RETHINKING DESIGN EDUCATION

PRACTICING DESIGN PRAC PRACTICING PRACTICING DESIGN DESIGN RETHINKING DESIGN EDUCATION CTICING DESIGN PRACTICING DESIGN PRACTICING DESIGN PRACTICING DESIGN: RETHINKING DESIGN EDUCATION PRACTICING DESIGN: RETHINKING DESIGN EDUCATION AUTHORS A team of researchers par ticipated in the preparation of this Study. Prof. Biserka Komnenić, PhD is the author of the first and the second par t, which provide a theoretical framework for the Study. The empirical research presented in the third par t of the Study represents the joint effor t of the exper ts from three vocational design organizations, 2 educational design institutions and 2 design oriented companies from Austria, Croatia and Macedonia. PROJECT PARTNERS Austria — designaustria (DA) – Knowledge Centre & Interest Organization www.designaustria.at Severin Filek, Tamara König Croatia — Croatian Designers Association (CDA) www.dizajn.hr Ivana Borovnjak, Marko Golub, Mirjana Jakušić, Ksenija Žakula — University of Applied Sciences VERN’ www.vern.hr Gordana Ćorić, Dubravko Kraus, Diana Plantić Tadić — Prostoria d.o.o. www.prostoria.eu Mirjana Vidaković, Iva Šilović Grabovac Macedonia — Public Room Skopje (PRS) www.publicroom.org Marija Novović-Jovanovska, Aleksandar Velinovski — Faculty of Ar t and Design, European University in Skopje (EURM) www.eurm.edu.mk Jana Maneva-Chuposka, Gordana Vrencoska, Zoran Gjureski, Aleksandra Jovanovska, Elena Makarovska, Blagojce Naumovski — Zavar Company www.zavar.com.mk Mar ta Naumovska Grnarova ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The project team would like to thank all the par ticipants and sur vey respondents for their productive engagement in relation to the empirical research conducted for this Study. We are grateful to Design Professors, Design Professionals and Business Actors from Austria, Croatia and Macedonia that provided us with valuable inputs through sur vey questionnaires and inter views. PUBLISHERS designaustria Croatian Designers Association Public Room Skopje GRAPHIC DESIGN Niko Mihaljević PROOFREADING Maja Kuzmanoska PRACTICING DESIGN: RETHINKING DESIGN EDUCATION AUTHORS Prof. Biserka Komnenić, PhD Ivana Borovnjak, MA Prof. Severin Filek, MA Aleksandar Velinovski CONTRIBUTING AUTHOR Gordana Ćorić, MSc RESEARCHERS PRINT Mediaprint Tiskara Hrastić Tamara König PRINT RUN 100 Ksenija Žakula ISBN 978-953-6778-22-5 A CIP record is available from the digital catalogue of the National and University Librar y in Zagreb under number 000947001. www.practicingdesign.info Zagreb, 2016 This Study is an output of the Practicing Design Project, co-funded by ERASMUS+ Programme of the European Union The information and views set out in this Study are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the European Union. RESEARCH ASSOCIATES Jana Maneva-Chuposka Marko Golub Marta Naumovska Grnarova Marija Novović Jovanovska Diana Plantić Tadić Gordana Vrencoska Iva Šilović Grabovac Mirjana Vidaković ABSTRACT This Study explores the extent to which the changes brought by new socio-economic paradigm shift and its influence on social and economic behaviour in the last 20 years are reflected in design education and practice. Furthermore, this Study attempts to identify the root causes of design education and design curriculum content maladjustment to the needs of contemporary era. It also identifies the current challenges design education is facing today. Theoretical and empirical research results, particularly in the form of knowledge, skills and competencies, served as the ground for proposing appropriate guidelines for the improvement of current design education and the content of the design curricula. The results of the Study reveal theoretical and empirical evidence that confirms the assumption about the current mismatch between knowledge and skills acquired in formal design education and skills needed in current and future design practices. This mismatch is mostly related to the managerial and social skills needed for solving problems and demands of real life design practice and to a smaller extent, to practical design knowledge and competencies. Therefore the Study argues that design education should be carried within a multidisciplinary context, which will embrace all necessary knowledge, skills and competencies needed for future successful professional design practice, and that design education should be more practice-based oriented, allowing students to work on specific real life projects. Since the evidence CONTENTS suggests that educational institutions in their attempts to provide additional skills and competencies are faced with financial and bureaucratic constraints, which create a gap, or lack of professionals from other specialist disciplines, design education institutions should consider finding alternative sources for financing those specialist and alternative ways of training students in deficient disciplines or skills. Furthermore, the Study argues that there is a need for FOREWORD [15] finding more effective way of transferring economic knowledge to design students and that the business sector and INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY [17] other interested parties need to better learn each other’s languages in order to achieve more productive communication. Design educational institutions should present their students the importance of business management and raise awareness of the business sector about the value of PART I: SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT OF DESIGN IN THE 21ST CENTURY [25] 1 Paradigm Shift to Society and Knowledge Based Economy [28] design. 1.1 Pillars and Social-Economic Trends of Knowledge Based Economy [33] Key words: Design Education, Design Practice, Skills, 1.2 Important Facts and General Challenges Resulting from Knowledge Based Economy [40] Competencies, Challenge, Knowledge Society 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theory and Practice [43] 2.1 Design in Microeconomic Theory [43] 2.2 Value of Design for Enterprises [50] 2.3 Design in Macroeconomic Theory [54] 2.4 Value of Design from Macroeconomic Policy Level [58] 2.5 Facts and Figures of the Design Industry [63] 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Century [67] 3.1 Challenges Brought by Knowledge Based Economy [67] 3.2 Public Policy Expectations from the Design Sector [70] 3.3 Challenges from Designers’ Perspective [72] PART II: CHALLENGES FOR DESIGN EDUCATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY [85] 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [201] 1 Contemporary General Trends in Higher Education [88] 5.1 Design Professionals: Comparison of Survey and Focus Group Results [201] 2 Impact of General Trends in Higher Education on Design Education [93] 5.2 Design Professors: Comparison of Survey and Focus Group Results [208] 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [97] 5.3 Business Actors: Comparison of Focus Group Results [216] 3.1 Contemporary Purpose of Design Practice and Education [97] 3.2 Design Curriculum for the 21st Century [111] 3.3 The Place of Design Education in the Arena of Higher Learning and Content of Design Curriculum [119] 4 Design Competencies for the 21st Century [127] 5.4 Comparative Analysis of the Results of the Overall Research [219] PART IV: CONCLUSIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR FURTHER ACTION TO BE CONSIDERED [225] 1 Conclusions from the Study [228] 2 Guidelines and Suggestions for Further Action to be Considered [237] PART III: QUALITY AND RELEVANCY OF DESIGNERS’ KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES FROM ENDNOTES [243] THE PERSPECTIVE OF DESIGN PROFESSIONALS, DESIGN PROFESSORS AND BUSINESS ACTORS [141] REFERENCES [253] 1 Purpose and Methodology of Research [144] 2 Design Professionals: Survey Results [146] 2.1 Croatian results [150] 2.2 Austrian results [155] 2.3 Macedonian results [160] 3 Design Professors: Survey Results [165] 3.1 Croatian results [168] 3.2 Austrian results [173] 3.3 Macedonian results [179] 4 Focus Group Results [183] 4.1 Design Professionals Focus Groups [183] 4.2 Design Professors Focus Groups [188] 4.3 Business Actors Focus Groups [194] FOREWORD Designers are increasingly trained to identify their clients’ needs and requirements by observing and identifying social developments. Ideally using this knowledge and in cooperation with their clients as partners and team players they develop innovative products and services that meet these needs and requirements. Design is more than just a product, a website, a flyer… Design achieves more: Design is strategy and process, i.e. a management task. In the future, design professions will increasingly include counseling functions with a strong tendency towards multidisciplinarity. In 2009, an Austrian survey showed that approximately two thirds of the interviewed designers use an interdisciplinary approach in their work and regard themselves as entrepreneurs rather than freelancers or artists. For the design training it is necessary to overcome the outdated structure, because design will increasingly become an interdisciplinary matter. Utmost attention should be paid to economic aspects, as the clients regard the creative and visionary aspects as basic skills. The challenge in remaining competitive on a global market is to increase the innovative capacity of employees, above all during training and also on the client side, as well as to consistently force up the innovative output. It is particularly important to promote all kinds of innovative growth in the SME sector, while keeping track of the necessary economic, social and ecological sustainability. Foreword [15] It is necessary to think of ways to contribute to design- INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY driven, user-oriented innovation, e.g. by networking and research for developing interdisciplinary curricula (such as design in engineering, social sciences or medicine) and the required tools. Cooperation in the field of education and further training should help to remove barriers and use design as an innovative tool in a more efficient way. Even subjects such as basic principles of business management, cost accounting and contract law as well as argumentative techniques, conduct IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCHERS AND PRACTITIONERS AND RESEARCH LIMITATIONS of negotiations and issues related to client cooperation must The research implications of the Study are multiple. First, be improved in the design training. The cross-sectional fields theoretical and empirical evidence has been found to support mentioned above should be integrative elements to meet the the confirmation of a current mismatch between the skills acquired through formal design education and skills needed in requirements and be in line with Zeitgeist. Consultation and power of persuasion are becoming current and future design practice. Second, the Study results increasingly important for professional designers. Advisory can serve as yet another reference for future research on this skills, broad knowledge, entrepreneurial thinking, argumen- topic. Furthermore, given that this is the first Study of this kind tative skills and sales training as well as team leadership have conducted in Austria, Croatia and Macedonia, it contributes to become part of the work routine. Additional knowledge of the increase of the design discipline scientific knowledge base materials and technologies, of societal and social aspects, of and it may serve as a platform for conducting future research consumers and users, of marketing and product differentia- on the same problem in these countries. Regarding the practical tion, of sustainability and preservation of resources, but also implications, the results of this Study can influence the rising of human habits and needs such as emotion, safety and user awareness of the significance of the integrative, multidiscipli- friendliness is part of a successful production and innovation nary, practice-based learning approach to design education, process. Designers act as guides in a frequently longer thought which in time may result in recognizing the need for the imple- and development process – from the idea to its implementation. mentation of some of the recommendations into formal design Creativity is taken for granted and visions are expected. study curricula. This is of particular significance in the context of a general intention of all three countries to contribute to the current social and economic transition into knowledge-based Prof. Severin Filek, MA ones. This Study can serve as a sort of a handbook for design professionals and design scholars that will provide them with a comprehensive framework for understanding and explanation of the current state of their profession and discipline, and give them some ideas regarding the possible ways and direction in adjusting to arising changes. Also, this Study can serve to Foreword [18] Introduction to the Study [17] scholars from other fields, and to public policy and Business The project promotes rethinking and undertaking innovative Actors to deepen their understanding of the design profession. practices in education and training on national, regional and This Study is not without its limitations. It is debatable whether international level thus raising the awareness among all stake- the samples used for empirical research in this Study are large holders and the public about the needed enhancement of the enough to draw valid and objective conclusions. Therefore, quality and relevance of the current design education and train- future research should be conducted on a larger sample, which ing and the needed links with the world of practice. may help in producing more objective results. ExPLANATION OF THE TERM “DESIGN” AND “INDUSTRIAL DESIGN” BACKGROUND OF THE STUDy This Study is the result of the first phase of the Practicing Design project, which is a collaborative venture of three European vocational design organizations: Croatian Designers’ Association (Croatia), designaustria (Austria), Public Room (Macedonia); two educational institutions: VERN’ University of Applies Sciences (Croatia), Faculty of Art and Design, European University of Republic of Macedonia, Skopje; two business companies: Prostoria d.o.o. (Croatia) and Zavar d.o.o. (Macedonia). The aim of the project Practicing Design is to find new and innovative design education practice in order to bridge the gap between education and professional work and to upgrade designers’ skills necessary for better socio-economic outcomes. To address these needs the project is developing activities to integrate development of cross disciplinary and entrepreneurship skills into an educational course, encourage collaboration projects between design students, and to make internships in the industry and design agencies part of the design course. The final task of the Study Rethinking Design Education is to detect skills and knowledge needed for employability and not provided by design curricula and create guidelines through identification of the main challenges facing the design practice and education in the 21st century and through empirical research of the existing skills mismatch in the design curricula in Croatia, Austria, and Macedonia, as a framework for the second output of the project – Design Training Program. For the purposes of this Study the terms “Design” and “Industrial Design” are used through the Study as synonyms which refer to the ICSID renewed definition of industrial design: “Industrial Design is a strategic problem-solving process that drives innovation, builds business success and leads to a better quality of life through innovative products, systems, services and experiences. Industrial Design bridges the gap between what is and what’s possible. It is a trans-disciplinary profession that harnesses creativity to resolve problems and co-create solutions with the intent of making a product, system, service, experience or a business, better. At its heart, Industrial Design provides a more optimistic way of looking at the future by reframing problems as opportunities. It links innovation, technology, research, business and customers to provide new value and competitive advantage across economic, social and environmental spheres. Industrial Designers place the human in the centre of the process. They acquire a deep understanding of user’s needs through empathy and apply a pragmatic, user centric problem solving process to design products, systems, services and experiences. They are strategic stakeholders in the innovation process and are uniquely positioned to bridge varied professional disciplines and business interests. They value the economic, social and environmental impact of their work and their contribution towards co-creating a better quality of life.” [21] Introduction to the Study [20] Introduction to the Study PURPOSE, OBJECTIVES, discipline, and give them some ideas regarding the possible METHODOLOGY APPROACH ways and direction in adjusting to arising changes. Also, this PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES policy and Business Actors to deepen their understanding of It seems that the fast changes brought by the new par- the design profession. Study can serve to scholars from other fields, and to public adigm of the Society and Economy Intensively Based on Knowledge created increased pressure on design education METHODOLOGy APPROACH and practice which caused current general disorientation in the The approach to the research for this Study relied on design community. The design profession is changing rapidly gathering information and data from a wide variety of sources as a result of its fast growth, it has expanded in all imaginable that were drawn together during the analytical phase. There- directions, but the world of design education did not have time fore, for the purpose of the theoretical part of the research to reflect on fast changes and new challenges, and find the right which is presented in the first and the second part of the Study, answers about possible ways of responding to the new situa- literature review of relevant theoretical and empirical work is tion created by those challenges. However, to date there has used: academic articles, books, working papers, consultancy been no comprehensive Study in regard to the understanding reports, government publications, white papers, publications of the main causes that influenced the current state of design by relevant national and international institutions, and media education and practice. Therefore, the purpose of this Study is articles. Online surveys of three stakeholders’ groups: Design to investigate and identify the characteristics of contemporary Professionals, Design Professors, and Business Actors were design practice and design education, to portray the extent to used for the purpose of the empirical research presented in the which changes brought by new socio-economic paradigm shift third part of the Study. Additional input from the stakeholders and its influence on social and economic behaviour in the last was secured through a series of semi-structured interviews 20 years are reflected in the design education and practice as conducted within the three Focus groups. well as to understand and determine the root causes of design education and design curriculum content maladjustment to the The Study is structured as follows: needs of the contemporary era. The final task of the Study is to identify the current challenges facing design education today Part I provides comprehensive insight regarding the and on the basis of theoretical and empirical research results, changes brought by new social and economic paradigm shift, in the form of competencies, knowledge and skills, propose and how their influence on social and economic behaviour appropriate guidelines for the improvement of current design in the last 20 years was reflected in the microeconomic and education and the content of the design curriculum. The sec- macroeconomic perspective on the value of design, and on the ondary goal of this Study is to serve to design professionals, design practice itself. On the basis of this insight, key chal- scholars and students as a sort of a handbook that will pro- lenges were identified and anticipated for the design sector in vide them with a comprehensive framework for understanding the 21st century. Accordingly, in the first chapter, the paradigm and explanation of the current state of their profession and of the Economy and Society Based on Knowledge is briefly Introduction to the Study Introduction to the Study [22] [23] explained, where creativity, innovation and intellectual capital Austria, Croatia and Macedonia. The research was carried of individuals, employees, companies and nation became a key through online survey of three groups: Design Professionals, factor of value creation. In the second chapter the relationship Design Professors, and Business Actors, and through series between design as an economic factor of production and eco- of semi-structured interviews within three stakeholders’ Focus nomic theories, and the role and importance of the design sector groups. In the first chapter, the purpose, methodology and data from the microeconomic and macroeconomic perspective is of the research are explained. In the second, third and fourth analysed and the relevant quantitative research conducted on chapter, the results of the surveys and Focus groups regarding this subject was presented. In the last chapter, from the general the designers’ skills and competencies from the perspective of social and economic trends and from the perspective of public Design Professionals, Design Professors and Business Actors policy and design practitioners, the most important current are presented. In the fifth chapter, the comparative analysis and future challenges facing the design sector and the design is conducted on four levels: comparison of the Design Pro- profession in the 21st century are articulated and identified. fessionals’ surveys and Focus groups from all three countries, Part II gives insight into possible direction of the design comparison of the Design Professors’ survey and Focus groups education in the future, detects the main challenges and main from all three countries, comparison of Business Actors’ Focus dilemmas facing the design education, and on the basis of the groups from all three countries and finally comparative analysis results of the existing empirical research, identifies a possible was conducted based on the results of the overall research. mismatch between competencies and skills provided in current design education and the ones needed in the market. In the At the end of the Study, relevant conclusions are presented on first and second chapter, the contemporary general trends in the basis of which specific guidelines regarding the possible higher education and their impact on the design education are direction of design education in the future, and bridging the gap presented. The third chapter deals with key dilemmas related between education and practice and designers’ skills necessary to design education: What is the general purpose of design enhancement are given. today? What theoretical framework should support the new model of the design curriculum? What should be the content of the design curriculum? And how should design be positioned within the arena of higher learning? The fourth chapter is dedicated to the question of design competencies and skills needed for the 21st century. Part III In this part of the Study original empirical research regarding the mismatch of the skills which designers obtain in their formal education and skills needed in current and future practice from the perspective of Design Professionals, Design Professors and Business Actors is presented. The research was simultaneously conducted in three countries: Introduction to the Study Introduction to the Study [25] [24] PART 1 PART I: SOCIAL-ECONOMIC CONTEXT OF DESIGN IN 21ST CENTURY SOCIAL-ECONOMIC CONTEXT OF DESIGN IN 21ST CENTURY [27] PART I: SoCIAL-ECoNoMIC CoNTExT oF DESIGN IN 21ST CENTURy The contemporary socio-economic context is articulated in the new paradigm of Society and Economy Based on Knowledge, which has a decisive influence on the present understanding of the socio-economic importance of the design practice, and its current and future challenges and trends. In order to understand the challenges of the 21st century which the higher education in the field of design is facing, the purpose of this part of the Study is to provide comprehensive insight regarding how changes brought by new social/economic paradigm shift, and their influence on social and economic behaviour in the last 20 years are reflected in the microeconomic and macroeconomic perspective regarding the value of design, and the design practice itself. On the basis of this insight the anticipated key challenges were identified for the design sector and the design profession in the 21st century. Accordingly, in the first chapter the paradigm of the Economy and Society Based on Knowledge is briefly explained, where creativity, innovation and intellectual capital of individuals, employees, companies and nation became a key factor for value creation. In the second chapter the relationship between the design as an economic value added activity and economic theories, and the role and importance of the design sector from the microeconomic and macroeconomic perspective is analysed and the relevant quantitative research conducted on this subject is presented. In the last chapter, on the basis of general social and economic trends and from the perspective of public policy and design practitioners, the most important current and future challenges facing the design sector and design profession in the 21st century were articulated and projected. [29] [28] 1 PARADIGM SHIFT TO SOCIETY AND organisms science. This change of the basic picture of reality ECONOMY BASED ON KNOWLEDGE requires a long-term change in relation to the priorities and values. They anticipate that all institutions will go through a major change, which applies particularly to those in the field of economics and finance. At the beginning of the 1990s, Peter Drucker, and Bengt – Ake Lundvall, argued that western society entered a phase of historical discontinuity – a paradigm shift which they articulated in the notion of Society and Economy The concept of Society and Economy Based on Knowledge Based on Knowledge.2 Historically observed, the emergence presents a framework term designed to define the changes that of Society and Economy Based on Knowledge did not occur at are the result of development and progress of industrial society once, nor did it represent a revolutionary event. It represents in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century. Discussions an evolutionary, gradual process that intense over time and on Knowledge Economy, its impact and consequences that it finally caused a brief but concise discontinuity in development produces on the economy and society as a whole, are most during which the characteristic determinants of the economy prevalent in the political, economic and sociological discourse and society have changed. and are focused on trying to define the observed trends of Modern society can be described as a society based on economic and social life in post-industrial society and their a deep and broad penetration of scientific and technological characteristics. knowledge in all spheres of social life and its institutions. By Authors, who were among the first, advocated the idea the mid-twentieth century society and economy were primarily that the emergence of Knowledge Society/Economy represent understood in the context of physical resources and physical a historic discontinuity, new socio-economic paradigm and labour. As such, these concepts have long been present in a qualitative leap in a number of dimensions in comparison social, economic and political theories. However, in mod- to the earlier societies and economies (Merilyn Ferguson, ern society there is a tendency of decreasing importance of Frifjof Capra and Willis Harman), in their books explained physical resources and physical labour as the basic factors of the need for paradigm change and explored the implications production and sources of value creation. Today, the notion of a paradigm shift on the social and economic environment.1 of property and labour is extended to intangible elements of They argued that, unlike the Cartesian deterministic, binary their structure, or in other words, physical and labour factors and linear understanding of the world based on the principles of production more than ever before, have embedded in them- of Newtonian physics (which dominated the Western way of selves the intangible component –knowledge and creativity. understanding the world almost until the end of the twentieth Therefore, the Knowledge Society phenomenon indicates the century), contemporary understanding of the world is based significant structural economic changes and the transition on a dynamic, interactive, network, and holistic understanding of the industrial economy to economy intensively based on of human behaviour, which corresponds to insights of quan- knowledge. In the economic theory, knowledge (as a creative tum physics, complexity theory and behavioural and living and productive capacity to act and think) is not a new concept. 1 [30] Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy Based on Knowledge 1 Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy Based on Knowledge [31] Its fundamental importance for the economic growth had been technology. In comparison to other post-industrial economic recognized in most economic theories of the 18th and 19th topics that were discussed during the 1970s, the concept of century (Adam Smith, David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill, and Knowledge-Based Economy was a more optimistic and intel- Karl Marx). Works of Schumpeter, Hyek, Penrose, from the lectually more sustainable version of possible future outcomes. beginning and the middle of the 20th century pointed to its This version of the economic future relied on the fact that crucial role for economic growth.3 In the later period of the since the beginning of the 1980s, economists have begun to 20th century science acquired the features of direct production recognize that accumulation of knowledge can principally be force. The term direct implies that unlike the relationship analysed as the accumulation of other capital goods, that the between science and production in the 19th century, where economic principles of production and exchange can be applied scientific advances were incorporated through physical labour on knowledge as on any other goods, and that knowledge in the production assets (machinery, tools…); the relation- represents an endogenous component and determinant of the ship between science and production has become direct and social and economic growth. Again, Schumpeter’s vision of immediate. Because of the scientific discoveries the machines capitalism as a process that was being renewed through the had become “smarter” and as such they required less human process of creative destruction became the centre of attention intervention and human physical force in the final production and inspired the emergence of new theories of growth. The so process. As a result, in time the need for physical labour con- called new theories of growth, articulated by Romer (1990) tinuously declined, and the implementation of labour force and others (Lucas 1988; Helpman; 1992; Nelson 1994; Dosi moved from direct production to processes of preparing and and Nelson 1994) perceive knowledge (precisely existing stock organizing production. In other words, at the beginning of the of knowledge in the form of technological knowledge and industrial revolution knowledge was applied to tools, processes, know-how) as a factor of production and argue that since use and products. In the later stages, knowledge was applied to of knowledge does not lead to its decrease but instead to its increase of productivity. Nowadays, knowledge is applied to growth, knowledge represents a resource which does not fall knowledge itself. Therefore a large part of today’s knowledge under the law of diminishing returns but to the law of increas- that is directly used in production is not embodied in machin- ing returns. Also creativity, especially technological creativity, ery, and the effects of this are immense. becomes an integral part of economic activity and a potential The concept of the Knowledge Economy starts to spread source of added value and it is seen as an evolutionary matrix more widely at the beginning of 1980s. In this period the econ- of economic growth.4 From the late 1980s to the middle 1990s, omies of developed countries were in recession, traditional as the most popular alternative to the widely accepted con- industries had the problem with production overcapacity and cept of Post-Industrial Economy and Society, the concept of with decreasing profitability, the states had the problem with Knowledge Economy was adopted by the scientific community the increasing fiscal deficit and decrease in real GDP. This and political milieu, as an analytical framework that in most period was also characterized by the emergences of new tech- effective way articulates the essential characteristics of the nologies, and there was talk of possible third industrial revolu- new technologies and other forces which had the potential tion based on computers and potentials brought by information to change the trend of economic stagnation into economic 1 Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy[32] Based on Knowledge 1 Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy Based on Knowledge [33] growth and development.5 The vision of economic growth their mutual disagreement about what constitutes and defines based on the creation of new knowledge and its innovative the Knowledge Economy, they all agree that today’s society and and creative application provided a much more optimistic economy is characterized by the fact that the knowledge gained view of the future. The transition to economic growth based a role of the leading factor of production, source of value crea- on the creation of new knowledge and innovative applications tion and economic growth, replacing the latter superior factors of existing knowledge promised continuous growth of wealth of production: natural resources, physical labour and capital. based on the appearance of entirely new goods, new professions and new economic activities. The economy began to produce many examples of products that represented the pure products of knowledge like software, or products that are enriched with 1 .1 PIL L AR S AND S O CI O - E CO NO M I C T RE NDS O F KN OWL ED G E B A S E D E CO NO M Y refined components of knowledge. Economic activities based on the production of knowledge, its distribution and consumption was not something which was entirely new for economic Recognizing the constituent elements and socio-economic science in those days. Actually, what was really new was the trends as a determinant of the Knowledge Economy is a com- vision that such activities can become a major, and perhaps plex task because the number of relevant endogenous and the most important aspect of the overall economy. Soon, the exogenous variables is too extensive. However, generally there authors who dealt with this issue started to reach a consensus are specifics separating the current economy from the concept about the fact that in today’s economy, knowledge and creativ- of the industrial economy. Knowledge Based Economy, its ity in terms of innovative capabilities of thinking and acting are growth and development, the laws of creation of profit and the most valuable inputs and outputs. At the end of the 1990s, ways of value creation are based on four fundamental pillars: terms such as New Economy, Learning Economy, Information the growing importance of intellectual capital (knowledge as Economy, Network Society, Intangible Economy and Creative direct productive force), human capital, information technol- Economy appeared in the academic and political language. ogy and intensive and rapid innovations and externalities they As well as most of the other crucial, historical and social produce. changes, Knowledge Society/Economy have evolved gradually, at an uneven pace, and it is possible, as this is a case GROWING IMPORTANCE OF INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL with all other essential changes, that they will become totally In contemporary economy the predominant activity is no recognized and visible when the transition is fully completed. longer the production of material goods but the production of Most of the leading theoreticians dealing with the Knowledge knowledge, which is then built into goods and services. This Economy agree that the perception of changes defined in that is the starting point of every further economic analysis. Pro- concept depends on the discipline that defines it. Most of them, fessor Baruch Lev at Stern University, New York, conducted therefore, advocate the need for a multidisciplinary approach a research on investment patterns in the USA, which shows in which economics, sociology, management and psychology very different investment perspective since 1929. In the period will contribute to its clearer definition. However, regardless of between the late 1920s and late 1990s, approximately 70% of 1 [34] Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy Based on Knowledge 1 [35] Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy Based on Knowledge the USA investments went into tangible goods and some 30% resources because their amount is limited by their physical into intangibles. However, by 1990s this pattern was inverted, nature. and today the dominant investments go into intangibles, such Also, one more fact specifically resulting from the grow- as R&D, training and education, software, brand creation, ing importance of intangible assets is the change in percep- patents and trademarks. In the last 25 years, the share of the tion considering the notion of value term, providing a broader non-material sector in the USA gross domestic product has perspective of its concepts. Value can represent tangible and grown from 50% to 85%. In Europe, this share is around 70%. intangible goods or services, knowledge or benefit that is either Essentially, together with the clear trend of the shrinking share desirable or useful for the recipient, for which he is ready to of material production, today’s production is more intensively pay a fair price, or provide suitable replacement. Each of these based on knowledge, creation of relevant business models, three types of value operates as a separate and independent innovation, sales strategies and intelligent solutions for cli- currency. So we can directly replace knowledge for knowledge, ents.6 Today, the largest share of total cost is in inputs such as we can replace the knowledge for tangible goods, services or competencies, corporate identity, innovative solutions, original money, or we can replace knowledge for some intangible value sales techniques, developed customer relationships etc. For or assets such as customer loyalty.8 example, the share of intangible assets in the software industry In order to understand ways in which knowledge is 95% and in the automotive industry it is 60%.7 All these data resources contribute to value creation and to gain insight in consistently point to the fact that in the contemporary economy specific characteristics of the intangible assets and in the impact intangible assets began to gain a leading role in creating value. of these characteristics on the process of value creation, the Observing the growing importance of knowledge based economic science began to take a deeper and more precise resources, the economic science articulated terms such as research of the nature of these resources. This research is non-material assets, intangible resources, and intellectual cap- articulated in the most comprehensive way in the concept of ital. Since intangible resources have some characteristics that Intellectual Capital. Regarding the definition of Intellectual differ substantially from physical resources, these differences Capital, as far as capital is concerned, economic thought defines implicate different economic principles and the matrix of value quite precisely what that implies. Capital is only the money creation from those that are characteristic of physical resources. or assets – buildings, machinery, raw materials – that are used For example, the use of intangible resources does not lead to create new value. The same kind of analogy can be done to their decrease but on the contrary, to their enlargement, with economic context of knowledge. The power of knowledge because using knowledge leads to its growth and spreading, refers to its manifestation in the business environment, and which is why it is associated with the law of increasing returns that is intellectual capital. In the contemporary economy the and continuous growth opportunities. Because of its nature, the term intellectual capital is used as a synonym for that part of economic growth based on knowledge is possible to restrict knowledge which is transformed into market value. Or in other only artificially, because knowledge is not familiar with any words, transformation of valuable tacit knowledge to explicit kind of physical limitations. This is contrary to the law of or codified knowledge which has a market value, or in any diminishing returns, which is characteristic of the physical other way contributes to economic value creation represents 1 1 Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy Based on Knowledge Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy Based on Knowledge [36] [37] Intellectual Capital. That opens up the question of what is that is transformed into value identified on the market, or in understood by the term – Human Capital, from which Intel- other words, into benefits for the customer.10 lectual Capital is generated. Tacit knowledge refers to a vast In order to create capability for long term value creation range of procedures, a build-up of intrinsic knowledge and and achieve some stability, the firm should base its strategy on inherent skills, derived from practical experience. In other its key skills, competencies, innovation and knowledge. That words, most of this knowledge cannot be codified or articulated is necessary because the intangible resources of the firm are in an explicit way. A commonplace example of tacit knowledge based on its specific knowledge, their nature is idiosyncratic is the craftsman’s skill. No set of instructions can give a recipe and generic, and that is why intangibles are difficult to imi- for the direct transfer of this kind of knowledge from one tate and substitute. Therefore, the inability or difficulties in person to another. The only way is through the slow process imitation of intangible resources is the key reason why those of trial and error. This type of knowledge is a crucial element resources represent the main source of value creation and in innumerable skills vital to firms and particularly important foundation on which in the Knowledge Economy, the firm for the design practice. The Drawing skills, for example, enable builds its competitive advantage. Presently, companies, prac- potential solutions to be probed in a variety of forms, without titioners and academics are experimenting with various ways always having an exact rationale for each. Choices of materials of identifying, measuring, managing and reporting intangible and colours can also rely more on this experiential sense of assets within organizations. the “rightness” of a solution that is not always prone to logical explanation since it is rooted in sensitivity based on substantial THE CHANGING PATTERN OF INNOVATION experience.9 On the other hand, explicit knowledge is the one The modern innovation theory sees knowledge crea- which is articulated and codified, and it comes in many forms tion in a much more diffuse way. Firstly, innovation rests no such as documents, patents, licensing agreements, proprietary more only on discovery but also on learning. Learning does information, contracts, formulae, data and manuals, software, not need to necessarily imply discovery of new technical or blueprints and other formats. As projects increase in scale scientific principles, and can equally be based on activities and complexity so this other kind of knowledge also begins to which recombine or adapt existing forms of knowledge; this assume greater importance in the design practice. In economic in turn implies that activities such as design or prototyping terms, this kind of coded knowledge could be commercialized creation (which is a form of engineering experimentation) can and become available to anyone who wants to pay for it certain be knowledge-generating activities.11 The second key emphasis price. But, likewise there is a threat that those codified ides in modern innovation analysis is on the external environment will be imitated by competition. Codification of new ideas of the firm. Firms interact with other institutions in a range of requires high initial costs, but once ideas are coded, they can ways. Understanding of the contemporary innovation process is be possessed by numerous people at the same time, and be inseparable from the growing awareness that the development made available to any number of people with little or no addi- of technology and innovations points to the coexistence of tional cost. From an economic point of view, it is possible to social and technical processes and that innovation is the result conclude that such knowledge becomes an intellectual capital of cooperation involving a large number of both internal and [38] 1 Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy Based on Knowledge 1 Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy Based on Knowledge [39] external participants. This has led to greater attention to the INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES ties and social relations between participants in the innova- The tremendous development of information technol- tion process and the process of organizational learning. The ogy and myriads of possibilities this created, paved the way interaction between the various participants and systems that to Knowledge Based Economy. IT created an infrastructure influence or participate in the innovation process becomes for fast information exchange and accelerated globalization the most important prerequisite for innovation. The basic of world markets. It enabled creation of new organizational idea behind the interactive mode of innovation is to connect structures and new ways of communication and work. Progress different types of knowledge.12 Another important feature of in information and telecommunication technologies enabled this model of innovation is its emphasis on cooperation, not on a competitive contest. 