The polemical foundation of bodhisattva vows in fifth-century Khotan

the polemical foundation of bodhisattva vows in fifth-century Khotan bhikkhunī Dhammadinnā Dharma Drum Institute of Liberal Arts Khotanese  the Eastern Middle Iranian language of the ancient Saka kingdom of Khotan on the southern branch of the Silk Route in the present-day Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China  Iranian, Middle-Indic & Sanskrit vocabulary  decipherment started end of 19th century  still imperfectly deciphered  incomplete & partly fragmentary corpus Book of Zambasta (ysaṃbasta)  now dated from ca. mid-fifth century  probably the earliest Khotanese text ever written  probably the earliest Mahāyāna text composed in Khotanese vernacular, antedating the earliest translations of Mahāyāna sūtras  a comprehensive gateway to the teachings of the Buddha from a Mahāyāna perspective  a foundational ideological text for the hegemony of Mahāyāna instituions in Khotan Book of Zambasta (ysaṃbasta)  doctrinal background to support a certain conception of the Buddha, supernatural and omniscient (chaps. 1, 2, partly 15)  meditation instructions (chaps. 3, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21)  philosophical elucidation of key notions of the Mahāyāna, mostly Yogācāra (chaps. 4, 5, 7, 8)  guidance to tread the bodhisattva-path & ethics (chaps. 10, 11, 12, 16)  polemical contents seeking to assert the superiority of the Mahāyāna (ekayāna) over the Śrāvakāyana (chaps. 13 and 14)  narratives (Maitreya, chap. 22; origin of Buddhaimage, chap 23; decline of the Dharma, chap. 24) the local building of a Mahāyāna polemical doxography Vinayaviniścaya-Upāliparipṛcchā-sūtra quotation (Book of Zambasta 13.33-38) [13.33] In the Vinayaviniścaya-sūtra, thus spoke the Buddha: 'As far as the load of fine elephants is concerned, an ass cannot carry this load at all because it is weak, small. [13.34] In the same way, the Mahāyāna is like the load of fine elephants. The load of an ass is small, limited. So only is the Śrāvakayāna. [13.35] 'The vulture does not have such power, strength, as the swift eagle. The jackal is not capable of such strength of voice as the lion. [13.36] As to vigour, great wisdom (bvāmata, Skt. prajñā), [and] compassion [that are found] in the Mahāyāna, the Śrāvakas are in the same way not capable of all such thing. [13.37] So pure does the Mahāyāna shine in comparison with the Śrāvakayāna, just as the sun. The Śrāvakayāna gleams [only] just as silver.' [13.38] These many comparisons are [found] in the sūtra, because great [is] its difference, because the Mahāyāna is a great vehicle, the Śrāvakayāna an inferior one. (ed. Emmerick 1968 with modifications, transl. after id. with modifications) Vinayaviniścaya-Upāliparipṛcchā-sūtra 31 (Tibetan) [31] 'Śāriputra, what do you think: could the cat put up with the roar of the lion, the king of the animals?'. Śāriputra replied: 'No, Blessed One, that surely cannot be!'. The Blessed One asked this question: 'Śāriputra, what do you think: could the donkey put up with the load of the chief of the elephants (spos kyi glang po, Skt. gandha-hastin)?'. Śāriputra replied: 'No, Blessed One, that surely cannot be!'. The Blessed One asked this question: 'Śāriputra, what do you think: could a poor person put up with the royal power of Śakra and Brahmā?'. Śāriputra replied: 'No, Blessed One, that surely cannot be!'. The Blessed One asked this question: 'Śāriputra, what do you think: could a baby vulture put up with the brave assaults of the garuḍa, the king of winged creatures?'