vietnam War and American Music’, pp.129-130. Country Joe and the Fish, Feels-Like-I’m-Fixin’-To-Die-Rag, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3W7-ngmO_p8, accessed 11 Jan 16. 54 Ibid. 55 James, ‘The Vietnam War and American Music’, p.123 and Country Joe and the Fish, FeelsLike-I’m-Fixin’-To-Die-Rag, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3W7-ngmO_p8, accessed 11 Jan 16. 56 Country Joe and the Fish, Feels-Like-I’m-Fixin’-To-Die-Rag, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3W7-ngmO_p8, accessed 11 Jan 16. 57 Ibid. 58 James, ‘The Vietnam War and American Music’, p.132. 59 Country Joe and the Fish, Feels-Like-I’m-Fixin’-To-Die-Rag, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3W7-ngmO_p8, accessed 11 Jan 16. 60 Bob Dylan, With God On Our Side, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cAgAvnvXF9U, accessed 11 Jan 16. 53 10 hide”.61 His song demonstrates that society has made foolish decisions in the past, but also, that society is continuing to do so.62 “For you don’t count the dead / when God’s on your side”.63 “You never ask questions / when God’s on your side”.64 Dylan finished with what most people by this time were thinking, “If God is on our side / he’ll stop the next war”.65 ‘Masters of War’ was another protest song by Dylan, which was against those who facilitate and profit from war.66 “You fasten all the triggers / for others to fire”.67 “You play with my world / like it’s your little toy”.68 The power of folk music was increasing, as was the anti-war sentiment stirred up by it. ‘I ain’t marching anymore’ by Phil Ochs was so powerful that when played at protest rallies, people in the crowd were reported to have burnt their draft cards.69 Here again, we can see the influence of popular culture on society. Creedence Clearwater Revival used their ‘Fortunate Son’ to comment on how the upper echelons of society would make patriotic statements about the war, but then pulled strings to ensure that their sons were not drafted, while those of ordinary families were sent 61 Dylan, With God On Our Side, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cAgAvnvXF9U, accessed 11 Jan 16. 62 James Dunlop, ‘Through the Eyes of Tom Joad: Patterns of American Idealism, Bob Dylan and the Folk Protest Movement’, Popular Music and Society, Vol.29, No.5, 2006, p.560. 63 Dylan, With God On Our Side, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cAgAvnvXF9U, accessed 11 Jan 16. 64 Ibid. 65 Ibid. 66 Bob Dylan, Masters of War, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WZyfUlxIujA, accessed 11 Jan 16. 67 Ibid. 68 Ibid. 69 Phil Ochs, I Ain’t Marching Anymore, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1rVTBCtYjoY, accessed 11 Jan 16. 11 instead.70 Many artists spoke out against the Vietnam War, with The Beatles’ John Lennon being one of them.71 Lennon would later use his influence with the public to call on the government to “give peace a chance”.72 The United States had been using black musicians to demonstrate the freedoms of democracy and capitalism to the world, yet a decade later the issues of civil rights were still rearing their head. Bob Dylan’s ‘Oxford Town’ was a folk protest song about these rights, with lines such as, “He went down to Oxford Town / guns and clubs followed him down / all because his face was brown”.73 With ‘Blowin’ In The Wind’, Dylan asks a series of open ended questions about how long it will take for broadly defined social changes to occur, such as civil rights.74 “How many roads must a man walk down / before you call him a man?” and “how many years can some people exist / before they’re allowed to be free?”75 Dylan was an integral part of the protest movement, who managed to turn the thoughts of millions into songs.76 His song ‘Only A Pawn In Their Game’ reflects a 70 Creedence Clearwater Revival, Fortunate Son, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ec0XKhAHR5I, accessed 11 Jan 16. 71 John Platoff, ‘”Revolution” and the Politics of Musical Reception’, The Journal of Musicology, Vol.22, No.2, 2005, p.264. 72 Ibid., p.266. 73 Bob Dylan, Oxford Town, http://www.bobdylan.com/us/songs/oxford-town, accessed 11 Jan 16. 