13 processing, storing, exchange of information regardless of distance, time and quantity in any possible form and with decreased cost. This concept has increased capacity of human HUMAN CAPITAL intelligence and has become a resource which transforms our With the rising importance of intellectual capital, simul- ways of interaction and work. UN has concluded that the taneously, labour market shows a growing need for higher combination of human intelligence and IT has replaced accu- qualification of workers. The rapid technological advancement mulation of physical capital as leading factor of reproduction. in computational power and communication technologies are transforming the nature of knowledge, skills, talents and exper- CHANGING NATURE OF COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE tise of individuals in the workplace. Today’s global market For creating competitive advantage, today’s imperative requires a different kind of worker, one with competencies, is not the market position, size and power of companies in the attitudes, intellectual agility, and creativity, conducive to past, but the inclusion of knowledge in all company activities. systematic and critical thinking within a technologically ori- Many multinational companies that have been on the top 100 ented environment. The growing qualification of workforce is in the Forbes list, lost their positions. It happened because important for both, the intellectual and production occupations, they did not have capability to recognize and react fast enough since they are more and more dependent on knowledge inputs. to changes resulting from new social and economic context. Drucker states that the largest success of management in the Due to the resulting changes, there is a need for change of the 20th century was fifty-fold increase of productivity of manual existing understanding of the productivity term. As Edvinsson labour, while the largest challenge of the 21st century will be has put it: “If productivity is the goal, efficient processes were increasing the productivity of knowledge workers.14 The USA a means to it. The efficient and “thin cost saving business Ministry of Labour predicts that the most of the future work processes” became known as the fastest path to profit-paradise. positions will be created by the sectors that are intensively But this cost saving fixation can lead to the corporate equivalent based on knowledge and technology occupations. Furthermore, of anorexia, an organization without people, experience, repu- data shows that the percentage of highly qualified workers tation, significance and value in all its manifestations. Extreme increased at expense of unqualified workers.15 diet kills personality. However productivity still has its importance, but our understanding of productivity and methods for 1 Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy Based on Knowledge [40] 1 Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy Based on Knowledge [41] achieving it should and will change”.16 The focus of Knowledge environment. — Production of data and operational programs becomes Based Economy is on enhancing productivity of knowledge workers and that cannot be done through traditional cost saving the immediate production process, which tends to repro- efficiency mechanisms. Adrian Slywotzky concluded that the duce social structure of knowledge. The outcome of this last business revolution had been led by innovative companies development is that scientific knowledge, in terms of that changed the key question for themselves. The question direct productive force, becomes a social resource with during the 1980s was: What business do you do? In the early its function comparable to the function of the labour 1990s, the question was turned into: What is your business force. model? Today they ask themselves: What is your thinking — In addition to facilitating the implementation and the model? How do you process innovative thinking? In order to dissemination of knowledge, technological development transform innovative thinking into added value and in the end is characterized by a cumulative feedback loop between innovation and the use of innovation where knowledge is applied to knowledge. Knowledge becomes the subject of work, working asset and workforce by itself. In addition, such uses of innovation improve the existing innovation or create new ones. — The role of knowledge in today’s society is transformed in the way that knowledge gets all clear characteristic as any other goods. The attitude of producers and users of knowledge which they sell or use is like the relationship that exists between manufacturers and consumers towards material goods that are produced or consumed. In other words, besides the used value of knowledge, its exchange value is also gaining in importance. — On one hand, knowledge is expanding and becoming more accessible to more people. As such, it does not constitute a limited resource. On the other hand, new knowledge gets the role of a strategic resource on which the competitive advantage of companies and national economies depends. Such knowledge in today’s economy is a scarce resource. Consequently the question of controlling ownership of new knowledge which gives the companies competitive advantage becomes the most important question. into financial results, it is necessary to create conditions that will enable the constant development of innovative capabilities. The one which will contribute to the constant creation of new knowledge, its codification, growth, and commercialization. The nature of knowledge creation prefers network structure, imitation of organic systems that will enable unrestricted flow of knowledge within the organization. The free flow of ideas, knowledge and information and their transformation into additional value practically indicates the level of vitality and energy which the companies possess. 1 .2 IM P ORTA N T FACT S AND G ENERAL CH A L L E N GE S RESULT I NG F RO M KNOWL ED GE E C ON OM Y From all the above, several specific challenges and facts can be extracted about what knowledge economy brought to individuals, companies and industries, especially to the design sector and product designers. — The disruptive impact of technology and shorter product life cycle are the characteristics of today’s competitive 1 Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy Based on Knowledge 1 [42] Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy Based on Knowledge [43] — The pace of production of new knowledge is becoming faster. Consequently applied knowledge rapidly becomes obsolete. Therefore, the average time period for establishing competition advantage is getting shorter. Thus, the influence of those who produce, increase or transmit new knowledge is greater. — Knowledge Economy acts in network order, driven by accelerating pace of change and learning, where the market is the space where individuals, businesses, academic institutions and industries have the opportunity to cooperate through the exchange and transformation of information and knowledge which are in that way transformed into a multitude of ideas, opportunities and solutions that create economic and social wealth. Therefore, the Knowledge Economy is also a Network Economy. This concept highlights the important role of dynamic relationships between individuals, groups, institutions and corporations. It also points out the advantage of the network structure of the organization, because of its characteristics of flexibility and adaptability. 2 DESIGN AS VALUE ADDED ECONOMIC ACTIVITY IN CONTEXT OF ECONOMIC THEORY AND PRACTICE Since the design is the discipline which is intensively based on creativity, knowledge, skills and ability to innovate, putting it in economic context demands understanding the treatment of knowledge and innovation in microeconomic theory over time. Also to understand how the design sector started to be treated as one of the most important value and growth drivers for contemporary economy it is necessary to be familiar with the evolution of the macroeconomic theories’ perspective regarding the importance and the role of knowledge and innovation and with the link of this evolution to the paradigm of Knowledge Economy. Therefore, the 21st century brings with it a brand new challenge for nations, enterprises and individuals. It is becoming more essential to articulate and visualize the intellectual capital. 2.1 DESIGN IN MICROECONOMIC THEORY The old market drivers may have been manufacturing, land and capital, but the driver of the new era is the creative and The phenomenon of Knowledge Economy is above all a phe- efficient use of intellectual capital. Consequently, the number nomenon initiated from microeconomic level by the firms’ one priority for politicians, business executives moving for- new strategies and behaviour patterns. In the economic theory, ward should be the recognition, identification, measurement, there is a long tradition of interest for insight into ways of benchmarking, development and utilization of nation’s and value creation. Marx claimed that human labour is the only firms’ Intellectual and Creative Capital. one that is able to add value. Much earlier Ricardo suggested a fundamental idea of resource-based theory of the firm, which is that rare resources have a strategic nature. [44] 1 Paradigm Shift to Society and Economy Based on Knowledge 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [45] Neoclassical economics perspective (until recently the ways how resources are used. The Theory of Organizational regarded as the mainstream economic thought) treats the Learning developed during the 1980s, is primarily focused on firm as a “black box”, so everything that happens within the the organizational response to the rapid and on-going changes firm for the neoclassical economic thought remains invisible. in the economic and technological environment. Senge P. M. For example, Neoclassic school of thought assumes that each has observed that a large number of organizations suffer from enterprise has at its disposal the same quantity and quality of an inability to learn. For the treatment of this disease he gives knowledge which through the market price mechanism allows a prescription in the form of a practical model of “learning the enterprise to maximize the profit. This assumption excludes organization”.19 Such an organization has the capacity for both the possibility of existence of different levels of knowledge, modes of learning – generic and adaptive, which are its main and therefore a large part of tacit and explicit knowledge that source of value creation and sustainable competitive advantage. cannot be evaluated through the price mechanism. Under the From the beginning of 1980s the economic literature starts to assumption of the unlimited rationality of economic agents generate more and more empirical evidence that differentiates and the constant tendency of the market to achieve a state of in profitability between firms stems from the specificity of their equilibrium, early neoclassical thought sees the innovation and resource portfolio.20 Resource-Based Theory of Firm starts to knowledge as the product of rational choice between the exist- explore firms’ strategic resources. Resources are defined as ing technological and structural alternatives and knowledge tangible and intangible assets that are in time related to the which are in same time available to all enterprises. In other firm. The value is viewed in relation to the value of the firm’s words, knowledge is seen as a fixed variable, exogenous and resources. 21 Intangible resources are valuable, rare, non-sub- not endogenous to the firm, so neoclassic economics explain stitutable and hard to imitate, which is why they are treated as competitive strategy on the basis of external environmental strategic assets capable of generating sustainable competitive factors. advantage and superior financial performance.22 In the begin- Other theorists who did not agree with the neoclassical ning of the 1990s, this theory was further developed by Teece assumption, observed knowledge from a totally different per- and Pisano in their concept of Dynamic and Key Capabilities. spective. Unlike the neoclassic, the Austrian School of Eco- Also, Hamel and Prahalad developed the concept of Key Com- nomics and its representatives Friedrich von Hayek and Joseph petencies.23 Both concepts emphasize the behavioural aspect of A. Schumpeter gave knowledge much greater significance. They the strategy, in other words, how a firm will compete instead argue that knowledge is subjective and therefore cannot be where it will compete. Also, both concepts underline that the treated as fixed, and that precisely different levels of knowledge sources of competitive advantage must be sought within the and its specificity, held by individual firms, represents the main firm in its resources based on knowledge, skills and innovation, cause of the dynamics of economic change . During 1950s Edit and their specific matrix of value creation. Parallel with the Penrose, exploring the significance of the accumulated knowl- development of a Resource-Based Theory the Evolutionary edge and experience within the organization, observed the firm Theory of Firm emerged, which postulates that knowledge 17 as a reservoir of knowledge . According to her, in the produc- of the firm is stored in regular and predictable matrices of tion process the inputs do not represent resources per se, but firm behaviour which Nelson and Winter call routines.24 They 2 2 18 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [46] Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [47] identify routine with genes and perceive innovation as the identification and management of intangibles has not been result of inherent, unpredictable mutation of routines. For this satisfactorily addressed in these theories, this is where the intel- theory new knowledge is a result of a new way of combining lectual capital perspective comes in. The Theory of Intellectual existing routines, which is specific to each firm and leads to Capital expands on and elaborates the strategic and operative creation of unique strategies of value and profit creation. Thus, understanding of firms’ key capabilities. The essence of this the specific resources and competencies of firms cannot be concept lies in the philosophy of value creation, instead of value acquired by simple imitation, because they are the result of appropriation. The approach to the purpose and function of firm-specific processes through which they create knowledge the firm is holistic, where the firm is viewed as an organism and build their routines, competencies and skills. in which the whole is greater than the sum of the parts, and At the end of the 1990s it was obvious that society and in which the most valuable resource are the people, rather economy are in a period of transition to economy intensively than corporate tangible and intangible assets, because these based on knowledge, innovation and creativity. One more assets are also created by people. The potential of the firm to important theory which acknowledges the rising importance create value is treated as its key capability. Profit is therefore of knowledge resources was the Knowledge-Based Theory of seen not as purpose for itself but just as a consequence of the Firm. This theory explores the firm from the perspective of realization of the main purpose of the firm, and that is building its ability to integrate, create and manage knowledge.25 The capability for long-term value creation which will satisfy all very process of knowledge creation is seen as an activity that stakeholders and ensure long-term success. Therefore, for the due to its uniqueness and value becomes a source of abnormal strategic theory, the implication of this perspective is the shift profit. Therefore the firm’s competitive advantage is in the very of focus from the traditionally dominant theme of developing process of knowledge creation, rather than created knowledge. ways of value appropriation to aiming at the process of value This theory treats knowledge as ability to act in productive and creation.27 The Theory of Intellectual Capital determines five creative way, and insists on the importance of articulation of resource categories, which can be used as a framework for facil- various forms of tacit knowledge as such can be converted into itating the identification of all firms’ strategic resources (Roos various forms of organizational activity based on knowledge. and Roos, 1997). These categories are human, organizational Also, this theory emphasizes that maintaining organizations’ and relational resources on the intangible side and physical health depends on the firm’s ability to see if there is a need for and monetary resources on the tangible side. The intellectual destroying the existing knowledge and finding new and better capital of the firm is not just knowledge. It consists of human, ways of thinking and doing. 26 organizational and relational capital. Human capital involves In the very beginning of the 21st century one more theory not only tacit and explicit knowledge of employees. It also shaped its systematic form, the Theory of Intellectual Capi- includes employees’ competencies and capabilities in terms of tal. The Resource and Knowledge Based views, Evolutionary structuring and applying knowledge and skills to perform cer- Theory approach and concept of Dynamic and Key Capabil- tain activities. Organizational capital is the extension and man- ities all stress out that firms’ most important strategic assets ifestation of human capital in the form of codified knowledge, are those based on knowledge (intangible assets). Since the innovation, organizational structure, corporate culture, value [48] 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [49] of brand, documented information, blueprints, intellectual need for innovation, because innovation is a long term process, property, business processes and physical and financial struc- whose economic benefits cannot be immediately recognized in ture of a firm. Relational capital is the ability to build quality the financial reports. But, from the beginning of the 1980s, as it relationships with external stakeholders: customers, suppliers, is already mentioned, the mainstream economic science started investors, state and society in general. Therefore, the Theory to introduce knowledge, innovation, skills, competencies and of Intellectual Capital provides a basis for generating infor- creativity as a key factor for business success and sustainable, mation necessary for making strategic and operative decisions long term competitiveness. Assigning greater importance to concerning a firm’s intangible resources. This theory stresses intangible assets in the economic theory corresponded with the that organizations create value through a number of linkages recognition of a paradigm shift towards a Society/Economy and interactions between all relevant resources. Accordingly, Intensively Based on Knowledge. All earlier mentioned micro- external resources, in different forms of strong and intensive economic theories (except the Neoclassical), consider knowl- linkages with organizations’ stakeholders, are equally impor- edge, innovation, creativity, skills and competencies as strate- tant as internal resources. Stakeholders include shareholders, gic assets which generate the firm’s competitive advantage and employees, customers, suppliers, lenders, the government and long term superior financial performance. They acknowledge society, and they are treated as organizations’ partners in the the importance of their rarity, the fact that those resources are process of value creation. non-substitutable and hard to imitate and articulate the ways In attempt to explain the relationship between design as of preventing imitation of those resources. The concept of economic value added activity and economic theories, John intellectual capital further concretized this problematic giving Heskett argues that “The greatest problem in considering the taxonomy of intellectual capital assets, methods for their what economic theory explains about design, specifically or measurement, and models for their management. Since design by implication, is in the context of Neo-Classicism, which in activities generate elements of structural capital (products with the Anglo-American world dominates both academic theory copyright protection, patents, brand architecture, blueprints 28 and applied economic practice”. Considering the basic nature and technical solutions, trademarks, logo solutions, proto- of design practice, which determinants are innovation and types) and human capital (knowledge, creativity, innovative change, where designers’ concepts become the products, com- thinking, specific skills, competencies) it is certain that the munications, environments and systems of the future, Heskett design represents one of the activities which create intellectual argues that neoclassical assumption about the static nature capital. Therefore, design activities as one of the elements of of products and markets, and its assumption about the fixed intellectual capital represent the firm’s strategic resource. And choice of available knowledge, consequently reduces design that is something which is nowadays widely recognized. to a trivial activity. He thinks that, at best, the Neoclassical Theory gives design a minor role in superficial differentiation of unchanging commodities, but generally it contradicts the whole validity of the design. The neoclassical obsession for short term maximization of profit is contradictory to the firm’s [50] 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [51] 2.2 VALUE OF DESIGN FOR ENTERPRISES every £100 a design-alert business spends on design, turnover of firms increases by £22512.33 The MADRID study found out Design practice is present in almost all economic sectors. From that 89% of the firms which successfully use design increased the firm’s perspective, the design activities are part of the invest- their profit with an average return in the investment period ment in research and development. Regarding the improvement of 15 months34. This indicates that investing in design should of the firm’s competitive advantage, the design of the whole not be treated as an expense, but as a long-term investment. product or its key components may be used to improve its Apart to contributing to the economic value of the prod- basic technical performance, to provide new functions, to uct, design represents one of the most important factors which improve ease of use, to provide the styling that immediately govern consumers when deciding to purchase a specific good. attracts customers, to improve quality, reliability or durability, The goal is to create a product that, in its designed appearance to reduce manufacturing, distribution or life cycle costs, and/ and function, expresses a personality or tells a story. Products 29 or to unify or extend a product range. Researches show that that carry such attributes are more likely to give off a stronger commercially successful product development projects require expression that will attract more consumers. On that note it is a broad, multidimensional approach to design of the whole important to keep in mind that design expression does not only product with a focus on product performance, features and concern the appearance of a product, but also its function. If quality and technical or design innovation. Lossmaking pro- the product has an attractive appearance but its function does jects, even technically complex ones, tend to involve a narrow, not follow through, most likely it will not be of interest for often styling oriented approach to product design with more consumers.35 Umberto Eco in his essay about the retrospec- attention paid to the product range and cost reduction than tion of Italian design gives a very clear example for a product 30 to performance, quality and innovation. Generally, from the missing the functional and practical dimension in favour of its firm’s perspective, the role of design is in the creation of value aesthetics.36 He cites an example about the attempt of Italian added for products, services and firms. designers to create a super modern fork inspired by a Danish Studies of the relationship between investing in design design. Italian designers produced beautiful fork with short and a firm’s performance all show positive relationship between spike. That fork was saying “I am one super modern beautiful these two variables and that investment in design increase the fork”. But since the forks were produced for the Italian market, firms’ revenue and market share. For example, Black and Bak- Italians like to eat spaghetti a lot, unlike Danes who eat peas er’s study shows that 95% of firms with a negative growth rate a lot. For Danish people, forks with short tines were used as did not use professional design services, and that the ones with some kind of spoons, to pick up the peas from one side and the high growth rate did.31 Other study conducted by Walsh to catch the meat from the other. However, winding spaghetti identified a generally positive relationship between design con- on this fork is almost an impossible task. These forks were not sciousness and the firm’s performance.32 The research “Value functional for an Italian household and for Italian restaurants of Design 2007” gives the information that between 1995 and too. And of course, the sale of these forks in Italy failed and the 2004, the share prices of design-conscious firms outperformed project failed. In this sense, designers are like communicators, other firms by 200%. Furthermore, there is information that for they have to use the right language of different elements in the 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [52] 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [53] product to express what the product is about. 2008. Results of this research showed that one of the main Still, the role of the design in a firm product differenti- reasons why firms consider design as important for their busi- ation competitive strategy is of crucial importance, especially ness is its ability to improve the firm’s image (63% of respond- when the product life cycle matures, because more competitors ents), in the second place is the increase of sales (40.5%) and enter the market. In this context the key role of design is in in the third place is its function regarding the development of product differentiation; through quality, appearance, perfor- new products and services (38%). The conclusion is that firms 37 mance, ease of use, reliability, reparability and so on. There- believe that the most important role of design is to improve the fore, product design is one of the most important non-price brand image and the reputation of the firm. Also, more than factors which determine the success of a product. In practice, half of the firms felt that the design improved their customers’ the purchaser’s choice is also influenced by various other non- satisfaction, communication with customers, turnover, profit, price factors such as the company image, the availability of a employee motivation, business productivity and entering into product, advertising. While product design is generally con- new markets. sidered to be a non-price factor it is also important to consider As part of Europe’s Economic Study, in a survey of the influence of a design upon product price. Product design design-intensive companies, respondents were asked why affects the cost of production through the choice and use of design is important to their business.40 More precisely, they materials and how the product is designed for manufacture. were asked to indicate, on a scale of one to five, the importance Design also influences after-sales maintenance and running of seven specified design related factors: design adds value to costs (like dishwashers, furniture). Running costs are often the product, creates competitive niche, enables entry into new calculated as being integral to the price of a product in pur- markets, increases consumer loyalty, differentiates products from competitors, strengthens product marketing and improves chaser’s decisions. Today there is more empirical research about why firms access to finances. Firms in the field of professional, scientific use design. The results of Gemser and Leenders’ study about and technical activities provided the highest ratings of impor- influence of design investment on firms’ economic performance tance across all seven factors, followed by manufacturing firms in two sectors in Netherlands: home furniture and precision and trade or repair firms. These results indicate that, overall, instruments, shows that firms believed quite strongly that design is considered to have a slightly more important influence industrial design investment was associated with a range of on business success by respondents from the professional, sci- improvements in business performance. The firms gave the entific and technical activities sector than from other sectors. design the highest score for improvement in product perfor- Firms in Northern EU Member States rate the importance of mance, improvement in the corporate image and improvement increased consumer loyalty more highly than firms from other 38 in user friendliness of the product in both sectors. Researches regions, but these same firms rate the importance of differen- in Spain showed that most firms considered design as an impor- tiating products from competitors lower than any other group. tant part of their business strategy.39 The percentage of firms For the majority of factors, firms from the Western EU Member that have invested in developing new products with a strong States were the most pessimistic about their importance, while design component has increased, from 53% in 2005 to 59% in firms in the Northern EU Member States graded several factors 2 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [54] Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [55] most highly. In terms of the single most important rationale for informed the German industry and has been an integral ele- design, firms in the Central and Western EU Member States ment in its remarkably resilient performance despite political emphasize the differentiation of products from competitors, traumas and devastating military defeats”.42 Heskett quotes the the Southern EU Member State firms stress the added value Anton Jaumann’s words about issues concerning Germany’s it brings to the product, and the Northern Member States competitive position in 1907. Jaumann states that, in the long highlight the strengthening of product marketing. run, Germany cannot compete in cheap mass-production and that it should specialize in production of excellent and quality goods which cannot be easily imitated. He emphasizes that nothing can harm commercial reputation of a nation as much 2.3 DESIGN IN MACROECONOMIC THEORY as the label “cheap and nasty”. Furthermore, Heskett gives the example of a Japan policy concerning design where the role of Connection between design and macroeconomic growth per- design was recognized as the integral part of future success of spective can be found in, the so called, new theories of growth, Japanese products in the international market “…the role of (Romer, 1990; Lucas, 1988; Helpman, 1992; Nelson, 1994; the state policy in initially establishing design competencies Dosi and Nelson, 1994) which focus on the role of knowledge, and encouraging their application in Japanese industry and innovation and new technologies, for economic growth and commerce has been a remarkable example of how, indeed, a development, and on the role of the state in that mater.41 Romer government can encourage the development of productive pow- points out that the development of modern society intensively ers. Comparing a situation in the mid-1950s when there were based on knowledge is based on software matrix production, virtually no formally trained professional designers in Japan, the so-called innovative recipes, innovation materialized in in 1992 as the result of policies introduced by the Ministry of new technology solutions and products, and innovation real- International Trade and Industry, Japan had 21,000 industrial ized in new types of services and ways of thinking regarding designers. Policies based on the Japanese model were also organization of economic activities. Given that the very nature introduced in Korea and Taiwan and similarly have played an of the design reflects the creativity, innovation, and innovative important role in their economic growth.43 way of thinking, it is only natural that contemporary economy Until the end of the 20th century the awareness of the recognized the design sector as one with a high growth and importance of the design sector for the macroeconomic devel- income potential. However, until now, only few theories pre- opment has been recognized and included in the concepts of cisely mention design as a valuable factor for value creation Creative Economy, and Creative Industries. In the middle of and generation of competitive advantage. For example Heskett the 1990s along with the more evident social and economic mentions “holistic nature of Friedrich List’s (1841–4/1966) transition towards Society/Economy Based on Knowledge concept of the role of state policy in promoting productive and the growing importance of intellectual capital, the con- powers that specifically acknowledges “the art of design” as cept of creativity and its role at an individual level, and on one of the factors capable of profound influence in improving the level of organization and nations, enters into the centre the manufacturing industry. The evolution of this idea has of attention of state public policies and academic research. 2 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [56] Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [57] In the 1990s the international economies were influenced by they all trade with creative assets in the form of intellectual increased “transition of the production-oriented economy to a property (IP); the framework through which creativity trans- consumption-oriented one, when cultural and symbolic goods, lates into economic value.47 Howkins gave an estimate that in material and immaterial cultural products and creative services the year 2000 the creative economy was worth US $2.2 trillion, started to be perceived with greater importance for economic and that it was growing at an annual rate of 5%.48 development”.44 This situation signifies the rising importance The UNCTAD definition of Creative Economy in 2008, of creativity, creative capital and creative economy that gen- which brought this term into popular use recognized the wider erates wealth by harnessing intellectual labour, intangible societal impact and defined Creative Economy as: “The inter- goods and human creative capabilities. Consequently, there face between creativity, culture, economics and technology was an increasing research interests for creative capital as a as expressed in the ability to create and circulate intellectual specific form of intellectual capital. The term creative capital capital, with the potential to generate income, jobs and export was greatly promoted by Richard Florida. He argued that earnings while at the same time promoting social inclusion, from an economic perspective, a high level of human creativity cultural diversity and human development”.49 Also in the UN potential may be considered a form of capital, in other words Creative Economy Report of 2013, it is suggested that “Cul- – a creative capital. According to him, a creative capital is a tural and creative industries not only drive growth through human ability to create new ideas, technologies, and business the creation of value, but have also become key elements of 45 models, cultural and artistic forms . The term creative econ- the innovation system for the entire economy. According to omy is used to describe that the market demand is increasingly infused with cultural needs and creative content and that the cultural or creative sector is becoming an important factor of economic growth. John Howkins who introduced the term creative economy in the wider use points to the three main elements of creative economy: creativity as an idea that can be economically valorised; creative products that are the result of creative work and creative activity. According to him, a creative economy involves transactions with creative products, and it is equivalent to the value of creative products multiplied by the number of transactions.46 He emphasizes that only creativity that can be economically valorised can be considered as a part of the creative economy, which is the same condition applied on the term and definition of the intellectual capital. At the heart of the creative economy are the cultural and creative industries that lie at the crossroads of arts, culture, business and technology. What unifies these activities is the fact that this viewpoint, their primary significance stems not only from 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [58] the contribution of creative industries to economic value, but also from the ways in which they stimulate the emergence of new ideas or technologies, and the processes of transformative change. The creative economy should be seen, therefore, “as a complex system that derives its ‘economic value’ from the facilitation of economic evolution – a system that manufactures attention, complexity, identity and adaptation though the primary resource of creativity.”50 The concept of Creative Economy is closely linked to the Cultural/Creative Industries, whose largely intangible outputs are as ‘real’ and considerable as those of other industries. The term “Creative Industries” first appeared in 1994, in the strategic document of the Australian Government “Creative Nation”. But the idea for analysing the economic potential and impact of the creative resources came from the International Intellectual Property Alliance (IIPA) in 1990 with the 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [59] research of economic potentials of copyright industries in Design Council was founded in 1944 by Hugh Dalton, Presi- the USA. The first definition of creative industries emerged dent of the Board of Trade in the wartime Government. At first in 1998, in the document of the British Government called it was named the Council of Industrial Design (COID), with “Creative Industries Mapping Document”. According to this objective to promote by all practicable means the improvement definition, creative industries are those industries which derive of design in the products of British industry. The UK Design from individual creativity, skills and talent and which have a Council has become a pioneer in mapping and measuring eco- potential for wealth and job creation through the generation nomic contribution of the design industry. Although the design 51 and exploitation of intellectual property”. Under the British policy and promotion differs from country to country, there is concept, the creative industries include 13 sectors: advertising, a consistent growth in government-backed local organizations architecture, art and antiques market, crafts, design, designer as champions to underpin the cause. Many governments, until fashion, film and video, interactive leisure software, music, today, have been investing heavily in sponsoring and promot- the performing arts, publishing, software, television and radio. ing design as a key route to stimulate innovation, jobs and This classification can vary from country to country according exports and as a means to systematically address challenges. to methodological differences and official classification of For example, China set the goal to move from “Made in China” industrial activities.52 Creative industries mapping documents to “Designed in China”. Over the recent years China has driven as a tool for evaluation and measurement of the creative capital, the national and regional design policy, with investments in try to identify and estimate the economic capitalization of education and national promotions. Other Asian governments artistic creativity potentials through creative industries con- are strongly committed to the promotion of design, particularly cepts. Mapping studies can be of value to policy and industry those in Singapore, Korea and Malaysia. Similar drives are as they provide core data about industries which are hard to evident around the world and there is an enhanced focus in classify and document statistically. In many cases they can be Europe, where the European Commission is leading new design used as background justification for government support. The policies at the heart of innovation that underpin “competitive development of robust methodologies is critical to achieving advantage for European companies”. Given the design’s ability the primary function of mapping studies. Both undervaluation to find creative solutions to social and economic challenges, it and overvaluation carries dangers.53 has an increasingly important role in the future as complexity and pace increase. Will Hutton argues that design will be at the core of a strong Knowledge Economy of the future, one of the coping stones of an innovation system and the most important 2.4 VALUE OF DESIGN FROM intangible investment for manufacturers.54 MACROECONOMIC POLICY LEVEL There have been various studies with the purpose to unveil the interrelationship between national competitiveness A huge step in the systemic inclusion of the design sector in the and design. Researches have consistently shown a link between state’s economic policy and competitive strategy was the foun- the use of design and improved business performance across dation of National Design Councils. For example, the British key measures including turnover, profit and market share. The 2 [60] Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [61] New Zealand Institute of Economic Research (NZIER) pub- policy and promotion programs, (3) main objectives, (4) imple- lished a report which compared the national competitiveness mentation, (5) related facts and figures and (6) main actors’ index ranking and the use of design index ranking based on programs.56 Although the design policy and promotion differ the Global Competitiveness Report 2001/2002. According to from country to country, the common strategic objective for all this report there were strong correlations between the use of the examined programs is national design promotion strategies design and national competitiveness. The report also indicated realized through diverse spectrum of initiatives and activities that countries with a high ranking in national competitiveness such as design awards, fairs, competitions, exhibitions, studies paid more attention to design. and workshops. Regarding the design in the EU innovation policy, there In 2003, the Finish organization “Designium”, studied 17 countries out of the top 25 from the NZIER report in order is an increasing focus on Europe. In October 2007 the Office to identify the global context in the design policy and pro- of European Designers’ Association (Bureau of European-De- motion programs. The main finding was that design policies signer’s Associations BEDA) launched the discussion about and programs are quite similar in many countries and tend to the importance of design and its potential in the context of emphasize design as a strategic tool for enhancing economic achieving the goals set by the Lisbon Agenda. At that time, progress and improving competitiveness, while simultaneously on the level of the European Union, there was no coherent emphasizing the national role of design in creating jobs and design development strategy. In relation to the total number generating business opportunities. Furthermore, the report of EU member states there is a smaller number of those who stated that design can be utilized in completely new areas, have set up design as a priority in their development policies. where its benefits have not yet been imagined or considered. The European design industry is small and fragmented, and This report demonstrated that countries leading in design are on the contrary, its role in the increase of competitiveness, actively dealing with design promotion issues to enhance their improving business performance and generating EU wealth 55 design competitiveness. In 2006, 2008, and 2010 “Designum” is more than evident. Therefore, representatives of BEDA continued to produce reports about national design policies pointed out the urgency of making an integral development with an aim to lay a foundation for a long-term evaluation program for the design industry on an EU level, which will and analysis of the development of national design policy facilitate management, development and strengthening of and design promotion programs. The data from the reports single European forces in the field of design. This program allow comparison of the effects of national design programs is called “Design Europe 2010”. In May 2010, the Ministers on national competitiveness in the design sector, and moni- in charge of competitiveness in the Council of the European toring of the selected states design policies and their strategic Union, adopted conclusions on design as a driver of user-can- content. The reports also produced design competitiveness tered innovation and introduced a European Design Innovation rankings using selected indicators at intervals across a few Initiative. “The Commission and Member States were invited years. The Designum report “Global Design Watch 2010”, to give special attention to design considering its leverage effect examines five different aspects of national design programs in on innovation performance, taking into account economic, selected countries: (1) scope of promotion, (2) funding design social and environmental sustainability aspects and the need 2 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [62] Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [63] to establish platforms for exchanging knowledge, experiences 2.5 FACTS AND FIGURES OF THE DESIGN INDUSTRY and best practices on design issues as a competitive advantage for European companies”. Many individual European nations Since information from most international and national have design bodies that promote the use of design, notably researches regarding design sector size and its economic con- Germany, France and the Scandinavian countries, and they tribution are non-comparable and comprehensive, it is impos- have an increasing interest in non-technological forms of inno- sible to know exactly the value and size of the design industry 57 vation. Denmark, for example, has national design policies on a global level. It is estimated that the global design market as part of their national economic growth and improvements is worth about 140 billion dollars, of which the markets in in the public services. America, Japan and Germany account for about 60%.59 Regard- Since 2010, when design was included in European ing the figures of the European design industry, crucial data innovation policy for the first time (Innovation Union), the are still lacking such as the total employment in the design design policy landscape in Europe has transformed. Not only sector, the gross value added, the number of designers with there is an Action Plan for design-driven innovation at the tertiary education and the types of design expertise offered. European level, but a number of European Member States, The only way to gain reliable figures for those indicators is including Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France and Latvia, have through a comparative European benchmarking study using also developed design action plans. In addition, 15 out of the the same methodological parameters.60 According to the Euro- 28 European Member States (EUMS) have design explicitly pean Commission’s Action Plan for design-driven innova- included in their national innovation policy. Furthermore, there tion, there are approximately 410,000 professionally-trained is a growing awareness of design as a factor for innovation at designers working in Europe, generating an annual turnover regional and local levels with a number of regions integrating of €36 billion. The majority of design consulting companies in design into policy, including Flanders (Belgium), South Bohe- Europe are micro-companies or SMEs.61 There is a large body mia (Czech Republic), Central Finland, Central Macedonia of trained European designers working as in-house designers (Greece) and Wales (UK) among others as well as an increas- principally in medium and large companies. European design- ing number of design managers in local public authorities, ers are leaders in their field, often working for both European including, for example, Lahti (Finland), St Etienne (France), and non-European global brands. In the study called “Design Dublin (Ireland), Katowice (Poland) and Kent, Monmouth Policy Monitor 2015”, there is information about current and and Shropshire (UK).58 future trends in Europe’s Design Innovation Ecosystem.62 For example, from the studies about companies using design in a strategic way conducted in six countries (Austria, Denmark, Estonia, France, Ireland and Sweden), averagely 33% of enterprises do not use design, 22% use design as styling, 30% use design as a process and 15% use design strategically. Danish and Swedish enterprises use design most strategically (23% and 22% respectively), while Austria and Estonia have the least [64] 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [65] proportion of businesses using design in a strategic way (9% and states to the industrial design sector.65 Among the first on the 7% respectively). Consequently, Denmark and Sweden can be list of design intensive enterprises were the firms from man- considered to be design leaders, while France and Ireland could ufacture sub sectors such as manufacture of watches, leasing be categorized as design followers and Austria and Estonia of intellectual property, manufacture of cutlery, manufacture would be considered as moderate design users. Also the results of ceramic household and ornamental articles, manufacture from this study show that designers make up approximately of lighting equipment. Regarding the export potential, the 16% of people employed in the creative industries in Denmark, study reference to research conducted in 2012 by the “Big Estonia, Finland and the UK. According to figures from the UK Innovation Centre” which found that design-intensive sectors Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) 2015 report, contribute 35% of the entire EU export. This report identifies employment in the design sector grew by 17.7% (or 27,000 jobs) six sectors which are particularly design-intensive: 1) design in two years and the gross value added of the design sector services, dominated by small firms but with a high propensity increased by 23.8% over three years compared with 4.2% for the to export; 2) architectural and engineering services, one of the UK economy as a whole, implying that growth of this sector most design-intensive sectors and one in which the UK has a was faster than the growth of any traditionally fast growing substantial trade surplus; 3) computer and telecommunica- sectors such as the financial sector. Furthermore, the value tions services, a highly productive sector featuring high wages of exported design services was £190m (an increase of £59m and often selling services to other businesses; 4) printing and 63 One more interesting study, “EU: Intellectual publishing, another sector in which the UK has a substantial property rights intensive industries: contribution to economic trade surplus; 5) fashion and craft, where core designers enjoy performance and employment in the European Union”, was a substantial wage premium over others in the sector who conducted as a joint effort of the Office for Harmonization in earn below average incomes; and 6) advanced manufacturing, the Internal Market (OHIM) and the European Patent Office a sector which is export intensive. Regarding employment, (EPO). Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)-intensive industries the European Economics study finds that approximately 11.3 since 2011). are addressed by differentiating patent, trade mark, design, and million workers were employed in industries which were design, copyright-intensive industries as well as according to geograph- patent and trademark intensive. In the same study there is anal- ical indications.64 The results of this study show that in regard to ysis about how attractive member states are to design industry the contribution of IPR intensive industries to total EU Gross (European and non-European). Also results show that the top Domestic Product (GDP), design intensive industries in the five countries with the largest number of design applications EU create 1,569 billion and contribute to 12.8% of the total EU were: Germany, UK, France, Spain, Italy, and Poland. Austria GDP. Also the results show that the largest industry found to had 841 applications, and Croatia 483. be in the top 20 most design-intensive industries is wholesale The study also provides analysis of the total number of of clothing and footwear, which employs nearly 400.000 people. design applications that originated in Europe (and filed any- In the study “The Economic Review of Industrial Design where) by Locarno class as per 2012.66 The results showed that in Europe 2015” we can find comprehensive information about out of the 33 classes, the top seven classes: Furnishing; Articles the size, value end economic contribution of the EU members of Clothing and Haberdashery; Packages and Containers for 2 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [66] Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [67] the Transportation or Handling of Goods; Lighting Apparatus; 3 DESIGN CHALLENGES IN THE 21ST CENTURY Household Goods, not elsewhere specified; Graphic Symbols and Logos, Surface Patterns, Ornamentation; and Fluid Distribution Equipment, Sanitary, Heating, Air Conditioning Equipment, account for 53% of all designs applications within the EU, and the top two classes (i.e. Furnishing and Articles of Clothing and Haberdashery), account for 25% of the total. Regarding geographical specializations in the design activity, “furnishing” as a top class for design applications originated in In the context of all the above mentioned, it is clear that the Scandinavian countries (Denmark), Baltic countries (Lithua- design sector in the 21st century faces significant challenges. nia), Eastern European countries (Poland), middle European In this sector, as well as in all the other sectors, the social and countries (Germany), and Southern European countries (Italy). economic changes that have become more visible and intense Articles of clothing and haberdashery, is popular in South-west in the previous twenty years are strongly reflected. Scientific Europe (Luxembourg, France, Spain, and Portugal). Packages discoveries, the evolution of the individuals, social and eco- and containers for the transport or handling of goods is the nomic organizations and systems have led to a change in ways primary class of destination for designs originated primarily in of behaviour, thinking and acting at all levels of human life. the Eastern European/newer Member States (Bulgaria, Croatia, So far it is clear that those changes with their consequences, and Romania). With regards to the “furnishing” class, Germany point to the need and aspiration for a more integrated-holistic is the country that in 2012 filed the largest number of design approach to thinking and acting, especially in the context of applications (design applications from Germany account for solving problems and facing challenges. Challenges for the 41 of all design applications filed in the furnishing class). In design sector at the beginning of the 21st century, brought by the same class, Italy accounted for 17 of all filings and also socio economic paradigm shift could be explained from three considerable number of applications for the furniture class perspectives: Knowledge Economy challenges, public policy came from France, UK, Spain, Poland and the Netherlands. expectations, and design professionals’ perspective. With regard to Articles of Clothing and Haberdashery, the applications from France (25), Italy, (18), and Germany (17), accounted for 60 of all applications in this class. 3.1 CHALLENGES BROUGHT BY KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY The paradigm of Society/Economy Based on Knowledge is reflected in a number of specific changes whose consequences represent very specific challenges for the design community and design as a discipline itself. 2 Design as Value Added Economic Activity in Context of Economic Theor y and Practice [68] 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y [69] For example the changing understanding of what con- for innovation and that is that Knowledge Economy acts in stitutes innovation, changing pattern of innovation, disruptive impact of technology and shorter product life cycle are the characteristics of today’s competitive environment. This implies that design activities such as brand or visual identity design, and product design, are considered knowledge-generating activities. Therefore, design is recognized as an intangible asset which can be one of the key factors for building firm innovation potential and therefore competitiveness. At the same time, intense innovation pace has powerful disruptive effect. This is because the speed and intensity of innovation, which is unprecedented in human history, results in artificially conditioned shorter life cycle of the product where literally what we set out to produce today is already obsolete. For the design this phenomenon has at least two connotations. Firstly, the continuous scientific discoveries are faster and more diversely applied in all areas of life, particularly in the context of creating new or improving existing products. Since the design, especially product design is perceived as innovative activity, and one of the key intangible assets for building competitive advantage for firms, designers are under increasing pressure from expectations to continuously innovate. In other words, they are expected to invent a lot in a very short period. Secondly, designers have to possess the ability to understand technological opportunity and to act upon it; otherwise they will remain as visualizers of others’ ideas or incremental improvers of existing products. Their work must be efficient through innovation on multiple levels of contributing to creating new economic value for a firm.67 Consequently, in order to be able to cope with constant technological changes, it is necessary for the designers to constantly improve their knowledge with opportunities that bring new discoveries and technologies, through both theory and practice. There is also another phenomenon that knowledge economy brings as a pattern of knowledge creation and precondition a network order. This trend highlights the important role of dynamic relationships between individuals, groups, institutions and corporations; emphasizes the advantage of flexible and adaptable network structure of the organizations and changing pattern of innovation where the capacity to innovate depends on the level of communication between different actors, companies, research laboratories, academic institutions and consumers and on the feedback between the scientific community, engineers, and designers. In the context of challenges for design, designers must function within institutional structures of various kinds that enable and constrain their endeavours. In other words, they are not independent spirits, but dependent on the view of design held by the management or the cultural imperatives of an organization. Also designers are nowadays confronted with virtual explosion in the amount of raw data available to them, where knowledge is critical in order to go through this data and make sense of it. In addition, the need to cope with the trend of shrinkage of the product life cycle and stay competitive, designers also have to shrink product development time through the use of simultaneous and collaborative design processes, which depend on effective transfer of knowledge between all relevant actors. Finally, the awareness that decisions made in the beginning of design process have a higher impact in terms of energy, cost, and sustainability, has resulted in the necessity to develop knowledge typically required in the later stages of design in the earlier stages of design.68 In this context, in order to build their own capacity for innovation, apply new methods of product development and gain access to relevant information and knowledge, it is expected from the designers to possess excellent communication skills, multidisciplinary attitude and knowledge, and willingness to cooperate and continuously learn from all relevant stakeholders important for their projects. 3 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y [70] Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y [71] Furthermore, one of the most impressive phenomena of Knowledge Society which has great impact on design processes and product development is that the production of data and operational programs become the immediate production process, which tends to reproduce social structure of knowledge. The outcome of this development is that scientific knowledge, in terms of direct productive force, becomes a social resource with its function comparable to the function of the labour force. This phenomenon is most visible in the open source and crowding concept of the creation of knowledge and innovation. Finally there is a question of efficient protection of value of design. In the contemporary world, new knowledge gains the role of strategic resource on which the competitive advantage of firms and national economies depends. Such knowledge in today’s economy is a scarce resource. Translated in the context of design this means that design, as a unique intangible resource, has great value for firms and national economic competitiveness, and therefore it must be adequately protected, through legislative mechanism of industrial design or copyright protection. But the forthcoming and new technologies such as 3D printing, bring great challenges in regard to efficient protection of intellectual property rights relating to design. design in macroeconomic development and national design strategies, the following challenges can be extracted: In educational context, design education institutions are expected to implement commercially and internationally orientated approach in their further design study programs. Such programs should give students commercially oriented and international design competencies, which should lead to improved competitiveness of businesses and to the improvement of the quality of life. Also the focus is on the development of collaborations between design, business and other schools or disciplines to advance the understanding of design through multidisciplinary courses. Furthermore, the challenge for education is to improve the capability of design research and product development and to foster interaction between design managers, organizational executives and managers, educators, and public policy makers. In economical context the main challenges for the design sector is to build the capacity to innovate and deliver worldclass brands, products and services, to strength competitive positions of national economies, and to improve the understanding of firms regarding design methods and their utilization. Also there are challenges considering expanding design awareness of corporate management, design professionals and the public sector through education and training, challenges 3.2. PUBLIC POLICY EXPECTATIONS concerning the use of design as a strategic tool for innovation, FROM THE DESIGN SECTOR and challenges regarding articulation of the value of design, and its importance to social and economic success. The level and types of expectation from the design sector are In social context challenges are addressed to issues best seen from national design policies and development strat- such as practicing sustainable ‘good’ design, development of egies, whereby these expectations turn into practical challenges new solutions with regard to national social and economic for designers. What is common to all the countries is that they challenges, practicing user centric design and involvement of expect from the design sector to become one of the main levers communities in designing local services, development of design for future growth and development of national economies. communication skills and collaboration capacities. From earlier presented research regarding the place of the [72] 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y [73] 3.3 CHALLENGES FROM without ever getting in the way.70 Dr. Mark Evans, leader of the DESIGNERS’ PERSPECTIVE Design Research Group at Loughborough Design School, at Loughborough University (UK), states that the use of digital Prof. Mugendi K. M’Rithaa, President of the International technologies demands continuous development of new skills. Van Engelen believes that in the context of the enormous potential of new technologies, the key design challenge is to find those moments where technology can enhance or simplify our lives without ever distracting us from here and now, and to communicate those important or interesting bits of information tools and associated methods has changed the way in which product form is generated and communicated.71 For example, 3D CAD model and 3D printing can produce parts with great complexity. Using engineering materials for the 3D printing, these parts can have the mechanical properties of off-tool components to enable prototype testing. But, he emphasizes that technologies cannot replace the need for core skills and knowledge required to be a great industrial designer. According to Dr. Evans, the challenges and capabilities required to produce beautiful, ingenious and charismatic products for the start of the 21st century are in reality not that fundamentally different from core skills and knowledge of the pioneers of the profession back in the 1930s. What is changed are the ways how things are done. On the other side, Lucas Verweij72 professor at the Kunsthochschile Weißensee and the Design Academy Eindhoven points out that in contrast to twenty years ago when designers were able to weave and print by hand or understand simple industrial processes, such as injection moulding or extrusion, today conceptualization of the discipline combined with the use of new technologies have resulted that most designers have little grasp on true craftsmanship, or in other words many designers do not know how to make stuff. The main question arising from this situation is about future quality of designers’ work. Professor Lucas thinks that the quality of designer’s work depends on designer knowledge of specific materials, crafts or production methods needed to create products. He argues that if the designer does not possess this knowledge he cannot be connected throughout the whole cycle of product development. Also, he said that the visual presentation of the projects and consumer trend to increasingly buy products online based on their two-dimensional qualities, has resulted in the fact that 3 3 Council of Societies of Industrial Design (ICSID) said “If the rhythm of the drumbeat changes, the dance steps must adapt accordingly. Ours is certainly a very different world from when our organization was formed 58 years ago”.69 Recently at the 29th General Assembly in Gwangju, South Korea, ICSID renewed definition of industrial design which is fully presented at the beginning of this study. This definition tells us a lot about the expectations from design in the 21st century. The design community perceptions of the main challenges that their profession is facing in the 21st century can be reduced to a few general themes: Challenges brought by new technologies, challenges related to the multidisciplinary approach and knowledge; challenges regarding the cooperation and strategic conversation with multidisciplinary project teams, challenges related to the role of design in a sustainable development, challenges related to mutual understanding of the design and business community, challenges related to the social role of design and the examination of the very purpose of the design. TECHNOLOGICAL CHALLENGES From designers’ point of view, technological challenges are perceived from different perspectives. For example, according to Fernd Van Engelen, continuous development of new Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y [74] Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y [75] design has become strongly image-oriented. Professor Lucas emphasizes that long texts and literature about projects are becoming rare, that sections, plans or sketches are also rarely published and that models and physical 3D-prototypes play an ever-smaller role, because you cannot email or publish them. The problem of educating and training designers about production cycle is not new. In 1955s Gulio Carlo Argan insisted on stronger inclusion of designers in the production practice. He stated that large number of designers don’t have adequate education which could allow them to work on projects instead work on drawings. For him, in the industrial production process, the project represents a kind of a Platonic idea. Since the machine can only print the idea in a thousand copies, the task of a designer is that his project includes awareness of all technical conditions necessary for its implementation so that the production process can proceed without any changes and adjustments. Also, the project should assume that the object meets all practical requirements, and it should anticipate and solve all characteristics of the material. Finally through intuitive and inventive process infused with an inherent aesthetic hallmark of the designer, the designer should give the product the final aesthetic seal.73 Argan points out the problem which is still actual today and that is that designers have to possess ability to understand technological opportunity and act upon it. Otherwise they will remain to be visualizers of other people’s ideas or incremental improvers of existing products. Besides the above mentioned, information technologies brought other new challenges such as visual artefacts that will help people to better understand information about certain themes of their interest. Besides, there are challenges posed by nanotechnology which cannot be fully foreseen. But what it is now already significant and already visible for the design profession are new material performances. Fernd Van Engelen believes that the palette of Nano technology 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y [76] options that designers today have on their disposal explodes with possibilities. He stated that shrinking technology can become increasingly discrete, allowing designers to conceive new devices, or make previously “dumb” products smart. But as devices get smaller and the screen disappears, designers also need to reimagine how to interact with them. He notes that this presents great challenges and opportunities for the designer who can embrace the new medium and can think more broadly about interaction. As many other devices can be made smart with embedded sensors in them, the challenge for 21st century designers is to decide when it makes sense to do so.74 In the context of the ‘Internet of Things’, Dr. Mark Evans thinks that these products generally require some form of interaction design solution. Interaction design may not become core business for industrial designers, but evidence suggests that a natural flair for graphic design and embedded awareness of how to effectively understand user wants/needs means that the profession is increasingly operating in this area.75 As technologies advance and products become more sophisticated, designer ability to predict and prescribe how people will use the product becomes much more difficult. In the past we thought about how people use a product, today we should also be thinking about new ways people can make the product on their own or designing to facilitate collaborative consumption rather than individual ownership.76 MULTIDISCIPLINARy KNOWLEDGE AND PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH Generally, designers understand that contemporary age demands multidisciplinary approach and knowledge, but design as discipline has always been multidisciplinary. Today, what the design profession needs more than anything is people who move easily and fearlessly across boundaries. Designers must be able to connect to, collaborate with and be inspired by different disciplines – fashion, architecture, material science, 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y [77] business, marketing, ethnography and more. Only in that way a designer will be able to create the great user experiences they aim for.77 So the design industry should demonstrate that it is able to create communication strategy with different stakeholders, to induce concrete initiatives, and to encourage cross-disciplinary and cross-institutional dialogue as well as synergies from joint research, educational modules and development projects. MERGING DESIGN AND BUSINESS Although it seems that the business sector is now more aware of the importance of design and that designers themselves better understand social relations and business environment in which they work, Helen Walters believes that really not much has changed at all compared to 50 years ago.78 She believes that despite the fact that there is quantitatively more design and that design has been democratized, in reality that did not lead to a wider understanding of the discipline or the hiring of designers throughout the enterprise. Enterprises still value design just about as much as they always did, or in other words, they might appreciate it, but they do not really understand it. Therefore, she advocates spreading and further advancement of the design thinking concept, which is now still very rarely successfully used by companies such as Procter & Gamble and General Electric. But those two are one of the few organizations which successfully integrated this innovation concept, because the lack of consensus, common purpose and mission about this concept hinders the application of this concept. She emphasizes that when designers finish their formal education, they are not educated well enough to understand the business environment with which they are going to work and cooperate in future. Design graduates emerge from schools without the skills necessary to thrive in the real world. Unlike artists, designers have to be able to articulate ideas and their value to 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y [78] clients. Before they finish their education they have to understand the main terms and principals concerning the business world. They have to know how to articulate the value of their ideas and work to the client, and to truly understand the needs of their clients. She emphasizes that if designers want to be seen as more than stylists, and that is still a common complaint, then they need to step up to drive the projects, not merely be co-opted to make them look good.79 In other words, designers need to learn how to communicate with those untrained in their discipline in a way that is inclusive and productive. One thing which can help them to realize productive communication is to use relevant data. Designers need to figure out a way to make the entrepreneurs and technologists believe in investing in their talents, and they should use their years of training and learning and insights in conjunction with the data in order to create better outcomes for all. They must prove that they are prepared to speak a different language in order to get their point across. That is the only way for design to prove itself within a corporate context because this is the context in which industrial designers work. Designers should move beyond the realm of the creative department itself, and prove that design is much more than a glossy product and that it can indeed be used to determine the definitions and domain of innovation, of systems, and business models.80 But there is also another perspective coming from designers about this issue. In the designers community there is a large number of those who fear that, due to the intense quantitative growth of the design industry, growth of the public policy perception of design as a key factor of the national economies competitiveness and due to the opportunities provided by new technologies, design will become a superficially artificial discipline, estranged from its primary purpose and skills. Lucas Verweij, professor at the Kunsthochschile Weißensee and the Design Academy Eindhoven, states that since the definition 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y [79] of design has expanded, the design discipline has become a SOCIAL CHALLENGES more conceptual, mental and strategic profession. In his opin- Terms such as: user friendly design, production friendly ion, unfortunately this holistic profession that touches on all design, environmental friendly design, community friendly design, design for all, universal design, tell us that the design community attaches great importance to the user centre approach, or in other words, meeting the real needs of people and society as whole represents an important challenge for the designers community. Danish designers expressed their vision of the future of Danish design in their manifesto and clearly articulated this trend with one term “Design for People”.83 According to them, the most immediate and intuitive adoption of any solution seems to occur when human factor interests are given the same weight and priority as the economical, and for a number of good reasons. For them, design is also a means of promoting involvement, inclusion and coherence by offering access to products and services that are often – and rightly so – perceived exclusive and prohibited by many because of their physical or mental impairment, or simply because they are different from the vast majority. They emphasize that sometimes products or services need to be designed specifically to such – often marginal – groups, but more often than we think, a more inclusive approach to designing products and services – taking into consideration the needs of both able–bodied and disabled users in the development process would benefit all. This concept, as one obligatory design industry contemporary and future task, is being adopted by more and more sectors and product and service categories, because such demands of inclusion are currently being fronted by the European Council and are also specifically articulated in the UN’s Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. Also, designers believe that more attention in the future will be paid to the interactive, more human use of design in the public sector, in the sense of reduction or elimination of barriers between the individual 81 skills and senses is being reduced to image making. From one side, the expectations from the public about what design can accomplish have certainly never been higher, and designers are increasingly perceived as problem solvers. But, for Professor Lucas the main issue from designer’s perspective is does design besides growing quantitatively, grows qualitatively as well? Can designers really do what the public and the commissioners think they are capable of? He acknowledges that the profession is changing rapidly as a result of its growth, but he thinks that it is struggling with some serious issues, for which only the designers themselves – researchers, practitioners, students and scientists can give proper answers. Also in regard to the increased emphasis on the need for designers to acquire strategic leadership and conversation skills, especially in context of product development, with persons coming from different disciplines, (particularly those from the business world) Lucas says that design is now an on-going strategic conversation where various disciplines are involved. There is a lot of talking and, although there is a broader acknowledgment of design, its position has not become significantly stronger. In fact, the freedom for a designer to explore, innovate and research has been reduced. Regarding the same issue, Dr. Mark Evans believes that despite the signs that the profession is slowly changing, the fact remains that to be a capable industrial designer, it takes at least three years of intensive undergraduate education and those with passion and capability to create beautiful, desirable and cool things have little interest in spending the majority of their working week on ‘touch-points’ and ‘meaningful connections’ with services.82 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y 3 [80] Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y [81] citizen and the system that design has proved to offer. Confi- Victor Papanek who already at the end of the 1960s dence and tolerance presents fundamental preconditions for strongly insisted on environmentally responsible design a meaningful dialogue between the two parties – achieved believes that if design is to be environmentally responsible, it through adding familiarity and relevance, by involving the must be independent of concerns about its contribution to the user in the development or customization of the service and gross domestic product. He argues that designers bear a special by creating a physical and communicative environment, which responsibility for preservation of the planet ecosystems and the resonates with the user’s feeling of comfort. All of which are health of all life species, since their share in activities that may 84 key elements in the design approach. lead to unsustainable use of natural resources is quite large. As he says, designers are trained to analyse facts, problems ENVIRONMENTAL AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES and systems, and on this basis to at least try to guess what Since the forecasts show that by 2050, human population might happen due to excessive and non-intelligent exploitation will achieve the number of 9.5 billion people, this will lead of natural resources and use of materials that nature cannot to dramatic environmental problems, since our planet does absorb. In this context he gives two different examples about not possess the capacity to withstand the expected level of the designers’ perspective concerning environmental issues. exploitation of natural resources. In addition, modern industry One as a negative, concerning innovation of beer cans made of produces large surpluses of food and all other type of products, aluminium which slowly dissolve in earth, and another positive encouraging excessive consumption, causing increasing prob- one, related to the Swedish experiment with the production of lems regarding health of all life forms and storage of waste. The beer bottles made from bio degradable plastic material.85 In destruction of the ecosystem will have a huge negative feedback comparison to the 1960s, there is obviously no need for deeper effects on the increase of the poverty and social and political interpretation of how big the role of design in sustainable devel- conflicts. Science and industries have the potential to develop opment is today, and how this should be reflected through the technological solutions that are productive and able to reduce formal design education and designer’s professional attitude. the use of resources and to preserve biodiversity. However, One of the most effective ways of advocating sustainable in order to avoid excessive exploitation of resources there is design is to create products that are more meaningful to the an urgent need for change in the mind-set and behaviour of individual and that are kept and cherished rather than being people and organizations, as well as structural changes in the disposed of and replaced long before their functional lifetime production and supply chain of goods. Since the lifetime of has come to an end. Designers can also work on decreasing most products is shortened to an average of two years, a huge the complexity of products and use fewer raw materials which amount of discarded old products represents a growing prob- will reduce energy consumption in manufacturing process. lem for the ecosystem of our planet. The responsibility of the Designers are in position to set new trends and standards and design in this context is extremely great, since the designers they should do that by creating innovative solutions, use better are in a position to control or partially control the selection of material choices and insist on smarter manufacturing processes. materials and methods of product creation and their production. Since the crucial factors for more sustainable production is the choice of materials and suppliers, the designer’s choice of [83] 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y [82] 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y suppliers and demands of both environmentally and socially new possibilities for social and planetary survival or risk being responsible behaviour is of the greatest importance for set- side-lined in the grand enterprise of creating the future. ting the trend of responsible production of goods. Also there Since the design education represents the main mecha- are other issues such as taking into consideration the living nism through which designers should gain knowledge, skills conditions of the workers and their families and the overall and competence which will enable them to cope with challenges environmental consequences.86 of the 21st century, the second part of the Study is entirely ICSID President Prof. Mugendi K. M’Rithaa, thinks that the main future challenge for the industrial design is to dedicated to the research of current challenges facing contemporary design education system. prove itself as problem solving discipline in the so called solu- tion economy.87 He especially emphasizes that there is a large opportunity for the design profession to be a part of solution for challenges presented in the newly inaugurated 17 Sustainable Development Goals. He believes that new trans-disciplinary opportunities are now open to designers, including a myriad of ‘wicked’ developmental challenges impacting the majority of the world’s people. For him, these challenges include the quest for social equity and cohesion with respect to sustainability, the need to promote renewable energy as well as designed interventions for mitigating climate change. For professor Mugendi, one of the main mechanism through which designers will be able to respond to those challenges in future is to tailor the design education accordingly to the needs of the future. He said that for the past 10 years many have been advocating, developing, and calling for industrial design curricula to address the future by engaging a platform of ethics and focusing education toward social ecology and service to humanity. He stresses that for the industrial design education to remain viable, it needs to teach collaborative skills toward universal design agendas within a context that promotes sustainability. Design education must be enhanced with new knowledge that embraces diversity, multiculturalism, and collaboration. This is now lucidly apparent as the whole world struggles its way through a move from selfishness to global cooperation. Designers have a choice of participating as members of a greater human family, to create 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y [84] [85] 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y PART II: CHALLENGES FOR DESIGN EDUCATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY [87] PART II: CHALLENGES FoR DESIGN EDUCATIoN IN THE 21ST CENTURy As a response to the pressures and challenges of the new socio-economic paradigm, the higher design education is currently undergoing some substantial realignment. In principle, this adjustment has to do with the most basic characteristics of the paradigm of Society and Economy Based on Knowledge, with the preconditions and ways in which this paradigm evolves and operates and those are: more pronounced complexity of functioning of the system; intensive communication between the actors of the system; openness to receiving and sharing information and knowledge; the network (not a linear) matrix of learning and innovation with intensive collaboration in knowledge production; multidisciplinary and comprehensive way in observing and problem solving; integration of thinking and acting; taking into account the needs and expectations of all interested parties for certain outcomes of the activities of the system; integration of theory and practice; the need for both specialization and generalization. In regard to the changes, possibilities and expectations which the contemporary age has brought to design education, the design community leads intensive discussions concerning the future direction of design education. Therefore, in the second part of the Study possible direction of design education in future and the main challenges and main dilemmas facing the design education were detected, and possible mismatch between competencies and skills provided in current design education and ones needed in the market were identified. The first and second chapter address the contemporary general trends in higher education and their impact on design education. The third chapter deals with the key dilemmas related to design education: What is the general purpose of design today? What theoretical framework should support the new model of design curriculum? What should be the content of the design curriculum? And how should design be positioned within the arena of higher learning? The last, fourth chapter is dedicated to the question of design competencies and skills needed for the 21st century. 3 Design Challenges in the 21st Centur y [88] [89] 1 CONTEMPORARY GENERAL TRENDS In Europe, higher education institutions are currently facing challenges such as: massification, diversification, and IN HIGHER EDUCATION expansion. The consequence of massification or overcrowding of universities, faculties and colleges is that they are becoming entities which are hard to manage, too complicated for study and to teach. The “logic” of massification is that it includes an overall lowering of academic standards, greater social mobilGenerally and globally, in the last 20 years, the higher edu- ity for a growing segment of the population, new patterns of cation system is going through the process of transition from funding higher education, increasingly diversified higher edu- traditionally academic structured systems in which dominate cation systems in most countries, and other.90 Regarding the academic approach of valuation of the system towards systems diversification challenge, the state policies of most European in which dominate managerial and entrepreneurial approach countries insist on more diverse options for higher education, of system valuation. Slaughter and Rhoades define this sec- which could serve to a wider interests and preferences of poten- ond approach as “Academic capitalism” that is, according tial students. Concretely this means offering a wider choice of to them, a regime in which colleges and universities engage educational levels and types such as academic and vocational in market and market-like behaviours with the objective to studies. For example Germany, France, or the Netherlands generate revenue from their core educational, research and have a binary system of higher and vocational education, which service functions, ranging from the production of knowledge translates into different types of institutions for different target (such as research leading to patents) created by the faculty to groups. Switzerland is in the process of introducing Fachhoch- the faculty’s curriculum and copyrighted teaching materials.88 schulen (i.e. vocational training institutions) to its system of The necessity to respond to the changing needs of the higher education.91 Expansion refers to the large increases in markets and individuals, together with shrinking national budg- student numbers in most European countries in response to ets for education purposes resulted with serious revision of public policies providing education to a large portion of the higher education systems in almost all countries in the world. population, often under the banner “education for all”. The European systems of higher education are moving towards Those trends together with the results of public edu- the American model and the Bologna agreements manifests cational policies brought specific challenges for European this. The commitment to a fixed-term first degree, the trans- higher education institutions, forcing them to deal with issues ferability of credits, and common criteria for access are only regarding the new ways of funding, ensuring equal access and the most visible of the tendencies toward convergence of the diversity of student population, ensuring relevance of stud- American model. European higher education systems probably ies in line of the labour market requirements, adopting new moved toward the American model because it is better adapted, approach of the government to the educational institutions, and normatively and structurally, to the requirements of the age of building international reputation and high mobility potential “Knowledge Based Society” which puts a great emphasis on the creation and wide distribution of knowledge and skills.89 1 Contemporar y General Trends in Higher Education [90] for attracting students and strengthening academic potential of the teaching staff. 