. Śāriputra replied: 'No, Blessed One, that surely cannot be!'. (ed. Python 1973, p. 39,3-15 [section 31] and p. 39,16-26 [section 32] with modifications, transl. after id. with modifications) Vinayaviniścaya-Upāliparipṛcchā-sūtra 32 (quotation in the Śikṣāsamuccaya) [32] na śakyaṃ sarvaśrāvakapratyekabuddhanikāyair āpattikaukṛtyasthānaṃ viśodhayituṃ yad bodhisattvas teṣāṃ buddhānāṃ bhagavantāṃ nāmadheyadhāraṇaparikīrtanenā rātriṃdivaṃ triskhandhakadharmaparyāyapravartanenāpattikaukṛtyān niḥsarati samādhiṃ ca pratilabhate. [32] It is not possible for all followers of the Śrāvaka- and Pratyekabuddhayānas to purify the state of offense and regret (kaukṛtya) as [in the case of] a bodhisatva [who] is freed from offense and regret by day and night calling upon the names of those Lord Buddhas, engaging in the recitation of the triskhandhakadharma, and [who thus] attains samādhi. (ed. Bendall 1897-1902, p. 171,4-6 with modifications; see also ed. Python 1973, p. 39, 27-31; transl. after Bendall and Rouse 1922, p. 167 with modifications) Vinayaviniścaya-Upāliparipṛcchā-sūtra quotation (Book of Zambasta 13.33-38) Youboli hui 優波離會, T 310.24 at T XI 516b24-c6 [31] '舍利弗, 於意云何, 如師子王大哮吼時, 諸小野干能堪任不?' 舍利弗 言: '不也世尊.' '又舍利弗, 如大香象其所負重驢堪任不?' '不也世尊.' '又 如帝釋及梵天王威德自在, 貧賤之人能堪任不?' '不也世尊.' '又如大力金 翅鳥王翱翔運動, 諸餘小鳥能堪任不?' '不也世尊.' [31] 'Śāriputra, what do you think? Are small jackals able to match a great king of lions when he roars his roar?‘ Śāriputra answered: 'No, WorldHonoured One.‘ [The Buddha said:] 'Again, Śāriputra, can a donkey match bearing the same heavy burden as a large fragrant elephant (Skt. gandhahastin)?' 'No, World-Honoured One.' 'Again, can a poor, humble person match the might and dominion of a Śākra or Brahmā?' 'No, WorldHonoured One.' 'Again, can any small bird match the flight of a powerful, golden-winged garuḍa, the king of birds?' 'No, World-Honoured One.' Vinayaviniścaya-Upāliparipṛcchā-sūtra quotation (Book of Zambasta 13.33-38) [32] 佛言: '舍利弗, 是諸菩薩所有善根勇猛之力, 依出離智, 淨諸罪垢, 遠 離憂悔, 得見諸佛及得三昧. 亦復如是, 如斯罪障, 非諸凡夫聲聞緣覺所能 除滅. 菩薩若能稱彼佛名, 晝夜常行是三種法, 能滅諸罪遠離憂悔得諸三 昧.' [32] The Buddha [said]: 'Śāriputra, by their wholesome roots bodhisattvas are fierce and powerful, in dependence on their wisdom of renunciation, they can purify the stain of transgressions, be removed from worry and remorse, attain a vision of the Buddhas and attain samādhi. Again, worldlings, śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas cannot rid themselves of the hindrance of such transgressions in the same way. If a bodhisattva invokes the names of that Buddha and day and night constantly practices the triskhandhakadharma, he can get rid of his transgressions, be free from worry and remorse, and attain various samādhis.' (transl. after Chang 1983, p. 267 with modifications) Book of Zambasta 12.1-5 (prologue to Bodhisattvabhūmi parallel) [12.1] Success. One who has taken a vow: 'May I realize awakening', has invited beings: 'I will save you all', [12.2] has the Dharma of the Mahāyāna as his authority: The Buddha has expounded it all correctly.' He realises awakening. [12.3] He must also undertake this commandment, by which awakening is quickly fulfilled and [from which] great merits derive. [12.4] All his vows succeed when he undertakes them for awakening and he delivers all beings. [12.5] The perfections, compassion, the capacity to attract beings [and] power increase every moment for one who undertakes this restraint. (ed. Emmerick 1968 with modifications, transl. after id. with modifications) Aniyatāvatāramudrā quotation (Book of Zambasta 