74 Dunlop, ‘Through the Eyes of Tom Joad: Patterns of American Idealism, Bob Dylan and the Folk Protest Movement’, p.562. 75 Bob Dylan, Blowin’ In The Wind, http://www.bobdylan.com/us/songs/blowin-wind, accessed 11 Jan 16. 76 C. Bayliss, Mary Oliver and Ivor Hayward, ‘Why Barry bugged Bob in the sixties’, Daily Mail, No.33261, London, 2003, p.60. 12 belief that the old leadership can no longer be trusted.77 Music portrayed what was on the minds of youth and reached out to them; no protest was complete without music.78 The sixties was a decade of change and popular culture reflected this in song. The Beatles were the most influential pop group of the sixties and their song ‘Revolution’ was both political and controversial.79 “You say you want a revolution / well, you know / we all want to change the world”.80 The Beatles also released the hit song ‘Back in the USSR’, which was a lighthearted, upbeat song intended to humanise those living behind the Iron Curtain.81 The Rolling Stones were almost as popular as The Beatles, but more political. So much so, that the band members were targeted in politically motivated drug busts.82 Their song ‘Street Fighting Man’ was banned in certain parts of the United States for fears it would incite violence.83 The Rolling Stones did not like the generation who were running things. ‘I Can’t Get No Satisfaction’ was a call for change. “And the man comes on the radio / and he’s telling me more and more / about 77 Dunlop, ‘Through the Eyes of Tom Joad: Patterns of American Idealism, Bob Dylan and the Folk Protest Movement’, p.564 and Bob Dylan, Only A Pawn In Their Game, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bXWM84rUV-Q, accessed 11 Jan 16. 78 Rodnitzky, The Evolution of the American Protest Song, p.42 79 Gardiner, From the bomb to the Beatles: the changing face of post-war Britain, 1945-1965, p.149 and Platoff, ‘”Revolution” and the Politics of Musical Reception’, p.241. 80 The Beatles, Revolution, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BGLGzRXY5Bw, accessed 11 Jan 16. 81 The Beatles, Back in the USSR, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kHD5nd3QLTg, accessed 11 Jan 16. 82 Platoff, ‘”Revolution” and the Politics of Musical Reception’, p.255. 83 Platoff, ‘”Revolution” and the Politics of Musical Reception’, p.261 and The Rolling Stones, Street Fighting Man, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jFvtMp7hRF8, accessed 11 Jan 16. 13 some useless information”.84 The lyrics were about dissatisfaction with the status quo.85 Despite being banned in some areas, ‘Satisfaction’ reached number one in the charts and came to embody the same sentiments as folk and protest songs.86 Music was seen as essential to the expression of society’s views on class, gender, race and war.87 It helped convey the message that people would no longer meekly accept the way society was heading.88 People were against racism, war and conformity and music mirrored their concerns and brought their issues to the masses.89 Dylan’s ‘The Times They Are AChangin’’ is call to rebel against authority. “And don’t you criticize / what you don’t understand / your sons and your daughters / are beyond your command / your old road is rapidly agin’ / please get out of the new one it you can’t lend your hand / for the times they are a-changin’”.90 In his finger-pointing songs, Dylan directed the frustrations and dissatisfactions of the generation and called for change.91 Dylan was connected to folk music to such an extent, that in 1965 when he introduced electric music at the Newport Folk Festival, the audience were shocked and booed him from 84 The Rolling Stones, Satisfaction, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HoxRFOr_sQ0, accessed 11 Jan 15. 85 Rosenstone, ‘”The Times They Are A-Changin’”: The Music of Protest’, p.142. 86 Jack Doyle, “… No Satisfaction, 1965-1966”, www.pophistory.com/topics/stones-nosatisfaction_1965-1966/, accessed 09 Dec 15. 87 Eyerman, ‘Politics and music in the 1960s’, p.113. 88 Rodnitsky, The Evolution of the American Protest Song, p.42. 89 Ibid. 90 Dylan, The Times They Are A Changin’, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e7qQ6_RV4VQ, accessed 11 Jan 16. 