1 Contemporar y General Trends in Higher Education [91] Internationalization of higher education is very relevant for continental Europe. Internationalization gives higher edu- which are in line with real demand in the job market. Furthermore, in order to meet the constantly changing needs of the job cation institutions in developed countries opportunities to be market, educational institutions need to provide relevant and more market oriented in a global world economy, in terms of lifelong learning opportunities to society. All those challenges knowledge transfer and manpower development, IT, increased force higher education institutions to organize themselves as mobility for students, faculty, programs, and providers. Besides enterprise systems. As Barbara Sporn argues: state-run public the commercial advantage, motivations for internationalization universities autonomy in budgets, personnel, and program- include brand building, knowledge and language acquisition, matic matters increased the need for institutions to learn to enhancing the curriculum with international content, higher manage the enterprise by applying business techniques. This 92 visibility and many others. Mobility has played a key role in social and economic role of universities still needs to develop this process. Students in European exchange programs (e.g., into a system capable of actually fulfilling the far-reaching Socrates, Tempus, ERASMUS) make choices based on their expectations of ministries and the general public. She thinks perception of the best campuses and the most supportive that future priorities for higher education institutions will faculties, thereby increasing competition among universities. be firstly to “think global and act local” in order to enhance Research through international collaboration and exchanges internationalization, while taking regional needs and differ- has to meet certain standards as well. Accordingly, many Euro- ences into consideration. She also emphasized the need for pean universities try to encourage their junior faculties to move development of efficient techniques for staying informed about to other countries and work with international colleagues—in the labour market, the economy, and other important exter- expectation that when they return to their home institutions, nal variables. Also, according to her, international exchange their research productivity, teaching quality, and hence repu- and mobility will be critical for graduates to strengthen their tation will increase.93 qualifications and enhance the sophistication of “soft skills” Of course the issue of funding national systems of higher like intercultural sensitivity, languages, and adaptability. Fur- education has been a major trigger for restructuring higher thermore, Sporn believes that expansion and diversification of education in Europe. The higher education institutions were higher education systems will lead to a push for an even greater expected to develop their own management structure, set up division of labour in teaching and research. The old Humboldt and revise programs independently, serve society and students model of the unity of teaching and research will most probably as “customers”, attract additional resources and fight for their be abandoned in exchange for building core competencies in position on the educational market. Consequently, the funding applied and basic research and in undergraduate and graduate pattern has changed from personnel, libraries, or maintenance training.94 Thus, it is very clear that the contemporary world parameters, towards output-oriented indicators and formalized of higher education is increasingly dominated by economic planning procedures according to the institutions particular imperatives. It is expected from higher education institutions preferences and strategies. Also from the higher education to intensify collaboration with the industry and to focus on institutions it is expected to provide relevant study programs commercialization of researches. Therefore, universities are no which will provide students with relevant skills and knowledge longer expected to work in isolation; rather, they are perceived [92] 1 Contemporar y General Trends in Higher Education 1 Contemporar y General Trends in Higher Education [93] to be interactive players who work closely not only with the 2 industry but with the community and the government. They IMPACT OF GENERAL TRENDS IN HIGHER EDUCATION ON DESIGN EDUCATION are considered to be an integral part of national or regional innovation systems and a critical component of the evolving triple helix in which universities, government, and industry change their roles through interaction. Mobility stimulated by education appears to be evidently low in Central and Eastern Europe. International influence, exchanges, and partnerships may have a certain role in identity General trends in the higher education sector have their impact creation as the structures and institutions of higher education— on design education which has its own specifics. Regarding the disciplinary, vertical, and horizontal—will be pressed to follow trend of massification, it leads to questioning the traditional international trends. Under these conditions, Peter Darvas design education based on the apprentice master model. The thinks that for regional higher educational institutions, inter- universally preferred face-to-face nature of the classroom still national partnership represents more than just an opportunity, exists, but the one to one relationship with the student is no because it could be a mechanism for alternative funding in form longer always possible.96 Research regarding UK higher edu- of international funding, international projects, exchanges, and cation reveals that the Design and Creative Arts, for example, partnerships. According to him, the main challenges for higher had a Student-Staff Ratio of 1:15 in 1994/1995, which increased educational systems in Central and Eastern Europe, will be: the to 1:20 by 2003/2004 for programs taught at an undergraduate emerging need for short-cycle programs, postsecondary forms, level.97 Although the context for higher education has changed shorter first-degree programs based on the credit system and considerably in comparison to a decade ago, design education student choice, non-PhD. advanced (second degree) programs, still aspires to distinct values and pedagogies that emphasize and new forms of adult training and retraining—all of which the need for low student – staff ratios, such as project-based need to be designed and promoted in response to local demand enquiry, one-to-one tutorials, small group critiques, and signifi- and by using local resources.95 cant quantities of individual formative feedback and guidance.98 However, to continue as an “elitist” type of study may not be economically sustainable. Only a privileged few will be able to survive as stand-alone educational entities, not affected by market forces and developments in higher education.99 Therefore the design education has to become more explicit and formal. Given this overall trend, educational design institutions are challenged to choose between the paths of university higher education or remain a traditional, practice-driven design school. Both directions carry consequences in terms of type of the student intake, funding, academic activities of faculty, etc.100 [94] 1 Contemporar y General Trends in Higher Education 2 Impact of General Trends in Higher Education on Design Education [95] Regarding the globalization challenges, the first con- which should encompass different competencies, interests, sequence is that globalization has prompted international responsibilities and professional languages of all stakeholders competition which resulted with movement of academic pro- included in the project. Moreover, as it is emphasized earlier, grams and institutions across borders, and design programs the innovation pattern has changed into cross disciplinary, in form of franchise have been offered in other countries. The networking, simultaneous and application driven knowledge extraordinary impact of technology, including the emergence production for which the main precondition is intensive col- of courses that exploit the power of web based delivery, had an laboration off all relevant actors. Translating this to design immediate, initial impact at a design education postgraduate education context means that research and development col- level. Recently, changing demands in the workplace, driven laboration with industry is the key factor for methodological by European integration, global market forces and technolog- exercise in design studies. Therefore, if design faculties want ical advancement, have triggered universities to compete in to engage in industrial collaboration, design education should one more aspect, offering the international dimension of their also have science based approach, which will enable students Also globalization to link problem-solving processes with effective methods for brought the sensitive issue in regard to cultural differences of research and educational frameworks. design development.103 For example, design education pro- 101 students who study abroad. Since the multicultural make-up of grams should offer students possibility to experience solv- the student population is often seen as a criterion for quality, ing a real, industrial design problem, working as a part of an the question arises if learning in a class with lots of nationalities engineering design team, and communicating their work in really is better? Design academic community is not convinced written and oral form.104 Also, the design education should that it is. It is because there are too many cultural differences introduce effective methods of integration, with purpose to which are not, and cannot be covered in study programs, but adequately prepare students for a world in which collabora- which are very important for foreign students. For example, tion, negotiation, and compromise are valuable skills.105 In something else is expected of designers in Dubai than in Paris. this context, “Social Learning”, should be extrapolated as a Also, it is necessary to consider that the world is characterized social activity, complementary to interdisciplinary teamwork in with vast differences in levels of professional freedom, in the design projects and research, affecting different social groups role of clients, in how critical a design can be. According to and stakeholders.106 Lucas Verweij, the consequence of this behaviour is the glo- Regarding the challenges for design research, the inten- balization of master courses, which are churning out jetlag sive pressure on design discipline to became more scientifi- 102 designers who lack cultural framework. cally based carries the risk for discipline to became confused Regarding the issue of the need for intensive collabora- in search for new or improved identity. The search of many tion between designers and industry, currently, both companies professions for a higher status by branding themselves as sci- and design communities are expressing the need for intensive entific has resulted into a quasi-scientific treatment of theory, collaborative work practices and user-centered approaches. when modelled on a positivist conception of natural science. Through the process of product development designers are This is most likely with the design discipline, causing detri- confronted with the need for professional communication mental effects to the identity of the individual profession.107 [96] 2 Impact of General Trends in Higher Education on Design Education 2 Impact of General Trends in Higher Education on Design Education [97] As a review of the literature in this Study shows, there is no 3 CURRENT KEY DILEMMAS IN DESIGN EDUCATION consensus on the definition and scope of design research. The main dilemma is should design research follow the model of traditional academic disciplines, or should it seek a new model, based on the intimate connection among theory, practice, and production, which is the hallmark of design?108 As Charles Owen states, the path to the present state of design education is not unlike that travelled by many other disciplines. It is a young discipline which just recently matured to an extent that Taking into account all those complex issues facing the contem- the last two stages of formal education: formal research and porary design education and design practice, adapting design doctoral programs can now be contemplated. Only in the last education and research to the challenges of new world para- fifteen years some higher education institutions, started to digm is certainly not an easy task. New dynamic, interactive offer doctoral studies in design. and holistic conditions of knowledge creation, where thinking 109 According to Cross, design research can be classified and acting are not separate but unified – one activity, and into three main categories: 1) The study of designer behaviour, where human communication and collaboration are based on including theoretical deliberation and reflection on the nature more complex and multidisciplinary patterns, demand a new of design ability; 2) The study of the processes of design, and model of design curriculum. This is because the traditional, the development and application of techniques, which aid instrumental, linear, causal, model of design curriculum is no the designer; 3) The study of the form and configuration of longer adequate to describe the complexity of the contemporary artefacts, which is recently complemented with studies on the design process. Balanced and integrative approach is needed. design of services and systems.110 Also, an emphasis should be placed on the study of design processes, methods, behaviours referenced to social, economic and cultural contexts. 3.1 CONTEMPORARY PURPOSE OF DESIGN PRACTICE AND EDUCATION With every significant change introduced in certain fields of education, the first question that arises is: what is the purpose of that field, and which values and essential structural elements is it based on? Every discipline must continue to develop in accordance with the challenges of its time, where the once traditional premises it was based on, gets to be rejected or reconstructed in favour of new ones. Contemporary approaches to the purpose and role of design are very diverse and complex, 2 Impact of General Trends in Higher Education on Design Education [98] 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [99] as are reflections resulting from them. What remains the same design originated as a separate discipline must be considered. as in the period when design originated as an independent An insight into the genesis of thinking about this issue offers discipline is the fact that contemporary reconsiderations of the possibility to reflect on all the contradictions which are the purpose of design are also focused on the relationship nowadays continuing to arise, in the same or different form, between art and industry, culture and production, and the in relation to this very important topic. Also, it is important to many resulting contradictions. There is also the eternally con- bear in mind that contemporary views on the purpose and role troversial question, if design has the same purpose as pure of design also determine the directions of future development art. The answer to this question, or the view one takes on it, of this discipline. determines the social expectations placed on this discipline. The beginning of development of design as educational The unresolved question of purpose of contemporary design discipline is connected to the Industrial Revolution and the results in contradictions within the design community itself, foundations of the Bauhaus school. The 1920s and 1930s were as well as a lack of understanding about the real potential of the period when the production system, threatened by the pos- design on the part of the corporate sector, which seems to have sibility of collapsing due to excessive production, introduced been, from the very beginning, the entity in relation to which the concept of mass consumption. Mass consumption became design has generated its ideology, views on its social function, the comprehensive element of expanded reproduction. Con- and even its very purpose. This lack of understanding results sumption was imposed as the individual and collective ideal, in the opinion, more and more entrenched that designers are being a matter of bare survival for the capitalist production. not capable of adequately communicating and respecting the Design originated from this amalgam, from the need to com- needs of their environment, and that their insistence on their bine production with mass consumption. Objects started to purpose only in terms of visual and technical creativity has represent social goals and the vital environment, something simply left them still alienated from the needs and the culture that was, at the time, historically unprecedented. Considering of the society for whose well-being they are creating. Hav- the fact that objects and spaces came into focus of the industrial ing in mind that the purpose of this Study is to research and society, they became the function of the political economy – determine current challenges facing design education, and to the economy of symbols. At that moment, everything became propose, on the basis of research results, in terms of additional design, and architecture and design gained a therapeutic social competencies, knowledge and skills, appropriate guidelines for mission of sorts, which allowed them to create coherence in a improvement of this area of education, it is of utmost impor- divided society. With this new phase of controlled consumption, tance to determine the root causes of the lack or deficiency of the system of commercial values entered all spheres of social educational aspects of designers. In this respect it is necessary life.111 In those times, characterized by significant changes in to start with the very purpose of design. the way of looking at the world and the mechanisms by which it In order to acquire vital understanding of contemporary works, the establishment of design as an autonomous discipline approaches to the purpose of design, and the range of current started to cause a split in the foundations of the amalgam of issues which arise from deliberation on this topic, the views the material and spiritual culture, which has been more or less on the purpose and role of design that have been defined since homogeneous up to that point. Marc Le Bot pointed out that 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [100] 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [101] the birth of industrial society caused the historic moment of nor an intentional and rare contribution of individual artists; splitting those aspects of artistic functions relating to the logical artistic work should, instead, become a basic and essential arrangement of social space and its symbolic signs. That split part of the general process of modern industry”.114 By 1925, and its consequences may be explained most clearly through Gropius rejected research of new forms at all costs, unless the then trend of using the word “technical” as an abstract noun they were derived from the matter itself. He also rejected the instead of an adjective, with a view to emphasizing the con- addition of purely decorative elements, whether historical or tradiction between art and technology, which had not existed imaginary. In his eyes, creation of templates for objects for before. He believed that the 20th century art, with a clear everyday use was a social necessity, which Bauhaus production political intent, in the beginning made design its side-product, was supposed to fulfil. According to him, a machine for serial where establishment of design as a separate discipline turned production of objects is an efficient instrument for liberating the meaning of that objective on its head.112 people from hard manual labour, and allows creation of objects more diverse, more beautiful and less expensive than those Bauhaus had an undeniable role in that split and in the establishment of design as a separate discipline, as well as in made manually. He thought that there was no room for fear defining its purpose and role. The Bauhaus of Gropius was not that standardization would destroy individuality, any more just a place for studying the methodology of designing, but the than one should fear that a fashion trend could result in utter model of school-society, i.e. a society which, by designing its uniformity of clothing.115 As the establishment of design as a separate discipline own environment, designed its reform. Gropius himself, as the main protagonist of Bauhaus, was constantly making efforts to has resulted in the historic moment of splitting those aspects imbue industry with a cultural tone. He knew that the Industrial of the artistic function relating to logical arrangement of the Revolution would happen with or without culture and art, and social space and its symbolic signs, the design criticism and thus he tried to introduce art and culture into mass production, theory literature, as well as opinions of practicing designers, as much as it was objectively possible at the time. Therefore, for have reflected efforts to wrench the practice and the discipline instance, when expressing his ideas (which he wanted to make of design, which are by their very nature intrinsically linked to more approachable for industry), he intentionally avoided respective social and economic conditions, from the pressure using the rhetoric of culture, but quite the opposite, he used a of technical operational and market conditions imposed by the rough, harsh language, sounding like someone who wanted to capitalist free market. All this for the purpose of preserving convince an industrialist tycoon. 113 He made it very clear that the concept of creativity as one of the most important deter- he accepted the idea of industrial rationalization and standardi- minants of the nature of design. Within the philosophy of zation, emphasizing that the idea of industrialization joined the Bauhaus’ school and its views on the purpose of design, and artistic work of an architect or designer and the economic work under the influence of De Stijl’s movement and the Russian of an entrepreneur. Gropius believed that “an artist possesses avant-garde, design, together with architecture, urban plan- the ability to breathe life into a product created by a machine; ning, and visual arts themselves, became a component of the the creative power of the artist continues to live through that Enlightenment premise of rational social organization, and in object, and the role of art in production should not be a luxury addition to its practical uses, played the role of an ideological 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [102] 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [103] argument in the general debate. It was not about making the reconstruct the human environment, especially in terms of their notion of design equal to the notion of art, or replacing art by demands, which originated from the civilizational and social design. It was about striving to imbue design with the power circumstances of their times. According to Maldonado, the to influence the very behaviour of users, where this influence activity of Bauhaus brought about a new humanist perspective would result in a new awareness of circumstances which on the technical civilization. In spite of its complicated internal shaped the entire social and physical environment. It should organization during several mutually contradictory stages, the be emphasized that concepts and types of questions which Bauhaus school was an active engine which found ways to check served as a basis for judgement on contradictions and possible its didactic and designing assumptions in practice.117 reconciliation between production of aesthetic and industrial However, historical events stifled all these starting aspi- objects, were elaborated and formulated within the avant-garde rations, or at least the intensity of their momentum, which, art, namely movements such as the Italian Futurism, French on one hand, reduced design to a functional lever within the Cubism, Soviet Constructivism, and neoplasticists of De Stijl, dominant social and economic mechanisms, while on the other and that the same set of issues is still crucial, at the academic hand, gave it an utopian aura, with the potential to activate and practical level, for determination of purpose and role of these ideas in circumstances where the need to advocate them design as a discipline and practice. In Marc Le Bot’s opinion, may arise. One such circumstance arose in the late 1960s, when, the originally ambivalent attitude of the artistic avant-garde in the context of a wider rebellion against the existing political, toward the industrial society – i.e. radical criticism of that socio-economic and cultural situation, design seemed like an society for its, at that time, choice of academic cultural policy area of intersection of a range of viewpoints which went far of excluding art from production activities, on one hand, and beyond the practical task of the profession itself. As a critical on the other hand, flirting and negotiating with the system response to the politically unaware production of design objects, due to the awareness that instruments of possible change were and to the split between thought and action, the phenomenon of in the hands of its repressive forces – gave design the role of anti-design emerged, with its radical aspiration for temporary argument used to dispute the academic tradition of fine arts of or even permanent suspension of activity in this area, i.e. the the past, as well as the one-dimensionality of the technocratic end of the design as a discipline which strives to put a certain optimism of the present and the future. According to Le Bot, ideological pressure on the multitude of insufficiently conscious due to this original ambivalence, avant-garde art is a focal users. Forces which, on the other hand, wanted to consolidate point of sorts, where all contradictions in the area of design design profession and reconcile the long-term confrontation 116 This is, as a matter of fact, the between the aesthetic and the functional modelling practice, root of conceiving design as an important social activity, which were not in favour of these radical proposals. Instead, like are intersecting even today. inevitably results in the demand for politicizing this practice. Maldonado, they proposed focusing on a new praxeology of Maldonado points out that Bauhaus and the artistic avant-garde designing, in terms of general effective action which, by estab- are nowadays regarded as interrupted or unrealized initiatives, lishing a close connection between the critical consciousness which gives them an aura of utopian ideas. However, these and the designing consciousness, might present a way out of the movements, in their beginnings, truly made great efforts to crisis situation in which design as a discipline had found itself.118 3 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [105] [104] The split between design and art, which happened during strong scientification of design, as a basic precondition of its the 1960s in circumstances of dominant market economy, was operationality in contemporary living conditions, together with reflected in movements such as Pop Art, New Figuration, and continued insistence on the conceptual strength of design121. Optical and Programmed Art. Menna thinks that the difference Doubts in the purposefulness of existing practice and between these two creative areas lies in the circumstances ideology of design, which have been the subject of constant which place the practice of design into the scientific technical intense questioning to this day, have not, as we can ascertain, sphere, rather than the aesthetic technical one. This crucial arisen from insufficiencies of theoretical elaborations on this differentiation of design from art requires design to be included issue, but have resulted from specific continued crises of the in the context of another discipline, and Menna sees one such very foundations of the philosophy of the capitalist system, possibility in bringing design closer to the media sphere, or which design originally emerged from. The paradigm shift even changing the nature of design into that of one of the mass that the capitalist system is facing today is an interim where media. According to him, design has been acquiring a clear the transition process is taking place, and this period is char- physiognomy and function of an inter-media communicator acterized by constant dramatic disturbances. Among contem- on the cultural level, which is the place of contact and conflict porary denials of constructive factors of the existing form of between quality and aestheticism on one side, and quantity the capitalist system, there is an opinion that design actually and bad taste on the other. Design is thus permanently in helps strengthen the foundations of the consumer society, and contact with mass media, and even becomes a mass medium that design objects are status symbols of the inequality of itself. Depending on the way it acts on that level, design may social hierarchy, rather than objects intended to assist in the prove that the contemporary consumption civilization is not everyday life of the widest range of users. Of course, this alle- necessarily doomed to be a civilization of the low-brow and the gation is too simplified, but certain trends in the practice of kitsch.119 Baudrillard points out the fact that an object is not design, the practice that is fully market-oriented, leave room soul or a material thing, but, in its essence, a social relationship, for this type of discussion. Victor Papanek claims that design and that it thereby opens the space for debate on the sociology is nowadays mostly failing to deal with real needs, not just of design in the light of the crisis it was undergoing in terms those of individuals, but also entire communities and environ- 120 Argan believes that ments which constitute the largest part of population today. the permanent confrontation between the aesthetic and the He counteracted this situation with the premise of “Design functional modelling practice may only be overcome when for the Real World”, and many authors went even further than the nature of design is no more compared to art, but with Papenek, demanding a thorough revision of the very purpose other areas, similar to design in their constitution, whose task of design, and proposing new terms such as “Free Design” of its practice and ideology at the time. is spatial modelling, such as architecture and urban planning. (Jacques Famery), “Design for All”, “Design for People”, etc. Design is, in itself, a phenomenon which combines elements Papanek claimed that the purpose of design nowadays must of technology and science, on one hand, and culture on the be to continuously observe achievements as well as problems other, and therefore it is an interdisciplinary area. During of the contemporary society, and to accordingly try to contrib- 1970s and 1980s, there were more and more demands for a ute to finding solutions to these problems. He says that the 3 [106] Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [107] contemporary society is starting to understand that production the goal was to create objects whose value would not depend of goods is not a problem anymore. There are more goods, in on the materials they were made from but on their form, and quantitative terms, than the humankind needs. Instead of the which would be available to economically disadvantaged layers question: “How much is there?” one should ask the question: of society. However, back then, at the beginning of the process “How good is it?” However, changes have been happening so of enlightening the wider population with regard to aesthetics fast in the last half of the century that our main skill has become of high culture, the biggest obstacle was the lack of suscep- to define the changes themselves. Moral, aesthetic and ethical tibility of the masses, and thus the need for their education values will evolve, in parallel with things they will be applied was constantly emphasized. Nowadays, in the situation of to. He thus believes that designers should become aware, as mass democratization of design, we are still facing the same soon as possible, that the gap between design and technology obstacle – in spite of the fact that it is not necessary to be par- on one side, and religion, sex, morality or, for instance, med- ticularly financially wealthy in order to own beautiful, quality ical research (extension of life expectancy and consequently products; it still requires a high cultural level. Thus, the main population ageing), extensive agricultural production, and boundaries of the problem remain and will probably remain environmental situation of the planet on the other side, is the same, except that the culture required for the function rapidly decreasing; and that all these aspects are what design of the new design is no more class culture, but mass culture, as a multidisciplinary area and a part of a multidisciplinary and design is expected to show a high level of responsibility team should consider and respond to in its own way. in shaping this culture. Jean Baudrillard wonders why, in the Filiberto Menna claims that, after World War Two, light of the lack of affinity of wider audiences for the aesthetics design relinquished the task of interpreting its activity, as that design is aiming to impose, nobody has concluded that well as its responsibility in the context of total designing of the the cause may be their sociological defensive reaction to a human environment and itself as an instrument of social awak- certain privileged subculture that modern design belongs to. ening and revival. This relinquishment brought about the risk He believes that the alienation of design from the common of turning designers into marketing agents of the industry, and man is an integral part of the contemporary design philosophy. design into a cosmetic activity. Nevertheless, Menna believes Also, he believes that design will be left to its own mystification that this relinquishment may be interpreted as a result of new until it becomes aware of culture’s latent discourse. Offering awareness of the existence of complex problems inherent in someone something they cannot assimilate, is the worst kind the social economic context today, especially in terms of the of aggression. If design is confronting people with their own realistic attitude of designers towards the possibility of their inability to understand it, it turns culture it wants to give them, work affecting the fate of the collective life.122 The paradox in a way, into a living proof of their lack of culture. Thus, with which has been reflected throughout the history of development the excuse of improving the masses, design puts them in their of design is that democratization of design, i.e. its integration place. This explains the objective fate of masses, leading them into the mass culture, has not considerably contributed to to kitsch as the only available choice for them to show their raising awareness of the mass population in regard to high resistance.123 In other words, design must be based to a larger cultural values. For instance, in the Gropius Bauhaus’ studio, degree on wishes and capabilities of others, in order to shape its 3 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [108] Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [109] cultural standards in such a manner to make them acceptable that a new code had become necessary, the School of Design to the majority of potential users. of the University of Montreal conducted research on the issue It may be concluded that designers are still very alien- of design ethics and the responsibility of the designer. The ated from the society in which and for which they are creating. main conclusions of this research were that in order to be able This alienation is manifested in the lack of competencies of to define professional responsibility, not just competence, a designers in the field of multidisciplinary communication, lack discussion on the purpose of design is necessary. Also the of knowledge about the basic terms and processes of produc- conclusion was that the priority should be given to the reform tion, lack of focus on needs of design users, lack of ability to of design education. Furthermore, one of the most important truly cooperate with all stakeholders included in the project, conclusions was that there can be no responsible design without etc. It is a fact that a great number of designers, after finishing a responsible designer, or in other words, education should their formal education and entering the world of practice, do be directed to the development of an individualistic ethics. not have the ability to conduct productive multidisciplinary Authors of this research emphasize that the individual ethic communication with their clients, or the ability of comprehen- is of particular importance because, without it, any general sive understanding of needs of their clients and end users of discussion about ethics, moral, ethical theory, etc., becomes their design solutions. For instance, designers may be hired almost meaningless. Also the results of the research show that by various clients: enterprises, state institutions, non-profit aesthetics and moral dilemmas or decisions are structurally and social institutions, non-governmental organizations. Each congruent. Therefore, aesthetic education could contribute of these clients has a different motive regarding design, and to moral literacy.124 Alain Findeli underlines that highly critical aspect, a different users who will evaluate the provided design solution. For instance, it is constantly pointed out that contemporary factor without which no curriculum can be as filled with the- designers do not have the ability to understand which problem oretical courses, workshops, seminars, and studio work as a firm wants to resolve through design, nor to explain to the possible, will ever find its coherence, is the overall purpose firm, using basic business terminology, how their solution will of design education and practice. The questions to be asked contribute to the resolution of the problem. Also, the alienation are: To which meta-project (anthropological, social, cosmo- of designers is often manifested in their lack of interest for final logical, etc.) does a design project and a design curriculum outcomes of their work, not in terms of their design product contribute? For what end is design a means? Can design find its and satisfaction of the client, but in terms of the response of practice is not adapted to the contemporary conditions, and raison d’être within its own field and remain autarkical? How autonomous can design be? All these questions are related to the ethical dimension and purpose of design. He recalls that the general purpose of design has evolved within the Bauhaus tradition and that the major themes within the three periods of Bauhaus were “A new world”, “A new man”, and “A new culture”. He points out that in the Bauhaus period, the way to achieve these goals is viewed as a technical issue, or in 3 3 end users to their product, or the way that their product affects the living environment. For that reason, attention is nowadays being strongly called to the growing maladjustment of formal designer education with the real needs and problems of the world of today. After observing that professional code of ethics in design Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [111] [110] other words it was believed that if the necessary means, tools, so that the moral consciousness of every student is increased. actions, and decisions were put together, these goals could This is of course a very sensitive issue not only in design, but be attained. But, he believes that in the new perspective, the in general education. purpose of design must be considered as a horizon, as a guiding Hence it is obvious that the answers to the question of set of wide range of values to which one always must refer the purpose of design must come from design discipline itself. when taking a decision or evaluating a proposition within the As Lucas Verweij said in regard to the purpose and future design project, and not as an ideal goal to be reached in the challenges for design discipline: “We are under pressure, and more or less near future. From his opinion, the new adequate believe that we lack the time to find fundamental answers to purpose of design for the coming generations certainly should uncomfortable questions. But the answers have to come from encompass the environmental issue as a central concern. But designers themselves – from researchers, practitioners, students since today we witness degradation of the social and cultural and scientists”.125 (symbolic) environments, human dimension should also be included in the design purpose in the context of contributing to the overall balance between humankind and natural world. In that way, as the two polar complementariness, anthropology 3.2 DESIGN CURRICULUM FOR THE 21ST CENTURY and cosmology should be topics around which the content of a design curriculum will be defined. That can be done only Design as a young discipline, in the context of formal levels through holistic understanding of design project inputs and its of higher education, has only recently evolved to a level of outcomes. This implies that the making of an artefact, which is master and doctoral studies. On that journey the educational usually considered as the normal outcome of a design project, design program has reflected its own evolution, also induced by is no longer taken for granted. Findeli thinks that designers changes brought by the social and technological paradigm shift. today should act rather than make. Making must be considered This evolution is clearly seen through the historic observation a case of acting (praxis), to the extent that even “not making” of the content and structure of design curricula. During the is still “acting”. time, the basic elements of design curriculum – art, science, Findeli underlines that his standpoint has three dimen- and technology have lost or gained their educational impor- sions. The first one is philosophical and it implies that design tance. According to the results of the research of the relevant pertains to practical, not to instrumental, reason, and that literature on this issue conclusion is that there is a consensus the frame of the design project is ethics, not technology. The among scholars, researchers and professionals, on the need for second one is the existential dimension, which implies that an integrative approach to design education, if design educa- design responsibility means that designers should always be tion wants to empower students with the necessary knowledge conscious of the fact that, each time they engage themselves and skills for the 21st century. Design is not art. It is also not in a design project, they somehow recreate the world. The engineering, and it is not science or a number of other less third is about individualistic ethics, implying that some kind likely candidates for association. Design is not separative, it is of moral education must be included in the design curriculum, integrative, and one of the hallmarks of design is its integrative 3 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [112] Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [113] nature.126 As Charles Owen said: “Although it is not fashion- project development, and lack of the ethical awareness that able to think that generalism can any longer be taught in our each designer’s work affects the environment through sev- complex society, it is just this generalism that makes a good eral dimensions, must be solved through reform of outdated designer so valuable”. The argument behind this attitude is that design curricula. This is because a large number of existing a designer has to be able to reach across disciplines to bring design curricula do not possess the potential to train students in information, to extract ideas, and to think critically from for the increasingly complex challenges of the contemporary different viewpoints. Owen stresses out that a good liberal arts age and provide them with the way of thinking necessary to education, as general preparation, was sought out by those who solve those challenges. Findeli starts from the first design hoped to lead in the business and the professions. With the educational program created in the Bauhaus school. In the increasing specialization, this is now a very rare case. Of course, original education program articulated in Bauhaus founding liberal arts preparation in itself is not sufficient for today’s manifesto in 1919, it was written that: “Instruction at the complex world, but Owen believes that for a career in design, Bauhaus includes all practical and scientific areas of creative general knowledge is now more important than ever, and that work, students are trained in a craft as well as in drawing and it should be required as a foundation for those entrusted to painting, science and theory”. This program has a threefold design the communications and artefacts of a society. For him, structure consisting of art, technology and science, which were good design education is good general education supported originally planned to support the curriculum. In 1923 Gropius with special education for problem solving, conceptualization, launched the phrase “Art and Technology: A New Unity”. And visualization and communication. Because design is integrative, this became the theoretical model in which the philosophy of design education needs firm grounding in the subject matter the Bauhaus was grounded. The threefold structure was trans- of the arts, sciences, technology and the humanities. formed into a polarity of art and technology. The distinction For the purpose of the presentation of the fundamental between Formlehre and Werklehre in the curriculum is the starting points in defining contemporary integrative approach most visible personification of this model. In Dessau, a new in design curriculum and new logical framework which should curriculum had been printed, which as “areas of instruction” support this new approach in the context of the design thinking mentioned the following: practical instruction, form instruc- and acting process, (the new way of acquiring and implementa- tion (practical and theoretical), and supplementary areas of tion of knowledge), among the many high-quality works on this instruction. Here, the structure of curriculum again reflects subject, the work of Alain Findeli’s theoretical article which a polarity, in this case the practice and theory. In 1937 when embodies all essential elements necessary for a concise expla- Moholy-Nagy founded the new Bauhaus in Chicago, some nation of these topics is chosen.127 In his paper “Rethinking changes were introduced, particularly regarding the structure of Design Education for the 21st Century: “Theoretical, Meth- curriculum which relied heavily on the vision of the philosopher odological, and Ethical Discussion” Alain Findeli states that Charles Morris. At the New Bauhaus Morris taught a course the problem of designers’ alienation from the real world, from in “intellectual integration” in which he attempted to articulate the environment in which they work and live, absence of the what he believed to be the three main dimensions of design: ability of a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach to art, science, and technology. Morris considered the design act 3 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [115] [114] to be a kind of semiosis, and he drew a parallel between the their roots in the nineteenth century, and must be considered syntactic, the semantic, and the pragmatic dimensions of a sign as outdated today. At the Bauhaus design was considered to and, respectively, the artistic, the scientific, and the techno- be an artistic or aesthetic theory applied to practice. In other logical dimensions of design.128 In the early 1958 in the Ulm words, students were expected to apply in the Werklehre what school – the Hochschule für Gestaltung, Tomás Maldonado they had learned in the Formlehre. Applied science follows launched a new education philosophy founded on scientific the same structure: instead of art, science is now playing the operationalism, which represented the unity of science and role of a referent, or “fundamental discipline” to be applied technology. As a consequence, the artistic dimension of the into practice. In this model, between theory (science) and original curriculum became less and less important, whereas practice (technology) there was one implicit, deductive link. its scientific content was increased and emphasized, especially The underlying theoretical model of design at the ULM HfG with contributions from the human and social sciences. The was the following: design tended to be considered as applied idea that design was applied aesthetics had been replaced by science, mainly human and social science. In other words, a new theoretical model, which considered design as applied the design project was to be deducted from the knowledge (human and social) science, but the underlying dualistic epis- gathered in the theoretical courses. Findeli underlined that as temological structure remained the same in Weimar/Dessau a result of this