13.146-149) [13.146] For this reason the Mahāyāna is exalted: because in it there are so many great utterances (vāśane, Skt. vācanā). For this reason the Śrāvakayāna is inferior: because awakening is not attained thereby. [13.147] So in the Aniyatāvatāramudrā the statement (vāśana, Skt. vācanā) is therein found: 'Should one aspire to leave this world (lovadhātu, Skt. lokadhātu) by means of the three vehicles [13.148] [and] for one there should be a goat [as a] vehicle, for another there should be an elephant [as a] vehicle, and [yet another] one would ride a chariot [pulled by], the moon rays [would be his path]. [13.149] For [the purpose of] awakening the Mahāyāna is like one who rides the chariot, [while] the other two [vehicles] are [like] one who rides the goat or one who rides the elephant. (ed. Emmerick 1968 with modifications, transl. after id. with modifications) *Praśnavyākaraṇa‐sūtra quotation (Book of Zambasta 13.20‐23) [13.20] praśñātaraṇu sūttru vīri tta hvate sarvañi balysä kho ju draya nitā ttähvaindä hastä aśśä sahä cä hamālä [13.21] kho hastä nätā ttähvaittä darroṇa trāyäte satva ttrāmu māñandu mahāyānina saṃtsāri ttähvaindä . [13.22] pratyeka-yānäna trāmu samu kho aśśä nitā ttähvaittä pharuī käḍe khvīhätä ūtca nai rraṣṭo yīndi ttähvastä [13.23] sahe ju kari ūce ne butte ceri baysga nai bunu . skote nāvuñī hämäte narandi trāmu samu śrāvaka-yāni [13.20] In the *Praśnavyākaraṇa-sūtra, thus did the all-knowing Buddha speak: 'Just as these three, the elephant, the horse, [and] the hare cross a river together, [13.21] as the elephant crosses the river [and] delivers beings with courage, likewise with the Mahāyāna they cross [the river of] the round of birth, [13.22] so with the Pratyekayāa it is just as a horse crosses a river: the water is very greatly disturbed by him, [and] he cannot cross it in a straight line; [13.23] the hare does not know at all concerning the water how deep it is, [and] he does not touch its bottom; for him, being not without merit, it is possible to get out; just so is the Śrāvakayāna'. (ed. Emmerick 1968 with modifications, transl. after id. with modifications) Youposai jie jing 優婆塞戒經 *Upāsakaśīla-sūtra (T 1488 at T XXIV 1038b5-14) 善男子, 如來世尊緣智具足, 聲聞緣覺雖知四諦緣智不具, 以是義故 不得名佛, 如來世尊緣智具足故得名佛; 善男子, 如恒河水三獸俱渡 , 兔馬香象, 兔不至底浮水而過, 馬或至底或不至底, 象則盡底. 恒 河水者即是十二因緣河也. 聲聞渡時猶如彼兔, 緣覺渡時猶如彼馬, 如來渡時猶如香象. 是故如來得名為佛. 聲聞緣覺雖斷煩惱不斷習氣 . 如來能拔一切煩惱習氣根原. 故名為佛. "Good clansman, the Tathāgata, the World-Honoured One, has perfected wisdom. Although śrāvakas and Pratyekabuddhas understand the four noble truths, they have not perfected wisdom. Therefore they are not called Buddhas. The Tathāgata, the World-Honoured One, who has perfected wisdom, is called a Buddha. Good clansman, just like three kinds of animals that cross over the Ganges, [namely] a rabbit, a horse, and a fragrant elephant. The rabbit does not reach the bottom of the river, but crosses over floating on the water; the horse may or may not reach the bottom; the elephant fully reaches the bottom. [Here] the water of the Ganges represents the 'river' of twelve causes and conditions. When the śrāvaka crosses over, he is like the rabbit. When the Pratyekabuddha crosses over, he is like the horse. And when the Tathāgata crosses over, he is like the fragrant elephant. Therefore the Tathāgata is called a Buddha. Although the śrāvaka and the Pratyekabuddha sever their afflictions, they do not sever their habits. The Tathāgata has pulled out the roots of all afflictions and habits, and therefore he is called a Buddha." (transl. after Shih 1994, p. 26 with