91 Eyerman, ‘Politics and music in the 1960s’, p.125. 14 the stage, one person even calling him Judas. 92 Music reflected the issues, beliefs and values of a culture.93 The popular music of the sixties was politically charged and aimed at the under thirties, who had cultural and political self-awareness. 94 Popular music was instrumental in the transformation of American and global culture and helped the youth to define their own subculture.95 Popular music put the spotlight on social issues and in doing so, changed a generation.96 As the sixties came to a close and the seventies began, the Cold War went on and popular music became more and more linked to the radicalisation of youth.97 Protest songs and their messages infiltrated mass culture and were used for political agitation.98 The guitar had become a symbol of social protest and the protest song had changed to something that was pervasive, technologically vivid, with the ability to drastically influence the opinions of the youth.99 It was a time when strong anti-communist leaders Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher came to power and the Soviet invasion of Afganistan. When the Sex Pistols sang that there was 92 James, ‘The Vietnam War and American Music’, p.132. Nachbar and Lausé, ‘Getting to know us: An introduction to the study of popular culture: What is this stuff that dreams are made of?’, p.4. 94 Eyerman, ‘Politics and music in the 1960s’, pp.109-110. 95 Eyerman, ‘Politics and music in the 1960s’, Music and social movements: mobilising traditions in the twentieth century, New York, 1988, p.106 and Rosenstone, ‘”The Times They Are AChangin’”: The Music of Protest’, p.131. 96 Eyerman, ‘Politics and music in the 1960s’, p.138. 97 Rodnitzky, ‘Popular music as a radical influence, 1945-1970’, p.5. 98 Ibid. 99 Ibid. 93 15 “no future” in ‘God Save The Queen’, people readily believed it.100 Opposition to the Vietnam War continued in the seventies. Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young’s ‘Ohio’ was a protest song about the shooting of four students at the Kent State University in 1970.101 The students had been protesting America’s involvement in the Vietnam War when the National Guard opened fire on them. The refrain, ‘four dead in O-hi-o’ captured the frustration and anger of a generation.102 Such was the influence of the song and the power of music that AM radio refused to play it because of its anti-war sentiment.103 FM played it as part of its underground music scene and it remained in the top forty for seven weeks.104 Just as Vietnam War issues continued, so did the use of jazz music for cultural diplomacy. In 1971, at the behest of Richard Nixon, musician Duke Ellington went on tour in Eastern Europe. The tour was hailed as a success and assisted bringing about new cultural exchanges between the Soviet Union and the Unites States.105 The Moscow correspondent of The Chicago Tribune wrote at the time, ‘Ellington’s arrival was being seen as a big shot in the arm for 100 Worley, ‘One nation under the bomb: the cold war and British punk to 1984’, p.75 and Sex Pistols, No Future (God Save The Queen), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BaHhxRGYjFA, accessed 11 Jan 15. 101 Jack Doyle, “Four Dead in O-hi-o”, www.pophistory.com/topics/kent-state-shootings/, accessed 09 Dec 15 and song (find reference) 102 Doyle, “Four Dead in O-hi-o”, www.pophistory.com/topics/kent-state-shootings/, accessed 09 Dec 15 and Neil Young, Ohio, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EI1gcH2XCEw, accessed 11 Jan 16. 103 Doyle, “Four Dead in O-hi-o”, www.pophistory.com/topics/kent-state-shootings/, accessed 09 Dec 16. 104 Ibid. 105 Harvey G. Cohen, ‘Visions of Freedom: Duke Ellington in the Soviet Union’, Popular Music, Vol.30, No.3, 2011, p.298. 