logic, one often hears in design schools that, if and in Ulm. the problem is well stated (if the preliminary scientific inquiry Findeli is convinced that for the contemporary complex has been thoroughly conducted and the functional criteria world, the optimal, archetypal, structure of a design curriculum precisely established), the solution will follow almost automat- would be a threefold articulation of art, science, and technol- ically. Therefore, even today, the most widely-accepted (and ogy. He thinks that the problem of the continuous separation practiced) logical structure of the design process have linear of these three basic dimensions of design lies in disagreement form of logic. A process starts with a situation “A” which about their relative weight and their adequate articulation. represents identification of need or a problem, then it goes to Today, everybody tends to agree upon the necessity of includ- situation “B” in which the final goal, or solution is imagined ing art, science, and technology in a design curriculum. But and described, and the final step represents an outcome in the he stated that disagreement arose, from the different opinions act of design which represents causal link of the transforma- about their relative importance, and in the regard to their tion of situation “A” to situation “B”. But Findeli argued that particular function, or in other words, how they should be systems and complexity theories have further contributed to a articulated. Therefore, he stressed the importance of well-de- radical transformation of the mechanistic model of the design fined overall purpose of design education and practice as a process. The main consequence is the introduction of teleol- key aspect which will establish coherence in the curriculum. ogy (the explanation of phenomena by the purpose they serve An inquiry into the historical development of design rather than by postulated causes) into an otherwise strictly theory reveals that the discipline has adopted two major par- causal sequence. As such, the concept of project gains a much adigms to account for the logics of design thinking: applied stronger theoretical status. Therefore, instead of “applied” art and applied science. Findeli argued that both of them take science, Findeli proposed to speak of “involved,” “situated,” [116] 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [117] or “embedded” science. For him, such a model considers that of their projects. The process and product should be completed, the scientific inquiry and attitude are carried into (instead of on one hand by taking into consideration all relevant inputs applied to) the field of the project and of practice, so that the in the beginning of the project, (not just considering design former are modified by the latter, and vice versa. His opinion is work, but clients’ motives, philosophy and expatiations) and that the designer’s task is to understand the dynamic structure on the other hand, by consideration of the impact of the project. and shape of the system, its “intelligence.” One cannot act He argues that, today’s underlying anthropology of design is upon a system, only within a system; one cannot act against too narrow, because it is usually reduced to anthropometrics, the “intelligence” of a system, only encourage or discourage a ergonomics, and consumer psychology and sociology. Likewise, system to keep going its own way. The production of a material the external world for designers is also usually reduced to its object is not the only way to transform state “A” into state “B” biophysical aspects, ecological and environmental problems. and since the designer and the user are also involved in the But the external world also includes other interconnecting process, they end up being transformed too, and this learning issues such as the technical or man-made world, the biophysical dimension should be considered as pertaining to the project. world, the social world, and the symbolic world or “semio- Also Findeli thinks that until now, emphasis has been clasm”. These inner and outer worlds interact with each other. put mainly on the complexification of the models describing Therefore, before any project can be launched within such the design process, and on the semiotic complexification of a complex situation, a designer must make sure that there the perception and reception of the products of design. He is an adequate representation of the content, the structure, believes that traditional focus of the design process proposed the evolutionary dynamics, and the trends of the system. He by Gropius, on psychology of visual perception, emphasizing thinks that this version of visual intelligence should be taught visual intelligence has to depart from its traditional connection through a qualitative, phenomenological approach. For him, with the material world and its artefacts. He proposes that the course of the basic design, if properly reconsidered, will today’s different kind of visual intelligence, one which enables be the best pedagogical tool for teaching such an approach. designers to see everything in a relationship, (as Moholy-Nagy Also he believes that aesthetic education will be the best way articulated), will be required from the designer and therefore, to apprehend its dynamics. Furthermore, such a basic design taught to the students. He states that the input “PROBLEM” education will not only have an effect upon the designer’s and the output “ACTION” of the design process are not con- intelligence of complex systems, but also upon the designer’s sidered to be part of the design process. The “problem” is professional responsibility when dealing with systems (the given, and usually is considered as such in design practice ethical aspect). and in the schools design studios. And “action” comes out of Since the issue of the dematerialization of our world has the process, ready to live a life of its own, in another realm. become a recurring leitmotiv in design, Findeli describes the Findeli reminds us that in reality, problem and action dwell in ways in which the product centered attitude could be replaced the same world, of which the designer also is part, not only as a by a new one if design is to survive and evolve according to professional, but also as a citizen. He strongly underlines that the conditions of the new paradigm. The first way is the shift designers should be interested in the origin and the destination towards a system approach, from a “problem and solution” [118] 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [119] to a “state 1 and state 2 of the system” situation, which helps adapted to our contemporary world and future challenges. to push material artefacts to the background in favour of the In regard to contemporary world changes, issues and future actors within the system. This, in turn, yields to the end of challenges, he thinks that if design does not want to become the fetishism of the artefact. The second way is that the sys- just a reactive discipline “a branch of product development, tematic questioning of the design brief will invite designers to marketing communication, and technological fetishism”, it look for the “dark side” of the object. They will become more will have to become proactive; in other words it will have to interested in the human context yielding the brief than in the propose “new scenarios for the future”. For him, the profile classical “product description” brief generally used in design of design profession need not—and should not—remain what and engineering. The third, methodologies developed for the it is today, otherwise these professions might disappear. It is, design of material products could be transferred to the world therefore, designers’ responsibility to imagine the future profile of immaterial services, if adequate epistemological care is of their profession. taken. The fourth way is the shift towards a sustainable and ecological design, since everybody agrees to the fact that there are too many products in our environment, and many designers are already engaged in a more sustainable design attitude.129 3.3 THE PLACE OF DESIGN EDUCATION IN THE ARENA OF HIGHER LEARNING AND Therefore, according to Findeli, it can be concluded that CONTENT OF DESIGN CURRICULUM the main foundations of design curriculum instead of science and technology, which dominate in structure of current design curriculum, should be teaching and training in the notions As there is consensus in scholars’ opinions regarding the need of perception and action. Perception in the context of visual for integrative approach in design education, the same thing intelligence and action meaning that a technological act is cannot be said for their attitudes regarding the question how always a moral act. The relationship between perception and design education should be positioned within the arena of action should not be studied through deductive but aesthetic higher learning and the question regarding the nature and logics. Visual intelligence, ethical sensibility, and aesthetic content of courses in design curriculum. intuition can be developed and strengthened through some kind of basic design education. This course of Basic Design, PLACE OF DESIGN EDUCATION IN ARENA OF HIGHER LEARNING should not be only in the first year as a preliminary course, like As it now stands, different views of how Industrial Design in the Bauhaus tradition, but it should be taught in parallel with should be positioned within the arena of higher learning are studio work through the entire course of study, from the first not expected to come to consensus. Charles Owen believes to the last year, as some kind of a continuous spiritual, mental that the most difficult task facing the design education today and practical exercise, designed for students to realize and is probably that of developing the faculty needed for tomorrow. contribute to the transformation of current vision of the world. He underlines that design education is a young discipline, and And that for Findeli is what a paradigm shift is really about. that educational programs in design only came into being when The nature and context of this fundamental course should be the value of design thinking was well enough recognized to 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [120] 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [121] create a demand greater than that which could be supplied believes that because design is integrative discipline it needs naturally from diversified sources. Programs for product and firm grounding in the subject matter of the arts, the sciences, communication design began invariably in art schools. The technology and the humanities. To strengthen this “position problems of industry were introduced into studios and treated of balance”, for him the ideal location of a design program by art faculties in master-apprentice fashion. As the knowledge is not in any one of the typical colleges of art, engineering, required for a designer to become successful was better under- sciences or humanities, but in a college or school devoted to stood, courses were defined to teach it. Undergraduate degree the integrative use of all of those reservoirs of knowledge. For programs in design were described and proliferated, gradually teaching students how to design, the sources of information also separating themselves from parent art programs. The and inspiration are those of the whole university; the processes beginnings of graduate education in design followed a similar to use that wisdom in better products and communications are paradigm. Those choosing graduate programs, studied closely what are special to the design program.132 with faculty members in a one-to-one mode and after sufficient Liem and Sigurjonsson, identify three general types of experience, conducted a comprehensive project to completion current design schools.133 The first type is the Art and Design 130 for the Master’s degree. Since there is no integrative approach schools or ‘Kunsthochschule’ in Germany. These schools are in current design education, and enough teaching staff which not affiliated to any university, and usually offer a wide variety could cover the various new specialist area, design education of Art and Design Courses. The second type is design schools institutions must decide on their formal organization place in which are partly independent, in the sense that they are affil- higher education. But it seems that finding sufficient number iated to a university, but with different administrative and of educational personnel is still a problem for design faculties. operating criteria than other members of a university. Examples Owen is convinced that as more progressive programs emerge, of such design schools are: Umeå Institute of Design (Swe- there will be a growing pool of new graduates to teach in future. den), Academy of Arts & Design, Tsinghua University (China), PhD programs should produce graduates especially prepared Nanyang Technological University, School of Art Design and for research and teaching. The temporary solution is to engage Media (Singapore). The third type of design schools is fully the specialists from other fields who have interests sympa- integrated in a university system, meaning that they follow thetic to those of design. It is not uncommon to find scien- the university’s rules and regulations concerning teaching and tists, scholars and technologists whose own breadth of interest research. The education supporting this research is scientifi- 131 extends to issues of design. They can offer rich extensions to cally oriented. Examples of Design Universities are for example traditional curricula, either in specialty courses or in courses the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Delft team-taught with design teachers. Scientifically based design University of Technology, National University of Singapore body of knowledge and rigor research design institutions will and Technical University Eindhoven. be even more difficult to develop. Design education, except Referenced to this third type of design schools, there is for engineering design and some architectural design, has had still an on-going debate whether designers should be educated the tradition of the fine and applied arts as its model, where as generalists or specialists. The School of Design at Carnegie personal exploration substitutes for research. Charles Owen Mellon University in the U.S. offers the generalist-oriented 3 [122] Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [123] programs. With multiple general curricula and the interdis- Specialized professional programs for transportation design, ciplinary collaboration with the departments of engineering, design for the aged and disabled, industrial and construction management, and social science it enables students to acquire a systems design, consumer products design, communication higher level of generative design expertise. The ID department and control systems design and many other industry specific at the Technical University Eindhoven presents specialist-ori- forms of design can be offered as separate master programs. ented model of design education. It is based on the educational Generalized professional programs can also be implemented goals of ‘competency based learning’ and ‘student as a junior in master studies, with less specific emphasis on content and employee’. It enables students to learn within a simulated greater attention to contemporary design theory and processes professional environment by executing specific design projects and their mastery through application. Research programs and intensive contacts with the industry. similarly can be specialized to individual school strengths. Some may become content specific, and others may focus THE NATURE AND CONTExT OF COURSES IN DESIGN CURRICULUM on general aspects of theory and process relevant to design. Regarding the issue of generalist or specialist approach Research programs at the master’s level should emphasize the to design education, and the knowledge which should be taught development of research and development skills. At the PhD in different study levels, Charles Owen proposed that design level, these skills should be employed to help create the body undergraduate programs should be university level programs of knowledge that will be used in industry and taught in the awarding four or five year baccalaureate degrees. Together masters’ and bachelors’ programs of the future.134 with the special program of knowledge and skills necessary Liem and Sigurjonsson believe that the adaptation of for design, this program should in adequate way mix the ele- industrial design education in the “Corporate World” of higher ments of a liberal arts education with those of a technological learning and research should be taken very seriously; clear one. Since graduate level programs now exist in significant objectives are to be defined for undergraduate and postgrad- numbers, he believes that it is no longer necessary that an uate design education with respect to massification trends in undergraduate program undertakes to teach all that is known of higher education. They think that students should be mentally design. Instead, he proposes that students in the undergraduate prepared to commute from generic to specialist as well as, from program should develop fundamental skills; inventiveness and abstract to concrete modes of working and vice versa. Compre- sensitivity; general knowledge; integrative and critical thinking; hensive and complex studio projects should be implemented as and the ability to apply design processes to problems of insti- platforms, where social and interdisciplinary learning practices tutions and industry. On the graduate level programs students can develop in line with selected design themes, processes should choose between different orientations for professional and methods. They stress that practicing designers should be mastery in Master of Design programs, and for research in more involved in tutoring if “designing” should remain the Master of Arts or Master of Science and PhD programs. In core subject of the educational curriculum and if time and that way schools will have incentive to pursue excellence in opportunities for research are to be created for tenure-track specialized design areas, having the direction for the invest- and tenured faculty. They suggest pairing faculty and practicing ments in personnel and facilities required to achieve quality. designers in the course management, teaching and tutoring. 3 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [124] [125] Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education Project management, processes and methods are to be trained Managerial tools now include design thinking and business by faculty, whereas skills, philosophies and experiences from model design. In the humanitarian domain there is the ser- practice are to be communicated by the practicing design tutor. vice design, human-centered design and social design. But, he If properly managed and executed, the move to direct faculty underlines that none of these new directions bear much relation to become specialist in certain areas of design through research to the roots of the profession of the original design – industrial would encourage an atmosphere of mentorship and scholar- or product design. Instead, design is increasingly viewed more ship. This will expose students to a research-based learning as a mentality than a skill. And while education struggles with environment, focusing on the study of behaviours, cultures, this shift, the market for education keeps on growing. At the processes and methods. In collaborative design projects and same time design explosion disrupts education. He recalls that research with various stakeholders, students should be exposed half a century ago, universities established courses in design to “social learning”, which is complementary to interdiscipli- largely as offshoots of mechanical engineering. In addition to nary teamwork. Liem and Sigurjonsson believe that this would technology, designers received academic instruction in design then positively encourage mentorship and scholarship, leading methods. Design freedom was therefore limited. Academies to an engaged way of learning and working that nurtures a of art established courses grounded in ceramic and graphic shared commitment and motivation for the ethic of inquiry and design, which were both practical and artistic in orientation. intellectual rigor, to the excitement of speculation, creativity For decades just two professional profiles existed alongside and discovery. each other: a designer was either a creative engineer or a prac- Regarding the question of current dilemmas in the aca- titioner of an applied art. Today teachers and administrators in demic community, in terms of courses that should make the the field of education disagree about what to teach designers. content of the curriculum, or in other words what to teach He said that in Eindhoven the tension regarding this issue was designers, the most plastic explanation was given by Lucas so intense that it even culminated in a personal shootout among 135 Verweij . Lucas Verweij thinks that current design practice the academy’s management. Lucas Verweij underlines that the has expanded in all imaginable directions, but the world of basic dilemma of design scholars is in regard to questions such education does not know how to respond to the new situa- as: Is collaboration with other disciplines the most important tion. There is no consensus between design scholars what aspect? Or is it still a creative ability? Should programming they should teach future designers, and for what professions be a compulsory subject? Or understanding of production they should actually educate them: is it entrepreneurs, art- processes? Is the knowledge of materials still important? Which ists, engineers, writers, innovators or researchers? And the entrepreneurial, journalistic and research skills should stu- biggest problem according to him is that there is no time to dents learn? And should they be instructed in a more didac- reflect on the answer, because courses and programmes must tic setting than has been the case up to now? While schools be developed quickly in response to the crazy growth in the are driven to desperation, the market for design education market for design education. He concludes that for the last is growing explosively. So although fundamental questions twenty years design expanded in so many directions that now remain unanswered, new courses are popping up everywhere it includes interaction design, game design and app design. like mushrooms. Lucas Verweij believes that it would be better 3 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [126] [127] to leave design thinking to schools of management, and leave 4 interaction and game design to schools of computer science. He DESIGN COMPETENCIES FOR THE 21ST CENTURY proposes that design criticism could be instructed at schools of journalism, and social design at teacher-training colleges. A creative design dimension of these professions can develop or evolve organically in such places. Design has become a mentality that can be applied in courses structured to impart specific skills. That is better than the reverse, which is now the case. From his point of view in the current design education situation design no longer belongs to anybody. Or what is for Due to the rapid development of technology, 50 of the skills Lucas Verweij maybe most important design no longer belongs that students learn in schools today will be out of date when to the people, places of education or lobby groups that have they are employed. On the other hand, approximately 70 of the competencies of industrial designers are acquired through represented and tutored it for decades. on-the-job experience.136 Thus, it is difficult for design education to form a designer who has adequate special knowledge but also possesses the wide perspective that is needed in the complex environment we face today and in the more complex environment that we are likely to face in the future.137 Lewis and Bonollo claim that (product) designers not only need the individual cognitive skills and overall skill displayed in execution of design process, but also require other skills, such as negotiation with clients, problem solving, acceptance of responsibility for outcomes, interpersonal skills and project management. In addition to design professional skills and knowledge, an industrial designer needs to have general competencies, team spirit and personality to accept challenges.138 The new designer in the 21st century will need to fulfil the roles of an intelligent maker, knowledge worker, sustainable entrepreneur, and active citizen concerned with issues of environment, society, commerce, network communication, etc.139 Ideally, each industrial designer should be equipped with every competency mentioned above. However, those competencies are extensive and numerous, so it is not possible for all students to acquire all of them. But that does not mean that university education 3 Current Key Dilemmas in Design Education [128] 4 Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y [129] needs to immediately respond to the industry’s demand for can exist apart from the whole, and the individual elements are certain knowledge and skills and neglect the ideals and goals determined by their relations to all other elements.142 of a university. Universities should initiate pioneer research Sethia claims that a higher level of design roles, a Gen- and visions to educate students with the abilities to learn and erative Design, is emerging because the nature of the design adapt, to be able to lead the development of the industry.140 In profession tends to integration, which enables it to play a any case, it is not easy for schools to arrange design curricula critical and active role in the product development.143 Horvat, in order to help students to learn general and special compe- stresses that construction of knowledge and competence is not only a personal, but also a social problem. Therefore we tencies during the limited time period. Literature review of research about design competencies can differentiate personal competence, which is related to reviles the existence of two dominant approaches to education: individual professionals, and communal competence, which specialist and generalist. Through the study of those researches is related to a team or a community of professionals. Creativ- it is possible to observe two major conceptual paradigms. One ity, communication, integrative thinking, project work, prob- line of research follows the reductionist’s paradigm, with the lem solving, and learning from examples are typical personal main assumption that design competence is a large set of ele- competencies necessary for the industrial design. Multi-dis- mentary competencies such as hand drawing, verbal commu- ciplinary collaboration, dislocated communication, balanced nication, spatial viewing, critical analysis, creative ingenuity, comprehension, and resource sharing are typical communal and manual dexterity. Another line follows the integrative or competencies. Communal competencies are becoming more holistic paradigm, with the main assumption that design com- and more important for a successful operation nowadays, when petence is holistic in nature, and as such, integrates multiple the conventional (hierarchically organized) companies are con- constituents which are difficult to separate since they mutually verted to self-directed, cross-functional, process oriented and interact.141 The first type of research puts the emphasis on the knowledge-based companies.144 The ICSID suggests that a comprehensive ID education identification of particular competencies that are needed in a particular design practice or by a design task. In the reduction- program should at least educate students in three categories ist’s view, design competence is considered to be nothing else of competency: 1) generic attributes problem solving, commu- than a set of low level competencies such as drawing skills, spa- nication skills and adaptability to rapid changes; 2) specific tial vision, specialized knowledge, intuitiveness and creativity, industrial design skills and knowledge, design thinking and verbal communication, and technical writing, which have been design process, design methodologies, visualization skills and typically addressed disjointedly. The second type of research knowledge, knowledge of product development processes, is focused on the capacities embraced by design competence manufacturing, materials and processes, design management, and investigates how they can be amplified by each other in an environmental awareness, model making, etc.; 3) knowledge integral way. In the holistic view, design competence is a syn- integration such as strategies of system integration. In addi- ergetic construct of some generic elements (human capacities) tion to the above-mentioned skills, other skills should also rather than being added up by low level competencies. From be emphasized, such as negotiation with clients, project man- the holistic interpretation, no element of design competence agement, and communication. The IDSA provides a detailed 4 4 Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y [130] Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y [131] checklist, including 44 technical skills and 10 categories of subject matter expertise knowledge of the subject matter and personal skills, so that students who would like to choose context for design; fundamental scientific principles and their 145 industrial design as their career can evaluate themselves. application, basic laws, principles and design practice in the Overbeeke et al. identified nine competencies that are subject.147 requested to be developed by industrial design education. They Since designing a curriculum presents a multifaceted are sorted as core competencies and meta-competencies. The challenge that includes questions about learning goals, such core competencies are: (1) ideas and concepts (developing as: Which competencies are important for the professional visions and innovative concepts by using creativity techniques, practice? What should the relative emphasis be among them?, experimentation and operative research), (2) integrating tech- all relevant stakeholders who have interest in such matters nology (awareness of technologies and combining technologies should be informed about faculty decisions. In the context for products and realization), (3) user focus and perspective of design the most important opinions are from design prac- (observing, analysing, and interpreting user needs), (4) social titioners, design clients and students. Those opinions should and cultural awareness (observing and analysing social behav- be expressed as ratings of importance to stakeholders for each iours and cultural contexts), (5) market orientation (explor- competence and skills. In order to be qualified for design ing strategic marketing opportunities and consumer oriented tasks at various stages, the competencies of designers vary, positioning of products), and (6) visual language (connecting depending on different roles played in the product development thoughts to function and form by visual means). The meta-com- process. The required professional abilities for the titles of petencies are: (1) multi-disciplinary teamwork (performing in junior designers, senior designers and design managers are international multidisciplinary teams), (2) design and research different from country to country.148 Furthermore, required process (mastering design and operative design research pro- competencies of designers vary depending on different roles cesses), and (3) self-directed and continuous learning (personal played in the product development process, the content of 146 design work, the level of design manpower and the demand development by defining new learning goals and approaches). ICSID formulated the exit profile of a general design of specific country.149 graduate as follows: 1) primary cognitive abilities: critical, Yang et al. conducted the empirical research in Taiwan innovative, lateral and creative thinking, motivation and curi- aiming to find out what kind of competencies the job market osity, perception of design problems, conceptualization of required for design jobs, which are the most valuable ones, new design solutions; 2) secondary cognitive abilities: oral, and to find attitude of the job market on the dilemma whether graphic and symbolic communication, research and discovery, designers should be educated as generalists or specialists.150 A discipline of ethics and morality psychology and philosophy of total of 265 job opportunities in the industrial design profession designing, competence in the design specialization; 3) skills: grouped into 13 job titles are classified into three categories: design methodologies; materials, processing and model making, a) 57 fall on the Industrial Design (ID) group: including indus- computer-aided design and other software; 4) social context: trial designer, senior industrial designer, and design director/ grasp of the cultural heritage, teamwork, collaboration and manager. b) 31.3 fall on the Mechanism Design (MD) group: leadership, entrepreneurship and continuing education; 5) including mechanism designer, senior mechanism designer, and 4 [132] Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y 4 Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y [133] mechanism director/manager. c) 11.7 fall on others: includ- consumers, and realize that they need to be devoted to design ing planning, management, interface, package and CAID, etc. research in order to understand user needs. In other words, Results showed that for the overall ID profession, the top large companies utilize the specializations of concept research, five competencies are as follows: 3D graphic software ability, mechanism design, interface design, interaction design, CAID, communication ability, fluency in English, 2D graphic software etc. to introduce more user-friendly products or systems. There ability, creativity and imagination. Communication ability is are three implication of this study for design education. The a general competency commonly requested by all three cate- first considers requirements for design education to be reviewed gories, whereas 3D graphic software ability is a professional and updated periodically, since the continuous transformations competency requested by both ID and MD groups. In addition of new technology and the product development process has to professional and general competencies, applicants’ personal- stimulated the development and changes in the design practice. ity and attitudes, such as active, aggressive and optimistic (10.6) For example, the results of the study shows that 55.1% of job able to travel abroad (7.2) interested in and devoted to design openings request applicants to be proficient in 3D graphic (4.5%) and having team spirit (4.5%), etc. are also mentioned. software; so schools may decrease the ID students’ training Regarding the experience, experience with a particular industry in drawing renderings and making sophisticated models since or product is the most important and the ability to work inde- they are being replaced by computers. Second, in addition to pendently is the second. According to the discoveries of this professional knowledge and skills, employers also value appli- study, the ID practice has developed toward both integration cants’ general competencies, such as abilities to communicate, and specialization. It seems that the scale of corporations coordinate and organize, with experience of studying or living presents one of the most influential factors on the decision of abroad, having international views, etc. in order to respond specialization or generalization. Some large companies have to globalization. Moreover, personality and attitudes such as divided the ID function into specialization based on different being active, aggressive and optimistic; enthusiastic with a design tasks in the product development process. For example, sense of responsibility; interested in and devoted to design and the BenQ group has set up a Centre for Digital Fashion Design the ability to travel abroad are additional expectations for job to recruit ID talents, including the titles of design researcher, applicants. Third, one of the conclusions in this study is that design project competencies and manager, ID leader, CAID since design educators are not able to predict the possibilities designer, industrial designer, mechanism designer, package of technology it is necessary to emphasize the design process designer, 3D/2D animation/computer graphic designer, human based on the inquiry approach and continuous learning of new factor researcher, user interface specialist, etc. Due to their knowledge and skills for design students in order for them to limited resources of manpower and cost, small companies tend adapt to these changes. In particular, there should be greater to integrate and expect designers to be fully responsible for emphasis on the process and regarding products as media the concept design at the beginning, as well as for the detailed instead of a final purpose. The role of industrial design in the design in the final stage. However, on the other hand, large product development process has changed and extended. companies, particularly the high tech industry, consider the In the study conducted by Yeh, two surveys were increasingly complex technology and demanding awareness of respectively conducted in the USA in 1998 and in Taiwan in 4 4 Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y [134] [135] Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y 2001 to search for the demanded competencies, their relative and the form ability are highly demanded by the industries of importance, the expected performance levels, and the perfor- both countries. The ability of creative thinking is valued more mance evaluations of the baccalaureate industrial designers in the United States and the ability of computer-aided design from the viewpoints of industries.151 Accordingly, there were is valued more in Taiwan. In regard to the performance evalu- respectively 69 and 62 competencies identified and included ation of the industrial designers, the results of the USA survey in the questionnaires used in the USA survey and the Taiwan indicated that the industrial designers performed best in the survey. Then these items were divided into seven professional areas of “creativity”, “knowledge of 3D forms”, “openness to competence categories: (1) conceptual competence: the funda- change”, “willingness to take reasonable risks”, and “problem mental knowledge upon which professional practice is based, solving”. The mismatches between the US industry demand (2) technical competence: the ability to perform fundamental and the performance of the industrial designers were greatest in skills required of the professional, (3) contextual competence: the areas of “making good oral presentations”, “communicate an understanding of the broad social, economic, and cultural in writing”, “knowledge of marketing and sales principles”, settings in which the profession is practiced, (4) interpersonal communication competence: the ability to communicate effectively with others through a variety of symbolic means, (5) integrative competence: the ability to mix conceptual, contextual, technical, and interpersonal communication competence to make informed judgments’ about appropriate professional strategies to be employed in practice, (6) adaptive competence: the ability to adjust to new conditions produced by in a rapidly changing technological society and the dynamic nature of professions, and (7) professional attitudes which are often considered to be part of “becoming professional”. The survey results showed that in the USA the industries had a higher demand of the industrial design profession in the areas of “creativity”, “sketches”, “visualizing design concepts”, “problem solving”, “knowledge of 3D forms”, “design methods”, “critical thinking”, “portfolio preparation”, “openness to change” and “communicate in writing”. In Taiwan, the industries had a higher demand of the industrial design profession in the areas of “computer-aided industrial design”, “working hard”, “professional accomplishments and techniques”, “form ability”, “technical drawings”, “problem solving”, “learning ability”, and “thinking and practicing”. The problem solving ability “visualizing design concepts”, and “knowledge of processes of 4 Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y [136] materials”. In Taiwan industrial designers were identified to perform best in the areas of “computer-aided industrial design”, “working hard”, “using design-aided tools”, “concept development”, and “creativity”. The greatest mismatches between the demand and the performance of Taiwan’s industrial designers were in the areas of “foreign language ability”, “budget analysis” and “tendency analysis”. One larger sample study was conducted in 2007, by Liu. T. L. on the U.S. design industry’s perspective regarding the priority of necessary design skills, the degree to which design industry is satisfied with recent graduates’ skills, and the focus of the industrial design faculty.152 The aim was to help industrial design educators to acknowledge the expectations of the industry for their students and to direct the curriculum towards enhancing the competitiveness of practicing designers. For the purpose of the study an 18-question survey was appealed to a varied population of design professionals on several issues relating to design education including the priority of various design skills, areas needing improvement in design education, company hiring practices, and the transition of the terminal degree for industrial design educators from Master’s to Ph.D. 4 [137] Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y The research sample included a range of organizations, from the exception of model making. A balanced design education small design consulting firms to large-scale manufacturing cantered on these three major skills seems to be the expecta- corporations. The survey was distributed to a broad spectrum tion from the industry. Furthermore, according to this survey, of 1,343 designers, managers, and executives working for both practicing design professionals see innovation, problem solving, design consulting firms and manufacturers. The survey results and sketching (three of the most important skills for graduates indicated that industrial design, on the whole, plays a more to possess) as areas which need to be improved in an education (41%) or much more (29%) important role for manufacturers context. For example, respondents were moderately satisfied than it did five years ago. This increasing significance indicates with students’ sketch abilities, and most satisfied with students’ that corporate America is focusing on industrial design as a model-making abilities, which was the least important category strategy to help answer escalating international competition when professionals were asked to rank the most important and satisfy more demanding consumers. Results also showed skills for an industrial designer. Other areas, such as verbal that the manufacturers, whose industrial design function had skills, teamwork, technical engineering, marketing, and knowl- become much more important in the past five years, reported edge of materials also need to be improved because they were a more than 10% average annual growth. Those high growth rated substandard for graduates. Since the field of marketing is rates imply that the quality of design graduates is becoming prevalent with research opportunities, respondents think that increasingly important to American firms. The results show students will only benefit from learning the basic marketing that the industry ranks the three most important criteria for concepts and from understanding how products should be hiring new designers in the following order: 1) design gradu- designed to compete in the marketplace. Respondents believe ate’s portfolio; 2) creativity; 3) graduate’s experience. Resumes, that fundamental marketing research strategies are necessary grade point averages, and the use of entrance tests were rated for designers to understand their target market. They think with less magnitude. The portfolio, the most important factor that placing industrial design students in a more business-like according to this survey, presents a potential job candidate’s context, such as industry collaboration projects, where they design skills integrated with the designer creative ability and must practice real-world design processes, will help them know problem solving capability. In regard to the most important what to expect and what is expected of them as they move into skills, results show that problem solving and innovation, the work environment. In regard to material knowledge and closely followed by sketching are the top three skills. Of the technical engineering, since most manufacturers have specific secondary importance were teamwork, verbal, and materials needs for materials and engineering, respondents stressed that skills, followed by computer-aided drafting (CAD), styling, it is not realistic for design students to be expected to have production, anthropometry, marketing, human factors, and mastered those needs simply by studying materials, books or technical engineering skills. The category “model making” was visiting manufacturing facilities. They think that industrial ranked least important. However, the difference between the design curriculum should focus on providing students with a least important and most important categories was only in a basic understanding of industrial processes, awareness of the few points, indicating that after problem solving, innovation, many different types of materials available, and basic market- and sketching, all other skills are similarly important, with ing and research concepts involved when developing a new 4 4 Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y [138] Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y [139] product. This is because as a new industrial designer becomes students prefer activities like internships in production compa- more experienced in a chosen field, designer expertise in the nies’, factory tours and fairs where they can share information areas of materials and technical engineering most important to and reach directly, see and touch material objects. The research that field will increase. The results of the survey also showed participants put forward internet as the most appropriate and that respondents from the design industry do not see design accessible information tool (100% of research participants) but education institutions enough applicable to the teaching of they do not consider it as the most useful tool for their advance problem solving, innovation, and design skills, which make in design education. The most valuable aspects of students’ up the primary need from the point of view of the industry. expectations in design education are creativity, conceptual With new technologies becoming the current driving force of approaches and innovation. The most preferred lectures are innovation, these skills will be even more valuable as designers design history, art history and creativity methods. Those sub- move even further into unknown territory. Furthermore, the jects help them gain the attributes, skills and knowledge in results of this study showed that most designers