modifications) More similes following the Vinayaviniścaya-Upāli-paripṛcchā quotation (Book of Zambasta 13.24-32) [13.24] Afterwards, in the same sūtra, the Buddha spoke of a great simile: 'Just as three men ride to a city — the three riders — [13.25] one might be an elephant-rider, the second might be a horse-rider, the third might be an ass-rider—ride to the same city; [13.26] the Mahāyāna is like the elephant and the Śrāvakayāna like the ass; the Pratyekayāna is like riding the horse; and Nirvāṇa is like the city. [13.27] As one crosses the river Ganges — great is the ship [and] very many are the men — likewise the Mahāyāna is like the ship, the Ganges like [one's] defilements. [13.28] As a man binds a raft of reeds, sits on it [and] by it crosses the river Ganges, just so is the Śrāvakayāna. [13.29] As much as the Buddha has excelled the śrāvakas, how much better he is in every way, so much better is the Dharma of the Mahāyāna than the whole Śrāvakayāna. [13.30] As noble as the royal lineage, so noble is the Mahāyāna, because Buddhas from this lineage have realized best awakening. [13.31] Just as the merchant lineage, so is the class of all the śrāvakas. If a merchant man had the courage, would that he should think thus: 'I will act royally'. [13.32] For this reason he was not born in that lineage: he has not the great, royal customs. Like such a one, the intelligence of the śrāvakas is limited, inferior'. (ed. Emmerick 1968 with modifications, transl. after id. with modifications) The polemical discourse is complementary to the presence of a Khotanese parallel to the division on the bodhisattva's moral conduct of the Bodhisattvabhūmi (śīlapaṭala), which is included in the same Book of Zambasta as its twelfth chapter. Such a polemical discourse becomes, for the Khotanese bodhisattva, foundational to the very setting out on the Mahāyāna path. divisive emergence of religious identities The early Khotanese polemical scholasticism of the ideological monumentum to the Mahāyāna that is the Book of Zambasta serves well the purposes of legitimation on three interconnected levels: 1. self-referentially and self-representationally (the Mahāyāna church performing its own supremacy to itself) 2. in relation to the political patron 3. towards real competing factions and groups. why were the Indian Vinaya(s) (apparently) never translated into Khotanese? A POSSIBLE LANDSCAPE FOR THE EARLY KHOTANESE MONASTIC BODHISATTVA • Indian prātimokṣa-sūtras and other Vinaya texts (and perhaps in some cases ancillary oral and written Khotanese materials ?) • Indian and Khotanese ʻnormativeʼ scriptures on the bodhisattva's conduct • Indian and Khotanese texts offering a more elaborated Mahāyāna doctrinal back-up to their normative counterparts (i.e., precepts and lists of offences), which would be instrumental for both ideological selfrepresentation and missionary campaigning • Indian (and perhaps in some cases Khotanese) Mahāyāna liturgical texts such as, for example, the triskhandhakadharma, along with the so-called deśanā texts divisive emergence of religious identities  … the artificial creation of a Hīnayāna opponent in fifthcentury China?  … or else, heterogenesis?  the contemporary Chinese landscape can hardly be made sense of as the exclusive expression of some kind of Chinese idiosyncrasy  dynamics to be situated against the backdrop of the rhetorics of ‘conversions’ that connect the histories of the Late Antique Eurasia with the ‘divisive emergence of religious identities’ from the Mediterranean to Imperial China (Palumbo)