16 the cultural exchange program… which served as one barometer of the overall state of Soviet-American relations’.106 Music was therefore being used to gauge Cold War attitudes on both sides of the Iron Curtain. The American protests of the fifties and sixties over money being spent on jazz musicians was no longer an issue, jazz was a worthy ambassador to the United States and Western democracy.107 Artists continued with their opposition of The Berlin Wall, with David Bowie’s song ‘Heroes’ being an example of this.108 The use of popular music to both define and gauge the mood of the youth continued in the eighties, with British youth displaying more concern and pessimism than their American counterparts.109 The ‘cool’ period of the Cold War had come to an end by the close of the seventies, with the very real possibility of nuclear war once again on the geopolitical agenda.110 Popular music had continued to be the medium of social change and cultural diplomacy though, with Western artists regularly touring the Eastern Bloc. 111 However, it was the punk movement of the late seventies to early eighties that would cast the greatest shadow over society by reflecting the angst felt by eighties youth against the politics ‘that provoked and sustained the 106 Cohen, ‘Visions of Freedom: Duke Ellington in the Soviet Union’, p.297. Ibid. p.310. 108 David Bowie, Heroes, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tgcc5V9Hu3g, accessed 11 Jan 16. 109 Stephen Holden, ‘Critics Notebook; Rock Music, or Songs On The End of the World, The New York Times, 17 January 1985, p.16. 110 Worley, ‘One nation under the bomb: the cold war and British punk to 1984’, p.67. 111 Major & Mitter, ‘East is East and West is West? Towards a comparative socio-cultural history of the Cold War’, p.14. 107 17 Cold War’.112 The punk movement appealed to both the left and right wings of Western politics. The left saw punk as an outlet for dissent against capitalism, while the far right appreciated its anti-establishment motifs.113 Punk engaged with the world and sought to express the opinions of everyday people, becoming a core outlet for the expression of Cold War concerns.114 Punk can be used to assess how a large proportion of youth understood and responded to the cultural implications of the Cold War.115 The youth of the late seventies to early eighties were a generation who grew up under the shadow of the bomb, and the fears and anti-establishment mentalities they depict through punk, can be used to demonstrate the fears of wider society.116 The punk movement attacked the established social order.117 It produced record sleeves featuring bombs dropping and dead children.118 The Clash’s ‘London Calling’ seems to be referring to a news broadcast. “London calling to the faraway towns / London calling at the top of the dial / the ice age is coming”.119 This is a direct link to Cold War fears. 112 Worley, ‘One nation under the bomb: the cold war and British punk to 1984’, p.78. Matthew Worley, ‘Shot By Both Sides: Punk, Politics and the End of Consenses’, Contemporary British History, Vol.26, No.3, 2012, pp.340-342. 114 Ibid., p.344. 115 Worley, ‘One nation under the bomb: the cold war and British punk to 1984’, p.66. 116 Ibid., p.68. 117 Simon Steggels, ‘Nothing ventured, nothing gained: Midnight Oil and the politics of rock’, From pop to punk to postmodernism: popular music and Australian culture from the 1960s to the 1990s, Sydney, 1992, p.140. 118 Worley, ‘One nation under the bomb: the cold war and British punk to 1984’, p.66. 119 The Clash, London Calling, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EfK-WX2pa8c, accessed 11 Jan 16. 113 18 “Meltdown expected / London calling to the zombies of death”.120 Sex Pistols were another punk band that railed against society and the plight of the common man.121 Their song ‘Holidays In The Sun’ references the Berlin Wall and the seeming absurdity of it all.122 Sex Pistols, like The Clash, used music to fight the establishment and reflect the anxieties that existed as the backdrop to their world. 123 Cold War tensions were portrayed in punk, where music was used as a platform to reveal the truth. It claimed to represent ‘the sounds of the street’ and engaged with the world around it.124 The Jam’s record ‘Going Underground’, uses oblique references to nuclear war. “You want more money / of course I don’t mind / to buy nuclear textbooks / for atomic crimes”.125 Here too, we see how the study of popular culture can demonstrate the impact of the Cold War on the thoughts and actions of ordinary society.126 The threat of nuclear war continued to be of great importance in the eighties. The Police, U2, Culture Club and Frankie Goes to Hollywood all 120 The Clash, London Calling, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EfK-WX2pa8c, accessed 11 Jan 15. 