and design the way which urge their creativity, innovativeness, problem managers do not advocate a complete revamping of university solving potential and help them design artefacts that respond requirements, such as requiring a Ph.D. to teach design skills. to human needs. Participants stated that some aspects of From the perspective of the industry, design education should design such as design thinking and design process, design improve its ability to teach design skills, to inspire creativity, methodologies, visualization skills and knowledge, knowledge and to educate students to intelligently solve the problems that of product development processes, manufacturing, materials they will face every day in their design career. In the pursuit to and processes, design management, environmental awareness, outlast and outperform international competition, it remains model making, etc., represent the basic values, but for them the mission of today’s educators to develop fresh designers they are not the most important ones. Students believe that equipped with the skills needed to succeed. technical information and skills about ID can be developed, The research undertaken by Cartier P. (2011) gives stu- but creativity and knowledge should be given at school. There- dents’ perspective on their most valuable expectancies in design fore, students’ priorities are creativity and creativity methods, education.153 Based on their content, students’ statements were although they also believe that other values, skills and knowl- classified in three basic issues: most preferred instruments edge equally create the basic structure of design and design which transfer the different aspects of design knowledge to education. Regarding the expectations of students from the 1st students, most valuable aspects of students’ expectations in and 4th year, students from the 1st year expect to learn about design education; and comparisons of the 1st and 4th year ID form, presentation skills, model making, aesthetic values, and students’ ideas. In regard to the most preferred instruments they do not concentrate on specific industrial design skills for the transfer of different aspects of design knowledge, from and knowledge. Half of the 4th year ID students prefer their students’ perspective, workshops, seminars, conferences, open- projects to be more about concept designs, and the other half ings or other social activities which help them to communicate like to work in collaboration with firms. All 4th year students with people like designers, company managers, and design emphasized the importance of creativity methods during the researchers represent the most valuable instruments. Also project process. Most important common expectation of 1st 4 Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y [140] 4 Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y [141] and 4th year students was in regard to creative thinking and creative learning. Therefore, the results of this study indiPART III: cate that for the design students, creative activity and creative learning is one of the most important parts of education which QUALITY also represents the most common and valuable expectancy of AND students in design education. RELEVANCY OF DESIGNERS’ KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF DESIGN PROFESSIONALS, DESIGN PROFESSORS 4 4 Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y [142] AND BUSINESS Design Competencies for the 21st Centur y ACTORS [143] PART III: QUALITy AND RELEVANCy oF DESIGNERS’ KNoWLEDGE, SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF DESIGN PRoFESSIoNALS, DESIGN PRoFESSoRS AND BUSINESS ACToRS The empirical research simultaneously conducted by three project partners in three countries – Croatia, Austria and Macedonia is presented in the third part of the Study. The main purpose of this research is that together with the theoretical research results create a basis for defining and proposing appropriate guidelines for the improvement of current design education and the content of design curriculum, in form of deficient design competencies, knowledge and skills. Those guidelines should help bridge the gap between the designer’s educational and working environment. On the basis of those guidelines, a project team of experts will develop a Design Training Program which should address the identified skills’ mismatch. Research was carried through online surveys and focus group interviews of three stakeholders’ groups: Design Professionals, Design Professors, and Business Actors with the intention to obtain their opinion on the quality and relevancy of knowledge, skills and competencies which designers acquire during their education, as well as their opinion on the potential current mismatch of the skills which designers obtain in their formal education and skills needed in their current and future practice. Therefore in the first chapter, the purpose and methodology of the research were explained. In the second, third and fourth chapter, results from the surveys and focus groups conducted in all three countries were presented. The fifth chapter refers to the comparative analysis of the results of the overall research. [144] [145] 1 PURPOSE AND METHODOLOGY specific, judgment/nonprobability sampling based on research- OF RESEARCH ers’ knowledge and professional judgment was used as a sampling technique. The data base of three vocational designers’ organizations which conducted the research – designaustria, Croatian Designers’ Association and Public Room were used as a sample frame. THE MAIN PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT The main purpose of the research was to acquire informa- In an attempt to address the content validity of the survey tion about a possible mismatch between knowledge, skills and instrument, there were 3 stages of development and revision of competencies that design students obtain through their formal the questionnaires used in this research: 1) Generating the pre- education and those ones that are most demanding in real life liminary list of questions from literature reviews and research- practice. In order to get the opinion from more stakeholders: ers’ experience, 2) Developing the pilot Questionnaire which from Design Professionals, Design Professors, and Business was administered to Focus groups, (3) Constructing the Final Actors, three separate questionnaires have been designed and Questionnaire which was administered in the Survey based on three separate surveys in each country were conducted. In the data collected through the Pilot Questionnaire. In designing addition, in each country interviews with Focus groups with the the questions, a combination of structured and unstructured above-mentioned stakeholders groups were conducted. Since questions was used. Respondents had a choice to select between the surveys from business actors groups didn’t achieve relevant presented answers and an option to write their own answers if response rate valid enough to draw objective conclusions, for they were not satisfied with the offered options. Dichotomous this stakeholder group only interviews with the Focus groups questions, ordinal questions, Likert scaling questions and filter were presented. or contingency question were used. METHOD AND SAMPLING For the purpose of data collection, and data analysis, a descriptive research approach was used. The mixed method approach consisting of a cross sectional online survey and semi- structured interviews with the Focus groups was used in order to produce more well-rounded data and conclusions. Online surveys and three focus group interviews were simultaneously conducted in three countries: Austria, Croatia and Macedonia. When the problem is specific, respondents which could give answers about that problem are also defined by specific criteria. Therefore, since the subject of this research is 1 Purpose and Methodology of Research 1 [146] Purpose and Methodology of Research [147] 2 DESIGN PROFESSIONALS: SURVEY RESULTS — For respondents with an MA degree competencies related to Dublin-competencies framework which cover: a) knowledge of and insight into the profession as a foundation of the ability for an original development or application of ideas, often within the framework of a research, b) application of knowledge and insight in a broader or multidisciplinary context, as a capability to SURVEy RESEARCH deal with complex matter; c) formation of judgment in The questionnaire for this survey was created for young the sense of the capability to form a judgment based on professionals with a degree in product design. Accordingly, incomplete or limited information, taking into account there were respectively 85 questions and sub-questions defined social and ethical responsibilities, d) communication where 40 questions were in relation to different knowledge, in sense to be able to convey conclusions in a clear and skills and competencies. This questionnaire contained four unequivocal way to specialist or non-specialist audiences, groups of questions that relate to the following topics: e) lifelong learning ability in sense to be able to continue The first group of questions included general informa- with education that is characterized by self-activation or tion related to the respondents’ educational and professional its autonomous nature. The Dublin descriptors frame- background, curriculum they attended in design school and work offers generic statements of typical expectations the time they spent in professional practice. of achievements and abilities associated with awards The second group of questions is related to respondents’ that represent the end of each of a (Bologna) cycle or professional design practice: their current employment status, level. The descriptors are phrased in terms of compe- their expectations in relation to employment/work during tence levels, not learning outcomes, and they enable to their education, their experience of meeting their first client, distinguish between the different cycles of education in their experience about their first project in terms of briefing, a broad and general manner. research, concept development, design development, clients’ — Skills concerning: 1. Design thinking and design process feedback, project implementation, communication and their (analytical thinking, task clarification, concept genera- expectations for further career development. tion, evaluation and refinement, critical thinking, design The third group of questions is related to design educa- synthesis, design methodology, other), 2. Visualizing tion regarding the respondents’ level of satisfaction with fol- skills (sketching, 3D modelling, model making, product lowing groups of skills and competencies which they acquired/ development, manufacturing, other), 3. Design manage- not acquired through their formal education: ment: communication of results, managing design action, — Skills related to specific phases of the working process: ability to take initiative, ability to organize work, ability research and analyses, concept development, design skills, to manage people, overall skill displayed in execution of oral and visual presentation skills, communication skills, process, entrepreneurship skills, other). the capacity to grow and innovate, managerial skills. 2 Design Professionals: Sur vey Results 2 Design Professionals: Sur vey Results [148] [149] Also there are the questions about the respondents’ sat- Respondents were asked if they had a chance to have an intern- isfaction with the professional attitude they acquired through ship/apprenticeship with a company during their studies. How formal education concerning: expert behaviour in dealing with useful was the internship/apprenticeship for their professional and handling of the design problem, dedication and motiva- career? Was internship/apprenticeship an obligatory part of tion to be a good designer, knowledge acquisition and man- their study programme? Did they think that internship/appren- aging task, teamwork and the ability to run the task smoothly, ticeship should become an integral part of design education? time management, and responsibility of the outcomes. Also At the end of the questionnaire, respondents were asked respondents were asked about their satisfaction with the spe- to describe what were the most valuable experiences acquired cific knowledge they acquired through the education process in during their collaboration with the business sector in general, relation to: knowledge of history and theory of design, knowl- and to add anything important in their opinion, related to the edge in sustainability, and knowledge of the involvement of the topic of collaboration between designers and the business design profession in the socio-economic flows. Furthermore, sector. there are the questions relating to the respondents’ level of satisfaction with their preparation for a professional career Since the group of questions pertaining to the level of the regarding the: acquisition of skills needed in a professional Design Professionals’ satisfaction with acquired knowledge, career, extent to which their course was practice-oriented, infor- skills, competencies during their formal education are struc- mation on career opportunities, contact with the professional tured on the basis of Likert-type scale, with two types of five world, and information about independent professional work ordered response levels: (a) 1- poorly, 2-moderately, 3-fairly, (administration, tax, setting rates, etc.). Respondents were 4-well, 5-very well; b) 1-very unsatisfied, 2-unsatisfied, 3-neu- also asked: How they acquired additional competencies after tral, 4-satisfied, 5-very satisfied, for the purpose of this analysis finishing studies? Do they think that additional competencies two opposite levels of satisfaction: the High Level of Satisfac- should have been taught in school? How, during the study, they tion and High level of Dissatisfaction were determined. Their presented their final projects? Did they have a chance in their scores are equal or above 50% (= 50% > ) of total percentages of design school to work on projects or assignments for clients well and very well statements, and total percentages of poor and (either industrial or artisan production)? And from their point moderate statements concerning each topic. In other words the of view how useful were those projects or assignments for their middle level on the scale (3-fairly, and 3-neutral) was excluded professional development, and what their level of satisfaction in order to generate results for the High Level of Satisfaction with them was? Respondents were also asked what was the and Dissatisfaction. best model for acquiring basic design skills and competencies. Finally respondents were asked to evaluate their design education, and to indicate their overall satisfaction with the school/s they attended. The fourth group of questions was related to the matter of internship/apprenticeship in design education institutions. [150] 2 Design Professionals: Sur vey Results 2 Design Professionals: Sur vey Results [151] 2.1 CROATIAN RESULTS project without any difficulty, and 56% of them stated that their communication with client was more or less on a good level. In Croatia, a total of 45 questionnaires were collected, with Based on the results of the survey, a total of 21 knowl- the response rate of 39%. In regard to gender, 23% of the edge, skills and competencies with which designers are highly respondents were male, and 77% were female. In regard to satisfied can be identified, and 5 of them with which they are their educational and professional background, 40% of the highly dissatisfied (See Table 1. below). respondents had finished a 5-year Bologna graduate program, 40% had finished the Pre-Bologna study program, and others had a Bologna bachelor degree. Most of them have worked as professionals for the last 5 years (38%), and (33%) for the last 10 years. The majority of them (66%) did not maintain contact with their faculties and 42% of them said that the main reason for that was that their former schools were not opened for projects with alumni students. Half of the respondents were self-employed/freelancers, while the others were self-employed as owners of design companies (18%), as in-house designers with fixed term or open ended contract (18%), and the rest of them were unemployed, or employed in some other way. In regard to their expectations in relation to employment after finishing their education, most of them wanted to establish their own design studio/company (41%) and to work as freelancers 20%. The largest percentage of the respondents met their Table 1.1 Knowledge, Skills and Competencies with which Croatian Design Professionals are Highly Satisfied (= 50% > of Well and Ver y well or Satisfied and Ver y satisfied statements) Working process skills Research and analyses Concept development Design skills The capacity to grow and innovate 56% 61% 59% 53% Design thinking and design process skills Analytical thinking Task clarification Concept generation Evaluation and refinement Critical thinking Design synthesis Design methodology 78% 78% 75% 62% 66% 61% 51% Visualizing skills Model making 52% first client through their family and friends (24%), and 24% of them with help from their design school network. In regard to Acquired professional attitude Dedication and motivation to be a good designer Knowledge acquisition and managing tasks Responsibility of the outcomes Knowledge of histor y and theor y of design Dublin descriptors Knowledge of and insight into the profession Application of knowledge and insight Formation of judgment Communication Learning skills 57% 66% 53% 66% 52% 53% 69% 61% 64% respondents’ experience in their first project briefing 55% of them said that the client did not provide them with a well written and professional brief. In regard to their experience with the research for their first project, 21% of them stated that they had enough time and resources to make a good design research and 37% said that they did not. With regard to the feedback that respondents got from their first client, 47% of them more or less think that the client’s feedback was useful. In relation to their experience with the project implementation, 49% of Table 1.2 Knowledge, Skills and Competencies with which Croatian Design Professionals are Highly Dissatisfied (= 50%> of Poorly and Moderately or Unsatisfied and Ver y unsatisfied statements) Working process skills Managerial competencies 69% Visualizing skills 3D modeling Manufacturing 50% 58% Design management skills Ability to manage people Entrepreneurship them stated that they implemented their first professional 2 2 Design Professionals: Sur vey Results Design Professionals: Sur vey Results [153] [152] 62% 65% With regard to all other knowledge, skills and compe- obtained knowledge of sustainability. In case of knowledge tencies, the respondents are generally satisfied, which for the of involvement of the design profession in the socio-economic purpose of this analysis is the level of satisfaction generated flows, 44% of the respondents were poorly and moderately as sum of fairly, well and very well statements equal or above satisfied, 32% of them were fairly satisfied, and 23% were well 50% (= 50% >). and very well satisfied. For example, in respect to working process skills, the With regard to the respondents’ level of satisfaction respondents are generally satisfied with their oral and visual with their preparation for professional career, results show presentation skills and communication skills, but not that much that the respondents are mostly satisfied with the acquisition as they are with other skills, since the largest number of them of skills needed in a professional career where 44% of them stated that they regarded these skills as fairly satisfied (36% are satisfied and very satisfied. As for the satisfaction of the and 33% respectively). With respect to visualizing skills, results respondents with the extent to which their course was prac- show that designers are generally satisfied with sketching and tice-oriented, 43% of them were satisfied and very satisfied. product development skills, but in case of product development Regarding the question of the respondents’ contact with the there are also a large percentage of more or less dissatisfied professional world during their education 42% were generally respondents. In regard to design management abilities results not satisfied, and just 19% of them were satisfied and very show that respondents are generally satisfied with communica- satisfied. Even a larger rate of dissatisfaction was in regard to tion of results, managing design action, ability to take initiative, the information about carrier opportunities where more than ability to organize work and ability to display their overall half of the respondents (58%) were more or less unsatisfied. But skills during the execution of the design process. In regard to the highest rate of dissatisfaction was the one relating to their those skills and abilities, the largest number of the respondents design school’s offer of information about independent pro- answered that they are fairly satisfied, but also a large number fessional work (administration, tax, setting rates, etc.), where of them are dissatisfied. Regarding the questions of respond- 50% of respondent were very unsatisfied and 29% of them were ents’ satisfaction with the professional attitude they acquired unsatisfied, which makes a total of almost 80% more or less through formal education, the respondents were satisfied with dissatisfied respondents. the acquired expert behaviour in dealing with and handling of The largest number of respondents (44%) acquired addi- the design problem, with their teamwork ability and ability tional competencies in their workplace and through working to run the task smoothly, and with time management with process, and 76% of them thought that additional competencies which most of the respondents where fairly satisfied. Regard- should have been taught in school. The largest percentage of ing the respondents’ satisfaction with the specific knowledge respondents (46%) said that they presented their final school they acquired during their education in case of the knowledge project through drawing and sometimes in addition to that in sustainability the results were mixed, since 34% of them they produced a model. The majority of the respondents (63%) answered that they are fairly satisfied, 34% of them answered stated that they had a chance to work on projects or assign- that they are poorly or moderately satisfied, and 31% of them ments for clients during their regular design education and answered that they are well or very well satisfied with the 56% of them believed that it was a very useful experience for 2 2 Design Professionals: Sur vey Results Design Professionals: Sur vey Results [154] [155] their professional development. Also 79% of them agreed that 2.2 AUSTRIAN RESULTS real-life projects offer structure and organization for students in terms of time management, and 87% of them believe that real- In Austria a total of 25 questionnaires were collected, with life projects offer more potential for learning new skills, espe- the response rate of 23%. With regard to gender, 60% of the cially cross-sectorial skills. The largest percentage of designers respondents were female, and 40% were male. The largest per- (87%) thought that real-life projects were worthwhile because centage of respondents (41,7%) had finished the Pre-Bologna they lead to production of prototypes and have the potential study program, 17% of them had finished a 5-year Bologna to be placed on the market, which is a good reference for a graduate program, 17% had a Bologna bachelor degree and student. The highest percentage of designers (43%) considers the rest of them had finished some alternative educational the Bologna graduate five year program (3 + 2) to be the best program. The majority were professionally engaged for the model for acquiring basic design skills and competencies, and last 10 years (64%). Most of them (56%) maintained the contact 40% of them thought that that was the Pre-Bologna study pro- with their faculties. gram. Regarding the questions about schools conditions for In regard to the questions related to their professional internship/apprenticeship, the largest number of Croatian design practice, the largest number of the respondents (33%) was respondents (66%) did not have a chance to have an internship/ self-employed/freelancers, while the others were self-employed apprenticeship with a company during their studies, and they as owners of design companies (18%). 33% of the respondents believe (100%) that it was generally useful for the professional worked as in-house designers with a fixed term or open ended career. 84% of them stated that internship/apprenticeship was contract and the rest of them were employed in some other way. not an obligatory part of their study program, and 82% believed In regard to their expectations in relation to employment after that it should become an integral part of design education. The finishing their education, the largest percentage of them (22%) survey results reveal that 53% of the Croatian Design Profes- wanted to have a job with a design studio, and 29% of them sionals are generally satisfied with their education, while 31% wanted to work as freelancers, individually or with a team. The largest number of the respondents (31%) met their of them declared themselves neutral on this issue. Only 11% of them stated that they are more or less unsatisfied. first client through their family and friends, and 25% through job applications and portfolio presentations. With regard to the respondents’ experience in their first project briefing, 46% of them said that the client did not provide them a very well written and professional brief. In respect to their experience with research for their first project 47% of them stated that they did not have enough time and resources to make a good design research, and 35% of them said that they did. With regard to the feedback that respondents got from their first client, 43% of them more or less agreed that the client’s feedback was useful. In regard to their experience with project implementation 43% 2 2 Design Professionals: Sur vey Results [156] Design Professionals: Sur vey Results [157] of them stated that they, more or less, implemented their first With regard to all other knowledge, skills and compe- professional project without no difficulty, and 45% of them tencies, the respondents are generally satisfied (sum of fairly, stated that their communication with client was, more or less, well and very well statements = 50% >). Results of the survey show that in regard to the working on a good level. Based on the results of the survey, a total of 11 knowl- process skills, the Austrian designers are generally satisfied edge, skills and competencies with which designers were highly with the following acquired skills: research and analyses, con- satisfied can be identified, and 6 of them with which they were cept development, design skills; oral and visual presentation highly dissatisfied (See Table 2. below). skills, communication skills and with the capacity to grow and innovate. In case of the capacity to innovate and grow, given that a large percentage of designers also stated that they are more or less dissatisfied (48%), there is certainly a room for improvement of this ability through the education process. In Table 2.1 Knowledge, Skills and Competencies with which Austrian Design Professionals are Highly Satisfied (= 50%> of Well and Ver y well or Satisfied and Ver y satisfied statements) Dublin descriptors Application of knowledge and insight Formation of judgment Communication Lifelong learning Design thinking and design process skills Analytical thinking Task clarification Concept generation Critical thinking 54% 54% 54% 64% all the competencies except the one related to knowledge of Visualizing skills Sketching 52% Design management skills Communication of the results 50% Acquired professional attitude Knowledge acquisition and managing tasks regard to the Dublin descriptors’ framework, the results of the survey showed that the respondents are highly satisfied with and insight into the profession that offers a foundation from which a student can make an original contribution to the development or application of ideas, often within the framework of a research. In regard to this knowledge, they are generally satisfied (36.4% of them stated that they are well or very well 53% 70% 57% 52% 62% satisfied, 27.2% of them are fairly satisfied, while 36.4% of them are generally dissatisfied). In respect to design thinking and design process skills, respondents are generally satisfied with evaluation and refinement and design synthesis skill. As for visualizing skills, results Table 2.2 Knowledge, Skills and Competencies with which Austrian Design Professionals are Highly Dissatisfied (= 50% > of Poorly and Moderately or Unsatisfied and Ver y unsatisfied statements) Working process skills Managerial competencies Design thinking and design process skills Design methodology 61% show that the respondents are generally satisfied with model making, product development and manufacturing skills. In the case of model making and manufacturing, the large percentage Design management skills Ability to manage people Entrepreneurship Overall skill displayed in execution process 50% Specific knowledge Knowledge in sustainability 56% 62% 68% 57% of designers also declared that they are more or less dissatisfied (45% and 40% of them respectively). In regard to design management abilities, respondents are generally satisfied with the level of the acquired ability to manage design action (42% of poor and moderate statements), ability to take initiative and ability to organize work. 2 Design Professionals: Sur vey Results 2 Design Professionals: Sur vey Results [159] [158] In case of the ability to manage design action a large number their workplace and working process, and that 78% of them of the respondents also answered that they are more or less thought that additional competencies should have been taught dissatisfied (42%). Respondents were also generally satisfied in school. On the question: How did they visually present with the acquired professional attitude in relation to expert their final school projects? 31% answered that they did that behaviour in dealing with and handling of the design problem, through well designed drawings (3D rendering, illustration), with their teamwork ability and ability to run the task smoothly, 31% answered that they sometimes produced a model in addi- their dedication and motivation to be a good designer, with tion to the drawing, and 32% of them said that they always time management and with their responsibility for outcomes. produced either a functional model or a prototype. Also, the In respect to the time management ability, there was also a largest percentage of respondents (65%) said that the workshop large percentage of unsatisfied respondents, thus it is a mat- fulfilled its purpose for delivering well-produced models and ter which Austrian design education institutions should pay prototypes, and 53% of them said that they had a chance to more attention to. Regarding the respondents’ satisfaction work on projects or assignments for clients during their regular with specific knowledge they acquired during their education, design education. Furthermore, 58% of them stated that it was results showed that respondents were generally satisfied with a very useful experience for their professional development. their knowledge of history and theory of design, and with Also, 83% of the respondents believed that real-life projects the knowledge of involvement of the design profession in the offer structure and organization for students in terms of time socio-economic flows. management, and 64% of them believed that real-life projects With regard to the respondents’ level of satisfaction offer more potential for learning new skills, especially the with their preparation for a professional career, results show cross-sectorial skills. The majority of them thought (70%) that the respondents are mostly satisfied with the contact with that real-life projects were worthwhile because they led to the professional world during their education (55%) and with production of prototypes and had the potential to be placed the acquisition of skills needed in a professional career (47%). on the market, which is a good reference for students. The As for the satisfaction of the respondents with the extent to highest percentage of respondents (38%) considers the Bologna which their course was practice-oriented, 44% of them are graduate five-year-program (3 + 2) to be the best model for more or less satisfied, and 39% are more or less dissatisfied. acquiring the basic design skills and competencies, and 30% Regarding respondents’ level of satisfaction with information of them thought that that was the Pre-Bologna study program. about carrier opportunities provided during their education Regarding the questions about schools’ conditions for process, 53% of the respondents are generally dissatisfied. But internship/apprenticeship, the largest number of Austrian the highest rate of dissatisfaction is the one relating to their Design Professionals (83%) had a chance for internship/ design schools’ offer of information about independent pro- apprenticeship with a company during their studies, and they fessional work (administration, tax, setting rates, etc.), where believe (100%) that it was generally useful for their profes- 63% of respondent were generally unsatisfied. sional career. Also, 73% of them had internship/apprenticeship Results showed that the largest percentage of respond- activities as an obligatory part of their study program, and ents (39%) acquired additional skills and competencies through 93% of them believed that it should become an integral part 2 2 Design Professionals: Sur vey Results [160] Design Professionals: Sur vey Results [161] of design education. The results of the survey show that 65% that that the client did not provide them a very well written of respondents are generally satisfied with their education, and professional brief. In regard with their experience with the while 17% of them declared themselves neutral on this issue. research for their first project, 47% of them stated that they Only 18% of them stated that they are more or less unsatisfied. had enough time and resources to make a good design research. With regard to the feedback that respondents got from their first client, 53% of them more or less think that client’s feedback was useful. In regard to their experience with the project 2.3 MACEDONIAN RESULTS implementation, 55% of them stated that they implemented their first professional project without any difficulty, and 62% In Macedonia a total of 34 questionnaires were collected, of them stated that their communication with client was more with the response rate of 68%. In regard to gender, 74% of the or less on a good level. Based on the results of the survey, total of 17 knowledge, respondents were female, and 26% were male. The largest percentage of the respondents (32.4%) had finished the 5-year-Bo- skills and competencies with which designers were highly sat- logna graduate program, 23.5% of them finished the Pre-Bolo- isfied can be identified, and 6 of them with which they were gna study program, 26.5% had a Bologna bachelor degree and highly dissatisfied. (See Table 3 below). the rest of them finished some alternative educational program. With regard to all other knowledge, skills and compe- The majority of them have been professionally engaged for tencies, the respondents are generally satisfied (sum of fairly, the last 5 years (50%). Most of them (56%) did not preserve well and very well statements = 50% >). any contacts with their faculties, and as main reason for that, For example, in respect to working process skills, the the largest percentage of them stated that it was because the respondents are generally satisfied with the communication school/school network was not opened towards projects with skills and their capacity to grow and innovate. As for the Dub- alumni students. The majority of the respondents (56%) work lin descriptors’ framework respondents are generally satisfied as in- house designers with fixed term or open ended contract, with the application of knowledge and insight into the profes- 6% of them are self-employed/freelancers, while the others are sion and formation of judgment. In respect to design thinking self-employed as owners of design companies (17%), unem- and design process skills designers are generally satisfied with ployed (12%) or employed in some other way (9%). In regard evaluation and refinement, design synthesis and design meth- to their expectations in relation to employment after finishing odology skills, in regard to which the largest percentage of their education, the largest percentage of them (28%) wanted to respondents stated that they are fairly satisfied. With regard to establish their own design studio/company, and 23% of them visualizing skills, results showed that designers were generally wanted to have a job with a design studio. satisfied with 3D modelling, model making, product develop- The largest percentage of the respondents met their first ment, and manufacturing skills. In case of manufacturing skills client through their employer (26%), through family and friends there is also a large percentage of unsatisfied respondents (46%). (23%), and through social networks (22%). In regard to respond- With respect to design management abilities, respondents are ents’ experience in their first project briefing, 40% of them said generally satisfied with the communication of results, ability 2 2 Design Professionals: Sur vey Results Design Professionals: Sur vey Results [162] [163] to take initiative, and ability to organize work. In regard to Regarding the questions about respondents’ satisfaction with mentioned abilities there is also a large percentage of more or the professional attitude they acquired through formal educa- less dissatisfied respondents. tion, the respondents are generally satisfied with the acquired expert behaviour in dealing with and handling of the design problem, and with their teamwork ability and ability to run the task smoothly. Regarding the respondents’ satisfaction with specific knowledge they acquired during their education they are generally satisfied with the knowledge of involvement of the design profession in the socio-economic flows. With regard to the respondents’ level of satisfaction with Table 3.1 Knowledge, Skills and Competencies with which Macedonian Design Professionals are Highly satisfied (= 50% > of Well and Ver y well or Satisfied and Ver y satisfied statements) Working process skills Research and analyses Concept development Design skills Oral and visual presentation skills Dublin descriptors Communication Learning skills Design thinking and design process skills Analytical thinking Task clarification Concept generation Critical thinking 62% 69% 54% 59% 50% 66% 59% 54% 55% 54% Visualizing skills Sketching Professional attitude skill Knowledge acquisition and managing them Teamwork and the ability to run the task smoothly Time management Responsibility for the outcomes Specific knowledge Knowledge of histor y and theor y of design Knowledge in sustainability their preparation for a professional career regarding the acquisition of skills needed in a professional career, the extent to which their course was practice-oriented, information on career opportunities, contact with the professional world and informa- 54% tion about independent professional work (administration, tax, setting rates, etc.), the results showed that Macedonian Design 54% 65% 60% Professionals are highly dissatisfied with their preparation for a professional career during their education since on average, a 55% of them regarding each of the above topic stated that they are very unsatisfied and unsatisfied. 64% The majority of Macedonian Design Professionals acquired additional competencies in their workplace and 52% 62% through working process, and 91% of them thought that additional competencies should have been taught in school. The biggest number of designers (56%) presented their final school project through well designed drawing (3D rendering, illustration). The largest percentage of respondents (37.5%) said that Table 3.2 Knowledge, Skills and Competencies with which Croatian Design Professionals are Highly dissatisfied (=50% > of Poorly and Moderately or Ver y unsatisfied and Unsatisfied statements) they did not have a modelling workshop in their design school, and 58% of them said that during their regular design education Working process skills Managerial competencies Dublin competencies Knowledge of and insight into the profession 2 58% 50% Design management skills Managing design action Ability to manage people Overall skill displayed in execution of process Entrepreneurship skills 52% 52% 52% 58% they did not had a chance to work on projects or assignments for clients. Those ones who during their regular education had a chance to work on projects for real client thought that it was a very useful experience for their professional development. 