121 Worley, ‘One nation under the bomb: the cold war and British punk to 1984’, p.68. 122 Sex Pistols, Holiday In The Sun’, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Ah1JM9mf60, accessed 11 Jan 16. 123 Worley, ‘Shot By Both Sides: Punk, Politics and the End of Consenses’, p.333. 124 Worley, ‘One nation under the bomb: the cold war and British punk to 1984’, p.70. 125 The Jam, Going Underground, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AE1ct5yEuVY, accessed 11 Jan 16. 126 Ray Browne, ‘Conversations with Scholars of American Popular Culture’, Americana: The Journal of Popular Culture, 1900 to Present, 2012, http://www.americanpopularculture.com/journal/articles/fall_2002/browne.htm, accessed 28 Jan 11. 19 had nuclear messages in their music.127 Prince’s ‘Purple Rain’ displayed an oblivious attitude, with lyrics such as, “The end is near and there’s nothing we can do about it, so let’s have fun”.128 Sting’s song ‘Russians’ was a deeply political message about the recklessness of launching a nuclear strike.129 The song drew on Cold War rhetoric of Mutually Assured Destruction and brought attention to the fact that, in the end, we are all the same. “We share the same biology / regardless of ideology”.130 In a time where tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union were high, with Europe caught in the middle, Sting made a simple statement: “I hope the Russians love their children too”.131 The song was well received around the world, reaching number two in the charts in France, with over half a million copies sold and in the top twenty of the United Kingdom and United States. 132 Other songs that expressed exasperation over the situation include Kate Bush’s ‘Breathing’, about surviving an atomic bomb,133 ‘Dancing With Tears In My Eyes’, a song about the distress of an 127 Stephen Holden, ‘Critics Notebook; Rock Music, or Songs On The End of the World, The New York Times, 17 January 1985, p.16. 128 Holden, ‘Critics Notebook; Rock Music, or Songs On The End of the World, p.16 & Prince, Purple Rain, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aLsv2q1LIo4, accessed 11 Jan 16. 129 Jack Doyle, “Sting: ‘Russians’, 1985”, 2009, www.pophistory.com/topics-sting-russians-1985, accessed 09 Dec 15 and Sting, Russians, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHylQRVN2Qs, accessed 11 Jan 16. 130 Sting, Russians, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHylQRVN2Qs, accessed 11 Jan 15. 131 Doyle, “Sting: ‘Russians’, 1985”, 2009, www.pophistory.com/topics-sting-russians-1985, accessed 09 Dec 15 and Sting, Russians, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wHylQRVN2Qs, accessed 11 Jan 16. 132 Doyle, “Sting: ‘Russians’, 1985”, 2009, www.pophistory.com/topics-sting-russians-1985, accessed 09 Dec 15. 133 Kate Bush, Breathing, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VzlofSthVwc, accessed 11 Jan 16. 20 incoming nuclear attack and the satirical ‘Christmas At Ground Zero’.134 Music videos from the eighties impart messages just as much as the songs do. In ‘Two Tribes’ by Frankie Goes To Hollywood, Ronald Reagan and Konstantin Chernenko are depicted fighting in a boxing ring, with the spectators eventually joining in and destroying everything.135 ‘Two Tribes’ held the number one spot in Britain for nine weeks.136 Nena’s ’99 Luftballoons’ was about accidentally mistaking balloons for missiles and the conflict that ensued.137 The song mockingly suggested that releasing 99 balloons into the German sky in the mid-eighties could be enough to trigger a nuclear war. But this was just the case at the time, which again demonstrates how the study of a zeitgeist can reveal much more than just what was popular.138 The Glastonbury Festival was a political music event linked to the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. During the eighties, it took on a new life, with big bands practically donating their time for the fundraising cause. Midnight Oil was a band that concentrated on social change and formed at a time where in Australia, troops were being withdrawn from Vietnam, there were anti-apartheid protests on the back of the Springbok 134 Ultravox, Dancing With Tears In My Eyes, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VJ_OetMwdPs, accessed 11 Jan 16 and Weird Al, Christmas At Ground Zero, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t039p6xqutU, accessed 11 Jan 16. 135 Frankie Goes To Hollywood, Two Tribes, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SXWVpcypf0w, accessed 11 Jan 15. 136 Worley, ‘One nation under the bomb: the cold war and British punk to 1984’, p.68. 137 Nena, 99 Lutfballoons, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lur-SGl3uw8, accessed 11 Jan 15. 138 Nachbar and Lausé, ‘Getting to know us: An introduction to the study of popular culture: What is this stuff that dreams are made of?’, p.5 21 rugby tour, the women’s movement was gaining momentum and Prime Minister Whitlam was introducing radical political changes.139 Where The Clash pushed back against the establishment, Midnight Oil sought change from within.140 They were strongly linked to the Green movement and their concerts seemed like political rallies. 141 Their 1982 album ‘10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1’ was a countdown with the direct link to nuclear war.142 Their Stop the Drop concert in 1983 was a fundraiser for the People for Nuclear Disarmament and they later performed in London with proceeds going to the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.143 In 1984 they released their album ‘Red Sails In The Sunset’, which featured an album cover of the iconic Sydney Opera House and Sydney Harbour Bridge surrounded by bomb craters and red dust.144 One of the songs on this album, ‘Minutes to Midnight’, was a direct reference to the Doomsday Clock.145 Midnight Oil’s lead singer, Peter Garrett, was a New South Wales senate candidate for the Australian Nuclear Disarmament Party in the same year as Red Sails In The Sunset was released, which contributed to the success of the party.146 The party were accused of failing to declare the political messages of Midnight Oil’s songs as donations. Such was the 139 Steggels, ‘Nothing ventured, nothing gained: Midnight Oil and the politics of rock’, p.140. Ibid. 141 Ibid., p.141. 142 Midnight Oil, 10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b3-yHdr8VwU, accessed 11 Jan 16. 143 Steggels, ‘Nothing ventured, nothing gained: Midnight Oil and the politics of rock’, p.141. 144 Midnight Oil, Red Sails In The Sunset, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I-0icQQZ-6g, accessed 11 Jan 16 and The Authentic History Centre: Primary Sources from American Popular Culture, www.authentichistory.com, accessed 09 Dec 15. 145 Midnight Oil, Minutes to Midnight, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I-0icQQZ-6g, accessed 11 Jan 16. 146 Steggels, ‘Nothing ventured, nothing gained: Midnight Oil and the politics of rock’, p.141. 140 22 power of music, that the Australian Electoral Commission was tasked with assigning a value to the ‘pop star candidacy phenomenon’.147 1985 saw Garrett berating the hypocritical foreign policies of the Reagan and Hawke governments in front of 15,000 Adelaide festival attendees.148 Despite being first and foremost a rock group, ‘entertainment is the medium through which their protest is voiced’.149 It was no coincidence that so much activity was taking place in the eighties. It was very much a time of renewed concern and music reflected that. Jazz again played an important part in the relationship between East and West. The Brubeck Quartet, who had toured Eastern Europe on behalf of the United States in the fifties, were invited to play in Moscow at the 1988 summit meeting between Reagan and Gorbachev. 150 Although controversial at first, jazz had come to be regarded as a sophisticated American art form and the fact that officials from the Soviet government were free to enjoy it and express approval was evidence of change in the relations between East and West. 151 Meanwhile, music had been seeping into Eastern Europe. West Berlin organised a three-day concert to mark Berlin’s 750th anniversary and 147 Steggels, ‘Nothing ventured, nothing gained: Midnight Oil and the politics of rock’, p.142. Ibid. 149 Ibid., p.144. 