2 Design Professionals: Sur vey Results [164] Design Professionals: Sur vey Results [165] Almost all Macedonian designers (91%) agreed that real- 3 DESIGN PROFESSORS: SURVEY RESULTS life projects offer structure and organization for students in terms of time management, and all of them (100%) believe that real-life projects offer more potential for learning new skills, especially the cross-sectorial skills. The majority of the respondents (67%) thought that real-life projects were worthwhile because they led to production of prototypes and had the potential to be placed on the market, which is a good reference SURVEy RESEARCH for any student. The highest percentage of respondents (52%) The questionnaire for this survey was created for Design considered the Bologna graduate five-year-program (3 + 2) to Professors who teach in Croatian, Austrian and Macedonian be the best model for acquiring the basic design skills and com- design schools. Questionnaire consisted of the 74 questions petencies. Regarding the questions about schools’ conditions and sub-questions where 40 questions concerned different for internship/apprenticeship, the largest number of respond- knowledge, skills and competencies, the same as in the design- ents (75%) had a chance for an internship/apprenticeship with er’s questionnaire. This questionnaire contained six groups of a company during their studies, and they believe (87%) that questions that relate to the following topics: this practice was generally useful for their professional career. The first group of questions included general information The majority of them (67%) had internship/apprenticeship about design schools’ collaboration experience with the busi- activities as an obligatory part of their study program, and 92% ness sector such as the schools’ cooperation with the business of them believe that internship/apprenticeship should become sector on real-life projects, intensity of collaboration, types of an integral part of the design education. Results of the survey organizations or companies with which design schools coop- show that the largest percentages of designers (78%) are more erate, cooperation with organizations. or less satisfied with their education. The second group of questions is related to design schools’ models of cooperation with the business sector. The main purpose of those questions was to generate information about the most commonly used models of cooperation between design schools and the business sector, scholars’ opinion on the most successful models of cooperation and about the implementation of those models in the formal design curriculum. Also, Design Professors were asked about the efficiency of the working process organization during the collaboration projects, and about the extent of the multidisciplinary approach in realization of these projects. The third group of questions is related to collaboration projects outcomes. Respondents were asked about the extent 2 Design Professionals: Sur vey Results [166] 3 Design Professors: Sur vey Results [167] to which the collaboration projects with the business sector levels, not learning outcomes, and they enable to dis- were developed, how they were produced, whether they were tinguish in a broad and general manner between the different cycles of education. commercialized, as well as about the students’ benefits from the collaboration/s on projects with the business sector in — Skills concerning: 1. Design thinking and design process terms of acquired knowledge, skills, or benefits of other kinds. (analytical thinking, task clarification, concept genera- The fourth group of questions is related to design edu- tion, evaluation and refinement, critical thinking, design cation regarding the design scholars’ level of satisfaction with synthesis, design methodology); 2. Visualizing skills the following groups of knowledge, skills and competencies (sketching, 3D modelling, model making, product devel- which design education institutions provide for students during opment, manufacturing); 3. Design management (com- their process of formal education: munication of results, managing design action, ability to — Skills in regard to specific phases of the working process: take initiative, ability to organize work, ability to manage research and analyses, concept development, design skills, people, overall skills displayed in execution of process, oral and visual presentation skills, communicative skills, entrepreneurship skills); 4. Professional attitude skills the capacity to grow and innovate, managerial skills. (expert behaviour in dealing with and handling of the — Master course programs’ competence outcomes related design problem, dedication and motivation to be a good to Dublin-competencies framework which cover: a) designer, knowledge acquisition and task management, knowledge of and insight into the profession as a foun- teamwork and the ability to run the task smoothly, time dation of the ability for an original development or appli- management, responsibility of the outcomes). cation of ideas, often within the framework of a research, 3 b) application of knowledge and insight in a broader or The fifth group of question is related to the matter of intern- multidisciplinary context, as a capability to deal with the ship/apprenticeship and alumni network in design education complex matter, c) formation of judgment in the sense of institutions. At the end of the questionnaire Design Professors the capability to form a judgment based on incomplete were asked to describe what was their most valuable experience or limited information, taking into account social and acquired during collaboration with the business sector, and to ethical responsibilities, d) communication in the sense to add anything they think is also important regarding this issue. be able to convey conclusions in a clear and unequivocal Since the group of questions pertaining to the level of way to specialist or non-specialist audiences, e) lifelong the Design Professors’ satisfaction with the acquired knowl- learning ability in the sense to be able to continue with edge, skills, competencies during their formal education are education that is characterized by self-activation or its structured on the basis of Likert-type scale, with two types autonomous nature. The Dublin competence frame- of five ordered response levels: (a) 1- poorly, 2-moderately, work offers generic statements of typical expectations 3-fairly, 4-well, 5-very well; b) 1-very unsatisfied, 2-unsatisfied, of achievements and abilities associated with awards that 3-neutral, 4-satisfied, 5-very satisfied, for the purpose of this represent the end of each (of the Bologna) cycle or level. analysis two opposite levels of satisfaction: the High Level of The descriptors are phrased in terms of competence Satisfaction and High level of Dissatisfaction were determined. Design Professors: Sur vey Results 3 [168] Design Professors: Sur vey Results [169] Their scores are equal or above 50% (= 50% >) of total percent- that regular semester assignments were the most successful ages of well and very well statements, and total percentages of models of cooperation, and that in regard to undergraduate poor and moderate statements concerning each topic. In other studies they mainly conducted that project in the third year words the middle level on the scale (3-fairly, and 3-neutral) (50%), and in respect to graduate studies they usually conducted was excluded in order to generate results for the High Level them in the first year of study (79%). Results showed that the of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction. models of cooperation with the business sector on real life projects were not implemented into formal design curriculum in all institutions since 44% of the professors said that they were implemented, and 44% that they were not. As for the ways of 3.1 CROATIAN RESULTS organizing the working processes the most common (50%) and efficient way (60%) was that each student works individually on In Croatia, the total number of potential respondents in this a single brief for the client. In regard to the multidisciplinary survey was directly related to the total number of professors approach to these projects most of the respondents said that who teach in the field of product design and which in the case students from other disciplines were engaged on some of the of Croatia, as well as in other countries, is generally small. The projects and that they were mostly (57%) from the field of archi- respondents from Croatia teach design or industrial design tecture. Results showed that the usual phase of the working courses on five different Croatian educational institutions. A process when the client was involved in the project was the total of 10 questionnaires were collected, with the response phase of writing a brief (19%), consulting (19%) and product rate of 63%. In regard to gender, 50% of the respondents were development activities (19%). During collaboration projects students were usually introduced to technological production male, and 50% were female. The results of the survey showed that educational insti- processes through organized visits to the production facilities. tutions for the purpose of students practical design education Results also showed that students, depending on the type of carry out collaboration with the business sector on real-life pro- the project, generally actively communicated and consulted the jects. Most of them have been collaborating with the business client and their employees during the collaboration projects, sector for more than 11 years, and the average length of those and that they usually communicated with the engineers and projects was from one to five months. The major percentage the business people. of institutions collaborated with production companies. In regard to the outcomes of the collaboration projects In regard to the models of cooperation with the business results of survey showed that project outputs come in the form sector, the major percentage of the respondents (63%) said of visual presentation (20%), product specification (10%), func- that cooperation with the external sector was initiated by their tional model (10%), prototype (20%) and brand (10%). As for institutions, and that the most common form of implementation the prototypes, they were usually produced by school workshop of these projects was through regular semester assignments facilities (33%), by clients which financed and produced the (33%), workshops (29%), and student competitions with or prototype in their own production facility, (33%) or outside of without mentor assistance (33%). Also, 40% of them thought their production facility (33%). Most of the professors (70%) 3 3 Design Professors: Sur vey Results [170] Design Professors: Sur vey Results [171] stated that many of the products that were the result of cooper- With regard to all other knowledge, skills and compe- ation with the business sector are placed on the market. From tencies, the respondents are generally satisfied (sum of fairly, professors’ opinion the major areas in which the students had well and very well statements = 50% >). benefited from the collaboration projects with the business For example, in respect to the working process skills, sector was the technical knowledge (60%) and obtaining ref- Croatian professors are generally satisfied with design skills, erences and contacts/network for further employment (20%). the students’ capacity to grow and innovate and managerial Based on the results of the survey a total of 22 knowledge, skills. In case of the first two mentioned skills, the largest skills and competencies with which Croatian Design Professors percentage of the professors are fairly satisfied, and in case of were highly satisfied can be identified, and none of them with managerial competencies besides the large percentage of fairly statements (40%), there was also a large percentage of generally which they were highly dissatisfied (see Table 4 below). dissatisfied respondents. This fact indicates that there is a considerable space for the education improvement regarding this skill. As for the Dublin-competencies, professors are highly satisfied with the students regarding all those competencies, except one related to the formation of judgment, with which Table 4. Knowledge, Skills and Competencies with which Croatian Design Professors are Highly Satisfied (= 50% > of Well and Ver y well or Satisfied and Ver y satisfied statements) Working process skills Research and analyses Concept development Oral and visual presentation skills Communicative skills Dublin descriptors Knowledge of and insight into the profession Application of knowledge and insight in to profession Communication Learning skills Design thinking and design process skills Analytical thinking Task clarification Concept generation Evaluation and refinement Design synthesis Design methodology 50% 70% 60% 60% professors were generally satisfied. In regard to design thinking and design process skills and abilities, only in the case of critical thinking professors are Visualizing skills Sketching 3D modeling Model making. 50% 87% 62% Design management skills Ability to take initiative 67% not highly, but generally satisfied with the developed ability of students regarding this issue (37.5% well and very well satisfied, 25% fairly and 37.5% dissatisfied). With respect to visualizing skills, professors are generally satisfied with students’ product development and manufacturing skills. In the case of product 57% 50% 57% 57% 62% 86% 62% 62% 50% 75% Professional attitude Exper t behavior in dealing and handling the design problem 62% Knowledge acquisition and managing tasks 50% development skills, the majority of the professors (57%) are fairly satisfied, and in case of the manufacturing skill, a large percentage of professors (43%) were generally dissatisfied. As for design management abilities, except for the ability Specific knowledge Knowledge of histor y and theor y of design Knowledge in sustainability to take initiative with which professors were highly satisfied, 62% 50% professors are generally satisfied with students’ abilities to communicate results, manage design action, organize work, manage people, displaying their overall skills in execution of process, and with their entrepreneurship skills. In respect to all those skills, professors fairly statements dominate in the total score of this question. Only in the case of entrepreneurship 3 [172]Design Professors: Sur vey Results 3 Design Professors: Sur vey Results [173] skill professors expressed a higher level of satisfaction (43% management and organizational skills. Another suggestion is of them well and very well, and 28.6% fairly satisfied) which that the Bologna system 3 + 2 should be extended by one year of is opposite from the Croatian Design Professionals’ opin- mandatory practice. Finally, one of the professors commented ion, who expressed a high level of dissatisfaction with this that from his/her experience, one program that unites good skill. Regarding students’ professional attitude, professors models in which students acquire design skills and competen- are only highly satisfied with students’ expert behaviour in cies simply does not exist. The professor emphasized that no dealing with and handling of the design problem and with educational system (either Bologna or before Bologna) pro- their knowledge acquisition and ability to manage the tasks. vides enough working hours (or ECTS) for teaching practical In regard to other attitudes and abilities, professors are fairly skills and knowledge. Finally, the results of the survey show satisfied with students’ dedication and motivation to become that 55% of the respondents are generally satisfied how design good designers (50%), their teamwork ability and ability to run education is conducted in their institutions. the task smoothly (62%), with their time management ability (62%), and with students’ attitude regarding responsibility for outcomes (43%). As to the professors’ satisfaction with provided specific knowledge, they were generally satisfied with the 3.2 AUSTRIAN RESULTS students’ knowledge of involvement of the design profession in the socio-economic flows, where 43% of them were fairly In Austria a total of 10 questionnaires were collected, with satisfied, and 29% were generally dissatisfied. the response rate of 33%. In regard to gender, 70% of the Regarding the questions about the conditions for intern- respondents were male, and 30% were female. Respondents ship/apprenticeship, which Croatian design high education from Austria are full time and part-time/external lecturers on institutions provide for design students, the results of the survey various design studies. showed that internship/apprenticeship was not an obligatory The results from the Austrian survey showed that educa- part of Croatian design study programs (87% of “NO” answers), tional institutions for the purpose of students’ practical training, but all professors (100%) believe that internship/ apprentice- collaborated with external organizations, and the majority ship should become an integral part of design education. In of them have conducted this kind of collaboration for more relation to the question about the best educational model for than 11 years. The average length of those projects is usually acquiring the basic design skills and competencies, 25% of them from one to five months. Regarding the type of organization believe that the Bologna 5-year-graduate program is the best with which respondents institutions usually collaborated, the program, 25% of them thought that the best educational model majority of the respondents (50%) said that their institutions is the Pre-Bologna study programme, while other 50% stated collaborated with all types of organizations; NGOs, inter- several alternative opinions such as that it should be a model est organisations, private companies, production and trading which will allow a wider selection of students during the first companies, cultural organisations, public transport, federal year, then three years of teaching basic design skills, then a government, public communities etc. year or two of practice and a year or two to acquire research, 3 Design Professors: Sur vey Results [174] 3 Design Professors: Sur vey Results [175] In regard to the models of cooperation with the business project outputs mostly come in the form of visual presentation sector, the major percentage of the respondents (67%) said that (62%). As for the prototypes, they are usually produced by cooperation was initiated by the external organisations/com- school workshop facilities (67%). Half of the respondents stated panies, and that the most common form of implementation of that many of the products that were the result of cooperation these projects is through student competition without mentor with the business sector were placed on the market. From the assistance (38%), and through regular semester assignment professors’ opinion, the major areas in which students have (38%). Most of the professors (50%) thought that students’ com- benefited from the collaboration projects with the business petition is the most successful model of cooperation, and that sector are ones concerning obtaining references (37%), strategic in the case of undergraduate studies they mainly implement development (25%), and contacts for further employment (12%). them in the second and third year, and in the case of graduate Based on the results of the survey, a total of 20 knowl- studies they usually did that in the first year of the study. The edge, skills and competencies with which Austrian Design results showed that most institutions at which the respondents Professors are highly satisfied can be identified, and 4 of them taught, implemented the mentioned models of collaboration with which they are highly dissatisfied (See Table 5.). with the external sector as part of their formal curriculum. As for ways of organizing the working process on collaboration projects, the most common (62%) and efficient way (52%) is that each student works individually on a single brief for the client. In regard to the multidisciplinary approach to these projects, most of the respondents said that students from other disciplines were engaged on some of the projects and that they came equally from the field of Engineering, Business, IT, and Art. Results showed that the usual phase of the working process when the client was involved is the project phase of writing a brief (42%), and the presentation of the final product (26%). During collaboration projects students were usually introduced to technological production processes through visual presentation (44, 4%) and through talks with clients (22%). Results also showed that students, depending from the type of the project, generally actively communicated and consulted the client and their employees during the collaboration projects, and that they usually communicated with the engineers and the business people. In regard to the outcomes of the collaboration projects of Table 5.1 Knowledge, Skills and Competencies with which Austrian Design Professors are Highly Satisfied (= 50% or > of Well and Ver y well statement) (Satisfied and Ver y satisfied) Working process skills Research and analyses Concept development Design skills Communicative skills Dublin descriptors Knowledge of and insight into the profession Application of knowledge and insight Formation of judgment Design thinking and design process skills Analytical thinking Task clarification Critical thinking Design synthesis Design methodology 62% 62% 71% 62% 50% 60% 50% 50% 62% 62% 50% 50% Austrian design schools, the results of the survey showed that 3 Design Professors: Sur vey Results [176] 3 [177] Design Professors: Sur vey Results Visualizing skills Sketching Model making 62% 50% Design management skills Communication of results 62% Professional attitude Dedication and motivation to be a good designer Knowledge acquisition and managing them Teamwork and the ability to run the task smoothly 62% Specific knowledge Knowledge of histor y and theor y of design Knowledge in sustainability 50% 62% 75% 50% handling the design problem, students’ time management abilTable 5.2 Knowledge, Skills and Competencies with which Austrian Design Professors are Highly Dissatisfied (= 50% or > of Poorly and Moderately statement) (Unsatisfied and Ver y unsatisfied) Visualizing skills Product development Manufacturing 50% 50% Design management skills Ability to manage people Entrepreneurship ity and their responsibility for the outcomes. As to the professors’ satisfaction with provided specific knowledge, they were generally satisfied with the knowledge of involvement of the 50% 50% design profession in the socio-economic flows, where 25% of them were fairly satisfied, and 38% were generally dissatisfied. Regarding the questions about conditions for internship/apprenticeship, which Austrian design high education institutions provide for their students, the results of the survey With regard to all other knowledge, skills and competencies, showed that internship/apprenticeship is an obligatory part of the respondents are generally satisfied (sum of fairly, well and design study programs (71% of “YES” answers), and professors very well statements = 50% >). generally believe that internship/apprenticeship should become For example, Austrian Design Professors are generally an integral part of design education. The largest number of pro- satisfied with the students’ managerial competencies and capac- fessors (86%) stated that their institutions have alumni network. ity of students to innovate and grow, but mostly on a fairly In relation to the question about the best education model for level (40% and 37% respectively). Also in respect to those two acquiring the basic design skills and competencies, 43% of competencies there were a large percentage of professors who them believe that the Bologna 5-year-graduate program is the were more or less dissatisfied (43% and 37% respectively). best program, 14% of them thought that the best educational With regard to the Dublin-descriptors, Austrian profes- model is the Pre-Bologna study programme, while other 14% sors are generally satisfied with communication and learning thought that that is the Bologna undergraduate program. The skills, but the largest percentage of them are fairly satisfied. results of the survey show that 50% of the respondents are In respect to design thinking and design process skills, the generally satisfied how design education is conducted in their respondents are generally satisfied with students’ evaluation institutions, 25% of them are neutral concerning this question and refinement, concept generation skills, in respect to which and 25% of them are dissatisfied. the respondents are mostly fairly satisfied. With regard to visualizing skills professors are generally satisfied with students’ 3D modelling skills. As for design management abilities, professors are generally satisfied (mostly on a fairly level) with the students’ ability to manage design action, their ability to take initiative, to organize work as well as with their overall skill displayed in the execution of the process. Regarding professor’s satisfaction with the students professional attitude they are generally satisfied (mostly on the fairly level) with students’ expert behaviour in dealing and 3 3 Design Professors: Sur vey Results Design Professors: Sur vey Results [179] [178] 3.3 MACEDONIAN RESULTS successful way. In regard to the multidisciplinary approach to these projects, most of the respondents said that students from In Macedonia a total of 8 questionnaires were collected, with other disciplines were engaged on some of the projects and that the response rate of 57%. In regard to gender, 37% of the they were mostly (50%) from the field of Art. Results showed respondents were female, and 63% were male. Respondents that the usual phase of the working process when the client from Macedonia teach design at the Faculty of Art and Design was involved in the project was the phase of product develop- in Skopje. ment (27%) and presentation of the final product (27%). During The results of the survey showed that the educational collaboration projects students are commonly introduced to institutions for the purpose of students’ practical design edu- technological production processes through visual presentation. cation carried out collaboration with the business sector on Results also showed that students, depending on the type of real-life projects. Most of them have collaborated with the project, generally actively communicated and consulted with business sector for more than 6 years, and the average length the client and their employees during the collaboration projects, of those projects is from one to five months. They collaborated and that they usually communicated with the engineers and equally with production companies, trade companies and civil the business people. society organizations, but also with the national and local government and international organizations. In regard to the outcomes of the collaboration projects, the results of the survey showed that project outputs came in In regard to the models of cooperation with the business the form of visual presentation (33.3%), and prototype (33%). sector, the major percentage of the respondents (60%) said As for the prototypes, they are usually produced by school that cooperation with the external sector was initiated by their workshop facilities (66%). Half of the respondents stated that institutions, and that the most common form of implementa- products that were the result of cooperation with the business tion of these projects is through workshops (50%), and student sector were placed on the market and half of them stated that competition with or without mentor assistance (50%). Most they were not. From professors’ opinion, the major areas in of the professors (50%) thought that the workshop is the most which students have benefited from the collaboration projects successful model of cooperation. They usually conducted these with business sector are the technical knowledge (16.7%) mar- projects in the third year in the case of undergraduate study ket analysis (16.7) and contacts/network for further employ- program and in the case of graduate studies in the first and ment (33.3%). For others (33%) that are future employment the second year. Results showed that models of cooperation and experience. with the business sector on real life projects were implemented Based on the results of the survey a total of 36 knowl- in the formal design curriculum. As for the ways of organiz- edge, skills and competencies with which Macedonian Design ing the working process, the most common three ways were Professors are highly satisfied can be identified, and 1 of them that a team of students worked for several different clients, a with which they are at the same time highly satisfied and dis- team of students worked on a single brief for a client, and that satisfied (See Table 6. below). each student worked individually on a single brief for client, which from the Macedonian professors’ opinion, is the most 3 Design Professors: Sur vey Results [180] 3 Design Professors: Sur vey Results [181] the level of their satisfaction was a bit lower, since 33% said Table 6. Knowledge, Skills and Competencies with which Macedonian Design Professors are Highly Satisfied (= 50% > of Well and Ver y well or Satisfied and Ver y satisfied) Working process skills Research and analyses Concept development Design skills Oral and visual presentation skills Communicative skills The capacity to grow and innovate Dublin descriptors Knowledge of and insight into the profession Application of knowledge and insight Formation of judgment Communication Learning skills Design thinking and design process skills Analytical thinking Task clarification Concept generation Evaluation and refinement Critical thinking Design synthesis Design methodology 71% 71% 71% 86% 86% 57% 50% Visualizing skills Sketching 3D modeling Model making Product development Design management skills Communication of results Managing design action Ability to organize work Overall skill displayed in execution of process Entrepreneurship skills. that they are fairly satisfied, 33.3% were generally satisfied and 33.3% were generally dissatisfied. With respect to design management abilities, professors are highly satisfied with all 83% 50% 67% 83% skills (on average 64% of well and very well statements) except for the ability to take initiative and the ability to manage people, where the largest percentage of them were fairly satisfied (50% and 60% respectively). 80% 67% 50% As to the professors’ satisfaction with the provided specific knowledge in relation to knowledge of history and theory of design, knowledge of sustainability, and knowledge 75% 50% of involvement of the design profession in the socio-economic flows, results showed that the professors are highly satisfied 83% 66% 66% 100% 66% 83% 83% 67% 67% 60% 83% Professional attitude Exper t behavior in dealing and handling the design problem Dedication and motivation to be a good designer Knowledge acquisition and managing them Teamwork and the ability to run the task smoothly Time management Responsibility of the outcomes with the level of students’ knowledge of history and theory of 80% 80% design (60% of well and very well statements) with knowledge of sustainability (60% of well and very well statements) and with the knowledge of involvement of the design profession in the 80% 60% 60% 60% socio-economic flows (50% of well and very well statements). But, at the same time in the case of knowledge and history of design, 40% of the professors were poorly satisfied and in the case of knowledge of involvement of the design profession Specific knowledge Knowledge of histor y and theor y of design Knowledge in sustainability in the socio-economic flows, 50% of them were moderately 60% 60% Knowledge of the involvement of the design profession in the socio-economic flows 50% Dissatisfied and 50% of Satisfied respondents satisfied. Regarding the questions about the conditions for internship/apprenticeship, which the design education institutions provide for design students, the results of the survey showed that in Macedonia the internship/apprenticeship is an obligatory part of the design study programs (83% of “YES” answers), With regard to all other knowledge, skills and competencies, and that all professors (100%) believe that internship/ appren- the respondents are generally satisfied (sum of fairly, well and ticeship should become an integral part of the design education. very well statements =50% >). In relation to the question about the best educational model For example Macedonian professors are highly satisfied for acquiring the basic design skills and competencies, 50% of with all visualizing skills (on average above 71% of well and them believe that the Bologna 5-year-graduate program is the very well statements), except for manufacturing skills where best program, 33% of them thought that the best educational 3 3 Design Professors: Sur vey Results [182] Design Professors: Sur vey Results [183] model is the Pre-Bologna study program, while other 27% did 4 FOCUS GROUP RESULTS 4.1 DESIGN PROFESSIONALS’ FOCUS GROUPS not have any opinion. Results of the survey show that 50% of the respondents are generally satisfied how design education is conducted in their institutions. CROATIA The Focus group (7 participants) was conducted with participants from the field of product design, with less than 10 years of professional experience, ranging from 23 to 33 years of age. Most of the participants had finished their studies at the Department of Product Design at the School of Design, Faculty of Architecture in Zagreb, with an exception of one participant who had studied product design in Sarajevo (Bosnia), one who had upgraded her skills during an MA course in interior design at the University College of Arts, Crafts and Design – Konstfack in Sweden, and one who is still studying product design at the School of Design, Zagreb. Since there is a big deficiency in the production industry ever since the beginning of the 90s when the industry in Croatia started to deteriorate due to the general political crisis, most of the designers in Croatia are now working for bigger production companies abroad, smaller SMEs and artisans in Croatia, or they are starting their own business following the major overall cultural trend of designers-makers, who are at the same time designing, developing, producing, distributing and selling their own designs. The Focus group was initially chosen according to these versatile criteria. This last group of designers-makers is specifically interesting, since they can serve as a showcase of what really is 3 [184] Design Professors: Sur vey Results 4 Focus Group Results [185] missing in today’s design education, if the current cultural especially design methodology and design thinking – which context requires this shift. In that respect, what is missing is on the contrary, is not needed or yet recognized by Croatian the knowledge regarding financial performance, marketing, companies. In that respect it is needed to provide education and knowledge of intellectual property, product development for the production sector, in terms of benefits they could gain and market placement. Most of the designers belonging to this through implementation of design into their business strate- new cast therefore have a lot of problems because they tend gies – for example through better promotion of design through to commit to understand this type of knowledge, thus wasting design exhibitions, especially the ones organized by design their precious resources for creativity and innovation. In their schools, and gatherings of designers and the business sector. own opinion, this problem could be overcome by introducing This, together with the fact that the production industry is tech- courses in design management and design production, but also nologically out-dated is one of the reasons Croatian designers during the studies by assigning program coordinators to bridge are oriented towards foreign markets. A part of the problem the communication between students and producers, which lies in the fact that the clients often underestimate designers, they find a great difficulty once they finish their studies. Those and thus are not open to new ideas. This is why our schools challenges in regards to real life projects should be somehow should equip designers with knowledge on how to educate the integrated into the design studies, also through obligatory clients during the working process. internships, field work, workshops and competitions, which Specific types of knowledge, such as design research is imply that it would be necessary to establish a network of still evaluated as useless only because it is not easily evaluated companies willing to collaborate with schools on that level. in terms of money or profit, whereas, other design disciplines, Participants of the focus group admit that altogether, part of aside from product design and visual communication, such as the problem also lies in students that are often not ambitious the critical design, or design fiction mostly do not find their way and motivated. outside the very narrow design circles. Socially engaged design The major problem they face through the process of is not being supported either by companies, or public bodies. establishing their own brands is co-financing and distribution. Participants of the focus group all agree that the future of In this respect, it would be useful to access that type of infor- design does not only lay in the advanced technologies, but on mation together with skills in writing EU funded projects and the contrary, it is in the good balance between old techniques, education, in making business plans, market analyses and legal still very accessible in the Croatian context (mainly artisans) help, for instance in creating contracts or forming prices for and smart implementation of new technologies. Crowd funding the design product, through organizations such as the Croatian platforms are indicated as good opportunities for exercising Designers’ Association. It is also indicated that this knowledge the design practice. The question and role of the designer as a was to some extent provided during the studies, but was only provider of knowledge in creation of bigger systems, and not mastered through practice. only as a facilitator of the production industries was mentioned At the same time, almost all participants are quite satisfied with the level of knowledge that was provided to them as one of the key elements in understanding the role of the designer for the future. during their studies in terms of broader design knowledge, 4 4 Focus Group Results Focus Group Results [187] [186] AUSTRIA studies, market research results, comparison and observation Participants of the Austrian Focus group were 16 young of similar relevant design positions of others through online Design Professionals at the age of 19 – 30 years old with an and offline channels. Travelling and constant interest in devel- Austrian degree from either “die graphische”, “die angewandte” opments were also mentioned as crucial in their forthcoming or “FH Joanneum”. as design professionals. Strengthening individuality and individual approaches to the design profession is an important factor and recommenda- MACEDONIA tion of designers regarding the success of their carriers. From Participants of the Macedonian Focus group were 10 their perspective, the approach that designers are only responsi- Design Professionals between 23 and 30 years of age. They ble for sensitizing entrepreneurs to the usage of strategic design had graduated on different faculties of design: interior design, management is problematic. They believe that educational industrial design and fashion, by attending 4 years studies, all institutions should take the role of a communicator between of them in Macedonia. None of them had a Master degree in advantages of Business Management for design students and design. They had graduated at the Faculty of Arts and Design at vice versa. Also, they see Innovation as a crucial factor in the the European University Skopje (a private institution) and the survival of design practice in the future. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Skopje (a state institution). On the question how they articulate their contribution Currently they are engaged as product designers and graphic as a professional designer to their client, they said that they designers (a project base) and produce different products, such usually do that through portfolios and reference projects. as furniture, lighting, accessories and even fashion items. Moreover, sketches deriving from an analytical examination On the question of their usual projects for enterprises with the briefing of a company are part of communicating the they said that when they are engaged by a company it mainly specific contribution of designers. goes to packaging and not to design in general and that com- In regard to the final stage of the design process a fit- panies prefer to get a designer only in the final process of to-the market realization of a product or a service is seen as production (make up). When they are engaged by an advertising successful completion of the design process. With regard to agency they usually do branding of food and beverages industry their main contributions as a professional designers to sustain- products as well as application of graphic design on textile and able design, the market research based concepts were named accessories such as T-shirts, caps, etc. as crucial starting points in the design process, more specif- As the main gap in their education, designers openly ically the profound trend research regarding: environmental admit that they miss technical knowledge and sources where friendly necessities and customer-orientation. In regard to their and how to find information about materials and techniques. knowing of the relevant technological innovations relevant for The second problem they point out is that they have very little their professional work, they stated that they gain information knowledge of the economy and business. They stated that all through networking and further education, through various design educational institutions in the country lack technical platforms and channels with specific topic. They also do that knowledge and acquired practical skills. This is the opinion through international seminars, webinars, conferences, journal of all the interviewed designers. From their point of view, the 4 4 Focus Group Results [188] Focus Group Results [189] design curriculum is too much theory-based. Practical skills of Architecture in Zagreb. One participant teaches design to throughout real time projects are seldom developed. From the students with primary focus on wood technology at the Faculty interviews it can be concluded that designers in general have of Forestry in Zagreb, two of them are retired – one from the basic knowledge and understanding of the business terminol- Faculty of Textile Technology in Zagreb, and one from the ogy after their graduation, but besides the basic terminology Faculty of Architecture in Zagreb. Two participants used to (supply, demand, account, costs, and cost calculation) they are teach at the Academy of Applied Arts in Rijeka – one product not familiar with the more complex economic terms. Also, one design, and the other – fashion design. One person with a back- more thing which can be concluded is that during their education ground in design and economy teaches marketing at the Zagreb they have never learned how to make presentation and how School of Business and VERN’ University of Applies Sciences. to make and organize their portfolio. Also, they have never Although quite versatile, all the participants in the group studied negotiation techniques and even less – project manage- have addressed several major problems in regards to design ment. But, all of them think that these skills are of a paramount education and education in Croatia in general. Namely, the so importance for their professional work. Some of the designers called implementation of the Bologna process, which happened have gained those skills after their studies on their own work forcefully, and especially in the design curricula simply was not and projects or in the company where they are employed. In financially supported by the government in such a way that the terms of getting a brief from the client, designers consider the programs could be advanced, but on the contrary, the existing briefs from the advertising agencies the most precise and clear programs were just extended to one additional year according ones. The briefs from the production companies are not clear to administrative demands, without an added value between and even the managers do not know to explain properly what undergraduate and graduate studies. The other problem in they need in terms of design/request. Institutions do not provide regards to implementation of the Bologna process is its bureau- clear briefs as well. Designers have to make several meetings cratic nature, which does not allow a lot of changes on yearly in order to understand the real assignment. The conclusion of bases, which is not in accordance with today’s society and the Macedonian designers is that all project or work partners need changing nature of design that needs a constant redefinition. to better educate each other in order to achieve more productive Another problem obstructing the nature of the design communication. education, especially at The School of Design (where departments of product design and visual communication were established in 1989 within an interdisciplinary environment), is 4.2. DESIGN PROFESSORS’ FOCUS GROUPS a legislative demand on the university level to diminish the number of external expert teachers, thus creating a situation CROATIA where it is very hard to keep the level of quality in each course, The Focus group consisted of 10 professors from dif- given the fact that all the teachers have to be full time employed. ferent design educational institutions in Croatia. The major- During the meeting it was indicated that in general, design ity of participants teach or were at some point involved into schools lack professionals from other specialist disciplines, teaching product design at The School of Design, Faculty who are able to transit their knowledge to designers. Concretely, 4 4 Focus Group Results Focus Group Results [190] [191] When speaking of the market, one of the participants there is a lack of personnel to adequately teach marketing and design management at The School of Design. noted that the purpose of design schools are not here to make Concerning practice based learning professors empha- perfect workers but to develop design thinking, alongside with sized that there is no consensus in establishing the culture of development of design knowledge and competencies. During internship in Croatia, which is one of the crucial imperatives 3 years of undergraduate studies it is very hard to acquire all for educating designers to be able to react to their immediate the necessary knowledge. On the other hand graduate studies environment. Even if internships became part of the study offer a theoretical framework, which in the end results with program, it would still mean that there are very few subjects the fact that about 60% of the students work in parallel to their from the business sphere that would be able and willing to studies, and sometimes, paradoxically, because of that they are carry them with the students. On the governmental level there not fully able to fulfil their obligations at school. is no such program that would support a 6-month internship In general it seems that everyone agreed that what design (in terms of subventions for the companies, like it is the case practice lacks for several reasons is the following: a highly in many other western countries). bureaucratic system from the previous state, additionally In general, there are many examples of successful inte- upgraded with an even more complicated system which dis- gration of collaboration with the real life sector, especially at courages people from starting their own businesses, general the oldest school of design in Croatia – The Faculty of Tex- lack of understanding of design in culture, and its potential tile Technology, but also at The School of Design, within the benefits for the business environment, and general absence of department of product design. However, the working environ- design in curricula of elementary and high schools and state ments, especially clients in the production sphere still do not strategic documents. understand design processes. Design is still perceived as an In terms of future visions, Croatian Design Professors exclusive discipline. This is why it is still hard to collaborate believe that it is necessary for design education in Croatia to with the few subjects from the production sphere. One of the enable the wider scope of different possibilities – for instance, goals, however, through this collaborative practical semester so much lacking research in design. It is also very important to assignments is to establish a network, or so to call a map of finally start observing the design discipline integrally, outside the production sector which would be willing to collaborate of the isolated categories of product and graphic design. During with designers, and possibly conduct internships. the talk Professors underlined several times that it is more There are a very few companies in Croatia that seek to important to educate design thinkers that can understand their consult designers in the process of creation and development environment and the context – especially due to the fact that of their products, and even fewer of those who do it continu- the design discipline in terms we know it today will probably ously. The discussion resulted with a conclusion that there is disappear very soon. an obvious need to work on educating clients-companies so they could understand what can be obtained with the help of a designer. 4 4 Focus Group Results Focus Group Results [192] [193] They emphasized the questions that should be kept in AUSTRIA The Austrian Focus group consisted of 8 full time pro- mind: fessors at design universities as well as external lecturers who — How big is the popularity of Economic Studies in design also work as designers respectively as entrepreneurs in prof- curricula among students? it-orientated companies. The latter shared experiences of both, — How can design students get inspired by Business running companies and teaching students. Management? Strengthening individuality and individual approaches — What kind of approach to Economic Studies can design to the design profession is an important factor and recommen- students be provided in order to understand the needs dation of Austrian professors regarding successful designers’ of the business sector? careers. In regard to Professors’ opinion about the biggest chal- — What role does design take on within the aspects of lenge for the design sector/design education in the next 10–15 technological development, marketing objectives and years, they stated that they are aware that the role of design is production scale/economy of scope? seen as a key economic issue and that the Design Management makes a commercial imperative as enabler of companies and MACEDONIA nations. They believe that an effective cross-border design The Macedonian Focus group consisted of 9 professors policy on a European scale must be implemented and conse- from The European University Skopje. There are 8 professors quently developed and promoted in order to ensure long-term from The Faculty of Art and Design, accompanied by 1 profes- competitive capability of SMEs as well as freelance designers. sor from The Faculty of Economic Studies. At the beginning, Also they agree that design schools bear the responsibility to the professors stated that teaching product design without a communicate the core values of a strategic design management workshop space is like training basketball without a ball and and need to support entrepreneurial thinking. This combination they see this as one of the biggest problems why designers lack was discussed to which extent this may be a strategic approach technical skills and knowledge. The second problem that was to sustainable establishment of designers’ contribution to eco- mentioned is that in their programme there are not any sub- nomic growth. Furthermore the argument was brought forward jects of economy. The designers (graduated students) should that entrepreneurial thinking goes hand in hand with design have basic knowledge of economy and business in order to be thinking when it comes to identifying demands in the beginning successful. to develop product and service solution. It was agreed by all participants that a customer-centred approach is a key ability This Focus group has answered the main questions providing the following answers: of successful entrepreneurship. General / global knowledge and utilization of informa- Helping intensifying the individual independence and tion is essential in order to survive as designer today and even originality of students is seen as a key trend for Design Pro- more in the future. If a designer has a general overall knowl- fessors. The trend of massiveness of the design education is edge he/she can easily be positioned on the market and can recognized in regard to issue that the large number of design always find an industry to apply his/her knowledge to. “Think graduates need to find their niche for the professional practice. globally, act locally” – should be the motto of each designer. 