150 Stephen A. Crist, ‘Jazz as Democracy? Dave Brubeck and Cold War Politics’, The Journal of Musicology, Vol. 26, No.2, 2009, p.137. 151 Ibid. 148 23 headlined David Bowie, Eurythmics and Genesis. “On the other side of the wall, hundreds of young East Berliners climbed trees, clambered up chimneys and packed onto balconies to get a glimpse of their Western idols”.152 Some even danced in front of the Soviet embassy, prompting clashes with police. There were chants that the Wall must go, another example of the massive effect of music on the people.153 In November 1989 The Berlin Wall, the physical embodiment of the Cold War, was pulled down by the power of the people and shortly after Russia’s communist party dissolved, breaking up the Soviet Union.154 The Cold War was over. The 17th century Englishman Jeremy Collier said that music was “almost as dangerous as gunpowder” and might require “looking after no less than the press”.155 Critics have long feared the power of music and its ability to lead a group of people by shaping and influencing thoughts and actions. Both East and West knew the power of music as a political vehicle.156 The Soviet Union used censorship, imprisonment and exile to reduce its impact.157 It is impossible to separate Cold War-era music from the politics 152 Dominic Sandbrook, ‘How pop culture helped win the Cold War’, The Telgraph, 12 November 2013, www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/10441108/How-pop-culture-helped-win-the-Cold-War.html, accessed 24 Dec 15. 153 Ibid. 154 Jack F. Matlock, ‘What then?’, Reagan and Gorbachev: how the Cold War Ended, New York, 2004, p.316. 155 Jeremy Collier, A Short View of Immortality and the Profanes of the English state, London, 1698, intro. 156 John Street, ‘Rock, pop and politics’, The Cambridge companion to pop and rock, 2001, p.247. 157 Ibid., p.252. 24 of the day.158 Music about the Atomic bomb had started as soon as the first one was dropped, with songs such as Arthur ‘Big Boy’ Crudup’s ‘I’m Gonna Dig Myself A Hole’ dominating the airwaves as early as 1951.159 Music surrounding the issues of the Cold War continued, with artists as varied as Iron Maiden, Billy Joel and Marvin Gaye participating.160 The threat of nuclear war manifested itself in the popular culture music of the Cold War.161 Popular music was able to influence the manner of people’s thinking.162 It is so recognisable for explaining the ideas of an era that it is used in films, adverts and documentaries to easily define what the viewer is watching.163 The study of popular culture can tell us practically everything about a period of time. The study of music is particularly compelling and with the two together, we can better understand how ordinary people perceived the events of the Cold War. Music inspires passion, captures dreams and can also shape times rather than just reflect them, as evident in the pro- and anti-war songs of the Vietnam era. The changing sociopolitical and geopolitical environment of the Cold War was reflected in the music. The 158 Peter J. Schmelz, ‘Introduction: Music in the Cold War’, The Journal of Musicology, Vol.26, No.1, 2009, p.12. 159 Arthur Crudup, I’m Gonna Dig Myself A Hole, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fb4UQDzJTPU, accessed 11 Jan 16. 160 Nachbar and Lausé, ‘Getting to know us: An introduction to the study of popular culture: What is this stuff that dreams are made of?’, p.5 161 Worley, ‘One nation under the bomb: the cold war and British punk to 1984’, p.67. 162 Street, ‘Rock, pop and politics’, p.243. 163 Ibid., p.245. 25 Cold War conflict dominated the 20th century and the Cold War messages in songs increased and decreased as tensions rose and fell. By careful examination of the popular music created during an era, we can gain an understanding of the issues and concerns people living through the period were also thinking. When it comes to the Cold War, music was shaped by the politics of the day. 26 Bibliography Primary Sources: Bowie, D. 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