4 4 Focus Group Results Focus Group Results [194] [195] Professors said that IKEA sells brain/innovation; they agency, 5 representatives of SMEs with a focus on furniture do not sell timber to the customers. Therefore it is important design and development, 1 representative of a big producer, 1 for each designer of today and tomorrow to be a kind of a “Balt- director of a small publishing company. hazar” – an innovator. Only by linking their thinking to particular industries and solving particular problems it is possible to The participants all agreed that in Croatia, the biggest survive. The design education should also be formulated in a problem in regards to implementation of design into busi- way to stimulate innovation and not just aesthetics, especially nesses lies in the fact that the business sector is altogether undereducated on those terms. Businesses are not aware of the bad aesthetics. Interdisciplinary cooperation in terms of education has benefits of the implementation of design into their strategies, not provided the desired results. In practice cooperation is not which is also indicative of Croatian social context that still has possible because each institution pulls the strings towards their not developed the culture of design. The prevailing paradigm position, regardless the sector they represent. among the entrepreneurs and especially microenterprises is still Development of design in the future goes in the direction the lower price, rather than the good design – which means that of the digital. Within few decades there will be less material design is considered to be a cost rather than an investment. One used for all objects we will have. All products will become of the reasons is the fact that design is also not embedded into digital or will be integrated in the human body. Minimal form Croatian national policies, or recognized as an important tool in and functions will be dominant. Design will be imaginary. strategic cultural and economic documents of Croatian public Digital revolution from 90s has made significant changes institutions and bodies. Therefore, it was concluded that it is in terms of design. Currently there is a huge gap between design, especially needed for design faculties to educate newcomers technology and techniques on the other side. Each day this that will also be able to educate their direct environment about gap becomes bigger and bigger. Design will exist only until the importance of design in a broader socio-economic context, we function in a material world. especially their clients, who often do not really know what they Design education will collapse if it is not able to follow need in terms of design. This discussion led to the observation that the design- the trends and development of technology. er-client communication is still one of the biggest problems in conducting the cooperation with designers, from the business perspective. One of the participants concluded that this lies in 4.3 BUSINESS ACTORS’ FOCUS GROUPS the fact that designers are oriented towards themselves, tend to observe design outside of the economic context, and very often CROATIA have vanity problems. Also, it was indicated that designers lack The Focus group consisted of various profiles of repre- knowledge in contemporary technologies, and technological sentatives (8) of the companies that share a common interest processes altogether. One of the participants mentioned that, in design and benefit from the implementation of design on when hiring a designer, she expects to hire a specialist. Instead, different levels, out of which: 1 representative of a marketing it usually happens so that she needs to invest in educating a 4 4 Focus Group Results Focus Group Results [196] [197] designer first, before he/she learns about the processes. employed. They have a high design affinity in common. The Most of the participants also agreed that in general, when objectives of the focus group interviews were to find out their developing new products that serve for companies’ promotion, opinion on the topic of what are the expected competencies of they prefer to hire older designers, “with an established name” designers and what is a good design. and with more experience as external experts, then to leave those tasks to in-house designers. On the question if they knew how and in what way design can improve their business activities, they answered that they Marketing, business knowledge, communication and believed that it can be done through improvement of prod- presentation skills, design thinking, brand development, prod- uct development, improvement of business communication, uct distribution, time management, entrepreneurial psychology through using design as a tool for creating a unique selling and team work were indicated during the talk as necessary proposition. The Business Actors also believe that innovation is skills that designers should have in today’s society. Those crucial for staying competitive and design is crucial for creating skills and competencies were integrated into the newly formed innovation, and that designers should contribute to optimiz- curriculum of the VERN’ University of Applies Sciences, which ing production by finding economical and saving processes is currently in the process of forming a specialist educational of production. Austrian entrepreneurs put emphasis on the program about Entrepreneurship in Design, as emphasized by importance of energy saving and the urgent need of rethinking one of the participants. in the usage of non-renewable resources. During international All the participants have agreed that designers, upon business cooperation some of the participating (design) man- leaving the design school, lack practice and understanding of agers had the assumption that design from Austria is of high entrepreneurship skills, and that they need additional training quality and imparts a prestigious brand image. This is perceived in order to understand the ways in which this world is func- by the business representatives as a chance for designers to tioning. It was also mentioned that they understand that part introduce economically friendly processes and products to a of the problem lies in the fact that those skills and knowledge larger international audience and reinforce the necessity of an were not transferred to designers during their studies in a struc- eco-friendly turn in the production business practice. tured and understandable way. A need for organized events On the question: What kind of competencies and skills as meeting points for designers and entrepreneurs, in terms can improve collaboration and communication between design- of conferences, exhibitions and meetings, was indicated as a ers and the business sector? – the Business Actors said that recommendation for the improvement of the communication leading managers tend to be rather sceptical in cooperating with external designers and prefer working with internal personnel. between the design and the business sector. This has three reasons: 1) Trade and company secrets shall AUSTRIA stay strictly confidential within the company. Internal staff is The Austrian Focus group consisted of 6 Business Actors. perceived as more loyal and more confidential towards trade They are managing directors and co-directors of Austrian secrets; 2) Internal (design) staff is also seen as more committed based companies who are both nationally and internationally to the company since their engagement with the other co-work- orientated in their sales. In their SMEs approx. 7–50 people are ers with the business culture is more frequent and more intense; 4 [198] Focus Group Results 4 Focus Group Results [199] 3) Marketing and managerial understanding is seen as a key Customer-orientation will be an important characteristic in the factor for a successful cooperation between designers and (or future as well as the ability to think in business terms in order in) small and medium enterprises. Instruments like customer to support the mutual understanding across the departments of research, personas and target group research, the creation and a company. This ability applies generally for all employers but continuous use and development of customer demands analysis is expected of designers in particular. Internally employed staff and a professional access to fact proven insights in consumer- is preferred because of confidentiality. So called soft-skills are ism are not necessary to be surveyed by the designers, but the seen as crucial. Customers make decisions to a large percentage necessity of the understanding and learning from this data is because of sympathy and less because of references which can approved. The higher the consciousness of the value of design help young designers at the beginning. and its importance of being incorporated in all relevant fields, They suggested re-asking the question of what kind of the closer respectively the more frequent is the cooperation access and which detailed information can be provided to with the (same) designers. entrepreneurs that help them to better apply strategic design On the question if they have ever had a bad experience in their cooperation with their designers, they replied that bad management as a catalyst for innovation and successful entrepreneurship. experience with co-workers or employees (external or internal staff) usually comes from similar reasons and are regardless MACEDONIA of the profession itself. The ability to see and communicate The Business Actors interviewed in the Macedonian tasks in the holistic, solution-orientated perspective is crucial. Focus group come from production companies (furniture and Discrepancies are seen as decelerating and annoying. In general, light metal processing companies) and advertising agencies. business people prefer team-oriented people. In a functioning Officially, advertising agencies are the biggest design sector team, individual characters, skills and preferences should be employer and they prefer graphic and product design gradu- well-balanced and enrich the whole design process from the ates. In general production companies have 1 or 2 designers analytical phase to the final outcomes and evaluations. They employed. The average number of employees for production do not perceive a slow work style as negative thing per se, but (furniture and light metal processing) companies is 50. The for business managers the ability of designers to adapt in speed average number of employees for advertising agencies is 15. and efficiency according to the task is an important factor. They The companies are focused on production of series of furniture. perceive as negative the designers’ lack in practical experience, In this group there are companies whose production is con- and they believe that designers should be able to create a proto- sisted of wood products (tables, chairs, closers, coffee tables type themselves and be sensitive towards potential weaknesses etc.) soft furniture (sofas, beds, stools, etc.) and metal parts in order to eliminate them. Business managers think that the or entire made out of steel. Most of them achieve direct sales shift in the designers’ focus from what does the company wants via their showrooms and via distributors abroad. to what does the company’s customers need is necessary. They said that managers prefer self-reliant employees Production companies are export oriented and the export counts for over 50% of the total annual turnover. who can work independently as well as in a team when needed. 4 Focus Group Results 4 Focus Group Results [200] [201] From the point of view of the business sector, the biggest 5 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH ON KEY STAKEHOLDERS’ PERSPECTIVES challenge of the design sector and design education is seen in terms: — Technological development and information is the biggest challenge of the 21st century. — Crises and rapid changes in terms of economy influence and will in the future influence design thinking. There is no visible investment in research and development Considering that the main purpose of this research is to obtain due to uncertainty. — The market saturation is obvious. Every day we just see Design Professionals, Design Scholars and Business Actors’ promotion of useless well-polished products, named opinion on the quality and relevancy of knowledge, skills and under certain brand. These products have absolutely no competence which design students acquire during their formal value. We should be ready to see more of this stupidity higher education, and thus indirectly detect the potential mis- on the market, but that is wrong. match between the skills acquired in formal design education — The design has to come back to its primary role, problem and skills needed in design current and future practice, comparative analysis is conducted on four levels: comparison of the solving and not aesthetics. Design Professionals Surveys and Focus groups from all three countries; comparison of the Design Professors Survey and Focus groups from all three countries; comparison of Business Actors Focus groups from all three countries; comparison of the results of the overall research. 5.1 DESIGN PROFESSIONALS: COMPARISON OF SURVEY AND FOCUS GROUP RESULTS From the comparison of the results of Design Professionals’ questionnaires from all three countries Croatia (HR), Austria (AT), and Macedonia (MK), the first thing concluded is that the Croatian designers in comparison with their colleagues from Austria and Macedonia are the most satisfied with their acquired skills and competencies. On the basis of the results from Croatian questionnaires, a total of 21 knowledge, skills 4 Focus Group Results [202] 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [203] and competencies were identified as the ones with which Cro- The results of the surveys show that as for knowledge, compe- atian designers are highly satisfied (= 50% > of well and very tencies and skills with which designers from all three countries well statements). Compared to the Croatian, Austrian design- are equally highly dissatisfied are the ones related to 3 man- ers are highly satisfied with 11 skills and competencies and agement abilities: managerial competencies, ability to manage Macedonian designers with 17. Furthermore, in comparison people and entrepreneurship skills (See Table 8). with their colleagues from Austria and Macedonia, Croatian designers are highly dissatisfied with the smallest number of skills and competencies, with 5 of them, while Austrian and Macedonian designers are highly dissatisfied with 6 skills and competencies. The results from the surveys indicate that there exists common knowledge, skills, competencies and abilities with which Design Professionals in all three countries are highly Table 8. Common Knowledge, Skills and Competencies with which Design Professionals from all three countries are Highly Dissatisfied (= 50% > of Poorly and Moderately statement (Unsatisfied and Ver y unsatisfied)) Managerial abilities Managerial competencies Ability to manage people Entrepreneurship skills HR 69% 62% 65% AT 61% 63% 68% MK 59% 52% 58% satisfied or dissatisfied. One with which they are all highly satisfied (on average 63% of the respondents from all three countries), are the ones related to 4 following design thinking skills: analytical thinking, task clarification, concept generation, As for the level of satisfaction with other knowledge, skills and critical thinking skills and one related to professional and competencies, the results of the surveys show that in all attitude in respect to ability to acquire knowledge and manage three countries designers are generally satisfied with them (a sum of fairly, well and very well statements equal or above the task (See Table 7). 50% (= 50% >). This does not mean that among these skills and competencies, there is no room for improvement, given that for a large number of them in the framework of the general level of satisfaction, “fairly” statements prevail. For example, in relation to the working process skills, Table 7. Common Knowledge, Skills and Competencies with which Design Professionals from all three countries are Highly Satisfied (= 50% > of Well and Ver y well statements (Satisfied and Ver y satisfied)) Design thinking and design process skills Analytical thinking Task clarification Concept generation Critical thinking HR 78% 78% 75% 66% AT 70% 57% 52% 62% MK 59% 54% 55% 54% Acquired professional attitude Knowledge acquisition and managing them 65% 53% 54% 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives there is space for improvement of the communication skills in all three countries, considering that in relation to the mentioned skills, a large percentage of designers in all three countries stated that they are more or less dissatisfied. In Austria and Macedonia, there is also a need for improvement of the ability to innovate and grow, particularly in Austria where significant percentage of the respondents stated that they are more or less dissatisfied (48%). [204] 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [205] With regard to the Dublin descriptors, there is space for As for the specific knowledge that designers acquired improvement in Macedonia in relation to application of knowl- through the education process, results show that in Austria edge and insight into a broader or multidisciplinary context there is room for improvement in knowledge of history and and formation of judgement. theory of design since 39% of respondents are more or less dis- In case of design thinking and design process skills there satisfied with the acquired knowledge in this field. Also, in Cro- is a need for improvement in Austria regarding the evaluation atia and Austria design education institutions should improve and refinement, and design synthesis skills where considera- students’ knowledge in sustainability, particularly in Austria ble percentage of respondents are dissatisfied (39%, and 43% where 56% of former design students are generally dissatisfied respectively). Austrian design education institutions should (34% in Croatia). With regard to the knowledge of involvement particularly pay attention to design methodology skills, since of the design profession in the socio-economic flows, in Croatia only Austrian designers are highly dissatisfied with this skill and Macedonia there is a necessity for enhancement of the (57% generally dissatisfied respondents). students’ knowledge in this field (Croatia 44%, Macedonia 39% With regard to visualizing skills, the results of the of generally dissatisfied respondents). Austrian and Croatian surveys show that there is a consid- As for the preparation for a professional career, results erable room for improvement of product development skills from all three surveys indicate that only Macedonian former since there are a high percentage of designers who are gen- design students are generally dissatisfied with all listed issues erally dissatisfied with those acquired skills, 37% and 40% of (on average 55% of the respondents are generally dissatisfied). them respectively. Furthermore, in Austria there is space for This should be an important indicator for Macedonian design improvement in training in relation to modelling (45% generally education institutions for improvement in this matter. dissatisfied), and particularly in 3D modelling where the total percentage of dissatisfied respondents is 60%. Also design Respondents from surveys in all countries strongly believe that education institutions in Croatia should improve their training additional competencies should have been taught in school. in 3D modelling, since 50% of respondents answered that they Also Design Professionals from all three countries strongly are more or less dissatisfied with this skill. believe that internship/apprenticeship is generally useful for As for the design management skills, results indicate a professional career and that it should become an integral that in all three countries education institutions should pay part of the design education. Results of the surveys shows that much bigger attention considering training those skills, since only in Croatia, the majority of respondents (84%) did not have the largest number of skills with which designers are highly internship/apprenticeship activities as an obligatory part of dissatisfied or fairly satisfied belongs to this group of skills their study program. This represents important information and competencies. that Croatian design education institutions should seriously Regarding the professional attitude, Austria should consider changing. The highest percentage of respondents in improve design students’ training in time management since all three countries considers the Bologna graduate five-year- 60% of the Austrian designers are highly dissatisfied with this program to be the best model for acquiring the basic design skill. skills and competencies. Finally, the results of the surveys 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives 5 [206] Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [207] indicate that in all three countries Design Professionals as take the role of a facilitator between the two sectors in con- former students are generally satisfied with their education, veying the advantages of exposure to business management particularly in terms of broader design knowledge, especially topics to the students of design. Or in other words, the design- the design thinking and design process knowledge and skills. ers, the business sector and other stakeholders need to learn each other’s languages in order to achieve more productive MAIN CONCLUSIONS FROM THE DESIGN PROFESSIONALS’ FOCUS GROUPS communication. Specific types of knowledge, such as design research, Several main conclusions can be drawn. The first conclu- critical design, design fiction, socially engaged design, exist sion, according to the information generated from the Design- in very narrow design circles. Since professional designers ers’ Focus groups is that designers are generally satisfied with contribute to sustainable design, their knowledge is crucial in the level of knowledge they were provided with, during their the entire design process. However, their knowledge should studies in terms of broader design knowledge, especially design include profound market research in order to understand and methodology and design thinking knowledge and skills. accept market-based concepts including customer-orientation In regard to knowledge skills and competencies for which and environmental requirements. designers think that are necessary but not provided through Future challenges. Participants of the Croatian focus their formal education, Croatian designers stated that these group all agree that the future of design does not only lie in concern knowledge regarding financial performance, marketing, the advanced technologies, but on the contrary, in a good knowledge of intellectual property, product development and balance between old techniques, and smart implementation placement on the market, design management, design pro- of new technologies. For the Croatian designers the question duction, information and skills in writing EU funded projects, and the role of the designer as a provider of knowledge in business plans and market analyses and information about creation of more complex tasks, and not only that of a facil- legal help. Macedonian designers stated that they lack technical itator of the production industries, was mentioned as one of knowledge and resources, information about materials and the key elements in understanding the role of the designer techniques, knowledge of economy and business, presenta- for the future. Austrian designers see innovation as a crucial tional skills in terms of organization of their own portfolios, factor in the survival of design practice in the future. Also knowledge in negotiation techniques and project management. they see travelling, following technological innovations and a In regard to the practical aspect of education, all of the constant interest in development as crucial in their forthcoming designers think that practical education should gain much big- as design professionals. ger space in formal design education. Therefore formal design education should pay more attention to technical knowledge and practical skills. Strengthening the collaboration with the business sector and all other stakeholders is important for all interviewed designers. They all believe that educational institutions should 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [209] [208] 5.2. DESIGN PROFESSORS: COMPARISON OF SURVEY AND FOCUS GROUP RESULTS Table 9. Common Knowledge, Skills and Competencies with which Design Professors from all three countries are Highly Satisfied (= 50% or > of Well and Ver y well statement (Satisfied and Ver y satisfied) %) Comparing results from Design Professors’ surveys the conclusion can be made that Macedonian professors seem to be most satisfied with the knowledge, skills and competencies that they provide to their design students. On the basis of the results from Macedonian Design Professors’ questionnaire, a total of 36 knowledge, skills and competencies are identified as ones with which Macedonian professors are highly satisfied (= 50% > of well and very well statements). In comparison, Croatian professors are highly satisfied with 22 skills and competencies and Austrian professors with 20. Comparing the results of all three countries, 14 common types of knowledge, skills and competencies with which Design Professors from all three countries are highly satisfied were identified. (See Table 9.) As for knowledge, competencies and skills with which Design Professors from all three countries are equally highly dissat- Working process skills Research and analysis Concept development Communicative skills HR 50% 70% 60% AT 62% 63% 62% MK 71% 71% 86% Dublin descriptors Knowledge of and insight into the profession Application of knowledge and insight 57% 50% 50% 60% 50% 83% Design thinking and design process skills Analytical thinking Task clarification Design synthesis Design methodology 62% 86% 50% 75% 50% 62% 50% 50% 67% 83% 60% 83% Visualizing skills Sketching Model making 50% 62% 62% 50% 83% 67% Acquired professional attitude Knowledge acquisition and managing them 50% 50% 80% Specific knowledge Knowledge of histor y and theor y of design Knowledge in sustainability 62% 50% 50% 62% 60% 60% isfied, the results of the surveys show that there is no such situation, as it was in case of the results of Design Professionals’ surveys. In fact, only in case of Austria, professors are highly dissatisfied with skills in relation to product development, manufacturing, ability to manage people and entrepreneurship For example in respect to the group of working process skills, (= 50% > of poor and moderate statements). results show that the largest percentage of the Croatian profes- As for the level of satisfaction with other knowledge sors (40%) are fairly satisfied with their students design skills, skills and competencies, the results of the surveys show that unlike their colleagues in Austria and Macedonia. There is also in all three countries Design Professors are generally satisfied a need for improvement of the students’ capacity to grow and (the sum of fair, well and very well statements are equal or innovate especially in Croatia and Austria since they have a above 50% ( =50% >). But, this does not mean that there is no large percentage of fairly satisfied respondents concerning this room for improvement of these skills in all three countries. skill. As for managerial competencies, the largest percentages of respondents in all three countries are fairly satisfied. 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [210] 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [211] With regard to the Dublin descriptors, only Croatian to take initiative, results show that only Croatian professors professors, unlike their Austrian and Macedonian colleagues, are highly satisfied, while Austrian (37%) and Macedonian are not highly, but fairly satisfied with students’ formation professors are mostly fairly satisfied. Also, for Croatian and of judgement ability. On the other hand, in the case of com- Austrian design education institutions there is a necessity for munication and long-life learning abilities, only the Austrian enhancement of the students’ ability to organize work, since professors are not highly, but fairly satisfied with students in a large percentage of respondents in those two countries are respect to those abilities. fairly satisfied (71% and 42% respectively). In regard to students’ In respect to design thinking and design process skills ability to display overall skills in execution of design process, in Austria, there is a need for improvement of the evaluation only Macedonian professors are highly satisfied. Particularly, and refinement skills, given that 50% of professors stated that Croatian design schools should pay more attention to the stu- they are fairly satisfied with students in relation to this skill. In dents training in respect to this ability (83% of fairly satisfied Croatia there is a need for improvement of the critical thinking respondents). As for entrepreneurship skills only the Austrian skills since 38% of the professors stated that they are fairly professors are highly dissatisfied. satisfied with students in relation to this skill and 13% are dissatisfied. Regarding the professional attitude that students obtain through their formal education, the results show that in regard With regard to visualizing skills the results from the Aus- to expert behaviour in dealing and handling the design prob- trian and Croatian surveys show that there is considerable room lem, only Austrian professors are not highly satisfied, while for improvement of product development skills since in Croatia only Croatian professors are not highly satisfied with students’ 57% of the respondents are fairly satisfied and in Austria 50% of dedication and motivation to become good designers (50% of them are highly dissatisfied with students regarding this skill. fairly satisfied statement). Only Croatian professors are not Furthermore, results show that in all three countries there is highly satisfied with students’ ability to work in teams and their considerable room for improvement of manufacturing skills, ability to run the task smoothly (62% of “fairly” statements). since 43% of Croatian and 33% of Macedonian respondents are Also Croatian and Austrian professors are fairly satisfied with fairly satisfied, and 50% of Austrian respondents are generally students’ time management ability. dissatisfied. As for the specific knowledge that designers acquired As for the design management skills in relation to the through the education process, results show that in regard to ability to manage people, there is also significant room for the knowledge of involvement of the design profession in the improvement in all three countries, particularly in Austria socio-economic flows, there is a necessity, in all three coun- where professors are highly dissatisfied with this students’ tries, for enhancement of the students’ knowledge in this field ability. In regard to ability of the students to communicate their (Croatia 43% fairly satisfied, Macedonia 50% fairly satisfied, results, and ability to manage design action, results show that Austria 25% fairly satisfied and 37% dissatisfied). in Croatia, design institutions should pay more attention in Regarding the questions about Design Schools’ condi- relation to these abilities, since 43% of the professors stated that tions for internship/apprenticeship, professors from all three they are fairly satisfied with those two skills. As for the ability countries strongly believe that internship/apprenticeship is 5 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [212] Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [213] generally useful for the professional career of design students sphere still do not understand the design processes, and they and that it should be an integral part of the design education. still perceive design as an exclusive discipline. In other words, Results of the surveys show that only in Croatia design schools there is general lack of understanding of the design culture, and do not have internship/apprenticeship activities as obligatory its potential benefits for the business environment. part of the study program. This represents important information which Croatian Design Education Institutions should NECESSITy OF MUTUAL EDUCATION AMONG DESIGNERS, CLIENTS AND SoCIETy AT WHoLE seriously consider changing. In Austria and Macedonia the highest percentage of respondents consider the Bologna grad- There is a clear consensus between participants in the uate five-year-program to be the best model for acquiring the Focus groups from all three countries that there is an obvious basic design skills and competencies, while in Croatia an equal need to work on educating clients-companies so they could percentage of them think that it is the Bologna graduate five- understand what can be obtained with the help of designers. But year-program and the Pre-Bologna study program. before that, designers need to learn the business language, and Austrian professors emphasized that it should be kept in mind Information obtained from the Focus groups can be classified that the popularity of Economic Studies in design curricula into several topics: among students is questionable. Therefore there is a need for finding more effective ways of transferring economic knowledge to design students. Furthermore, Austrian professors PRACTICE BASED LEARNING Professors from all Focus groups strongly believe that suggested, that designers and Business Actors should educate practice based learning is an imperative in design education and themselves about the role of design in the context of techno- one of the main design education mechanisms which provides logical development, marketing objectives and production technical skills and knowledge that enhances the ability of scale/economy of scope. It is also argued that entrepreneurial designers to react to their immediate environment. But, this thinking goes hand in hand with design thinking when it comes is still not recognized in all countries, since in Croatia there is to identifying demands in the beginning to develop product no consensus in establishing the culture of internship, which and service solution. is also being confirmed by the results of the Croatian Design Professional’s survey. Also, professors believe that during 3 MULTIDISCIPLINARy APPROACH TO DESIGN EDUCATION years of design undergraduate studies it is very hard to provide/ There is also consensus about the need for integral acquire all the necessary knowledge to students. approach to design education. Croatian participants believe that it is high time to start observing the design discipline COLLABORATION WITH ExTERNAL STAKEHOLDERS integrally, outside of the isolated categories of product and In general, there are many examples of successful inte- graphic design, to educate design thinkers that can understand gration of collaboration with the real life sector in all three their environment and the context – especially due to the fact countries, but for example, in Croatia professors argued that that the design discipline in terms we know it today will prob- working environments, especially clients in the production ably very soon disappear. Austrian professors believe that [214] 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [215] strengthening individuality and individual approaches to the they see legislative requirements as one of the main problems design profession is an important factor and recommendation which somewhat obstruct the multidisciplinary nature of the of lecturers regarding the success designers’ careers. Macedo- design education. These legislative limitations as a result of the nian professors also believe that general global knowledge and transition to the Bologna program had an impact on reducing utilization of information is essential in order to survive as a the number of external experts’ teachers, thus creating a situ- designer today and even more in the future. If a designer has ation where it is very hard to keep the level of quality in each a general overall knowledge he/she can easily be positioned course, given the fact that all the teachers have to be full time on the market and can always find an industry to apply his/her employed. Therefore, this situation created the gap, or lack of knowledge. It was also argued that the future of design educa- professionals from other specialist disciplines, who are able to tion lies in fostering students’ innovation capacity, since today, transfer their knowledge to designers. Concretely, in Croatia and especially in the future, it will be possible for designers there is lack of personnel to adequately teach marketing and to survive only if they link their design thinking to particular design management at School of Design. The main conclusion industries and solve particular problems. There is an overall was that the bureaucratic nature of the Bologna process does consensus that the purpose of the design schools is not to not allow a lot of changes on yearly bases, which is not in make perfect workers but to develop design thinking, alongside accordance with today’s society and the changing nature of with the development of design knowledge and competencies. design that needs a constant redefinition. Also one important Therefore, design education should be formulated in a way to conclusion was that in order to make all involved stakeholders stimulate innovation and not just aesthetics, especially bad aes- aware of the value added through the inclusion of other stake- thetics. Austrian professors also support this opinion through holders in the process, multidisciplinary approach in designing their opinion that for design education in the future, the key education programs should be unconditionally introduced. Each trend will be intensifying students’ individual independence stakeholder should put enough efforts to understand the needs and originality. In the Austrian Focus group, the trend of mas- of the others so the synergy could be jointly achieved. For that siveness of the design education is recognized in regard to the purpose, examples of good practice are needed, with the help issue that a large number of design graduates need to find their of the media and cooperation among various educational insti- niche for the professional practice. Also design education will tutions, etc. Furthermore, stakeholders should advocate for a collapse if it is not able to follow the trends and development multidisciplinary approach and collaboration between designers, of technology. business and education sectors, and clearly communicate problems in the implementation of this cooperation. Exposure and PROBLEMS REGARDING MULTIDISCIPLINARy APPROACH hearing each other views and opinions, and mutual respect of Macedonian professors admitted that interdisciplinary diversities are not easy approaches, but the most rewarding one cooperation has not provided the desired results. In practice in terms of achieving higher level of practicing design through the cooperation is not possible because each institution pulls multidisciplinary teams. Good examples of cross-sectorial coop- the strings towards their position, regardless of the sector they eration and efforts in linking technology, design and business represent. In Croatia, besides the lack of financial resources, – multi-disciplinary teams should be and are encouraging. 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives 5 [216] Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [217] biggest problem in conducting the cooperation with designers FUTURE CHALLENGES FOR THE DESIGN SECTOR AND DESIGN EDUCATION is designer-client communication. Therefore, it was concluded In terms of future visions, participants are aware of the that it is especially needed that design faculties educate new- role of design as an important factor for economic development. comers that will also be able to educate their direct environment Therefore upgrading research base in design is needed, and an about the importance of design in a broader socio-economic effective cross-border design policy on a European scale must context, especially their clients, who often do not really know be implemented and consequently developed and promoted in what they need in terms of design. Austrian participants said order to ensure long-term competitive capability of SMEs as that business people should be asked what kind of access and well as freelance designers. Also they agree that design schools what detailed information can be provided to entrepreneurs bear the responsibility to communicate the core values of a stra- that help them to better apply strategic design management tegic design management and need to support entrepreneurial as a catalyst for innovation and successful entrepreneurship. thinking. Furthermore, professors believe that development of design in the future goes in direction of the digital. Within a few DESIGNERS’ DEFICIENT KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS FROM BUSINESS PERSPECTIVE decades there will be less material used for all objects we will have. All products will become digital or will be integrated in In Croatia marketing, business knowledge, communica- a human body. Minimal form and functions will be dominant. tional and presentational skills, design thinking, brand develop- Design will be imaginary. But currently there is a huge gap ment, product distribution, time management, entrepreneurial between design, and technology on the other side. psychology and teamwork were indicated during the talk as necessary skills that designers should have in today’s society. Also, it was indicated that designers lack knowledge in contemporary technologies, and technological processes altogether. Austrian 5.3 BUSINESS ACTORS: COMPARISON Business Actors see marketing and managerial understanding OF FOCUS GROUP RESULTS as key factors for successful cooperation between designers and (or in) small and medium enterprises. Instruments like By comparing information obtained from the Business Actors customer research, personas and target group research, the Focus groups it is possible to make several conclusions regard- creation and continuous use and development of customer ing the following issues. demands analysis and a professional access to fact proven insights in consumerism are not necessary to be surveyed by the designers, but the necessity of the understanding and learning COMMUNICATION AND KNOWLEDGE PROBLEMS BETWEEN PROFESSIONAL DESIGNERS AND BUSINESS ACTORS from this data is approved. From their opinion the ability to From the Croatian Business Actors’ view, the biggest see and communicate tasks in the holistic, solution-orientated problem in regard to implementation of design into businesses perspective is crucial. Also ability to think in business terms lies in the fact that the business sector is altogether underedu- and the so-called soft-skills are seen as crucial for productive cated on those terms. Also from the business perspective, the communication between designers and Business Actors. 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [218] 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [219] lies in introduction of economically friendly processes and PRACTICE BASED LEARNING All the participants have agreed that designers, upon leaving the design school, lack practice and understanding of products and reinforcement of the necessity of an eco-friendly turn in the production business practice. entrepreneurship skills, and that they need additional training in order to understand the ways in which this world is functioning. It was also mentioned that they understand that part of the problem lies in the fact that those skills and knowledge were not 5.4 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS OF THE OVERALL RESEARCH transferred to designers during their studies in a structured and understandable way. They perceive as negative the designers’ lack in practical experience, and they believe that designers In line with the main purpose of this entire research which is to should be able to create a prototype themselves and be sensitive articulate opinion of Design Professionals, Design Professors, towards potential weaknesses in order to eliminate them. The and Business Actors on the quality and relevancy of knowledge, Business Managers think that the shift in the designers’ focus skills and competencies which designers acquire during their from what does the company want to what does the company’s education, as well as to detect the potential current mismatch customers need is necessary. of the skills which designers obtain in their formal education and skills needed in their current and future practice, the first thing that is visible is the fact that the Design Professors are CHALLENGES FoR DESIGN PRoFESSIoN IN THE 21ST CENTURy FROM BUSINESS PERSPECTIVE much more satisfied with the level of knowledge, skills and Macedonian Business Actors put emphasis on techno- competencies they provide to their students, than Design Pro- logical development and information as the biggest challenge fessionals with the level of knowledge skills and competencies for design of the 21st century. They believe that rapid changes they acquired during their design studies. in terms of economy, which brings intense uncertainty, will in This mismatch is to the greatest extent present in the the future influence design thinking. The market saturation Macedonian survey results, given that from the results of the in relation to design is from their point of view obvious. The Design Professors survey a total of 36 skills and competencies market is full of useless well-polished branded products, which were identified, with which Macedonian professors are highly have absolutely no value. Therefore, the main challenge for the satisfied, while in the case of the Macedonian Design Profes- design is to regain its primary role, which is problem solving sionals this number is 17. Results also show that Macedonian and not aesthetics. Austrian Business Actors also believe that, professors are not highly dissatisfied with any knowledge, skills since design is seen as crucial for creating innovation, design- and competencies listed in the questionnaire, and Macedonian ers should contribute to optimizing production by finding designers are highly dissatisfied with 6 of them, where three economical and saving processes of production. They also put of them are the ones with which Macedonian Design Profes- emphasis on the importance of energy saving and the urgent sors are highly satisfied. Those competencies are: managing need of rethinking in the usage of non-renewable resources. design action, overall skill displayed in execution of process For them, one of the main future challenges for product design and entrepreneurship skills. Also Macedonian designers are 5 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [220] Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [221] not highly but fairly satisfied with the following, skills and ability to manage people and entrepreneurship. In the opposite competencies: 3D modelling, model making, product devel- case, where Austrian professors are fairly and designers highly opment, communicative skills, with acquired capacity to grow satisfied with certain skills and competencies, these are com- and innovate, with their of and insight into the profession, with munication skills and concept generation ability. Furthermore, the application of and insight, with their evaluation and refine- Austrian professors are not as the designers – fairly but highly ment, design synthesis, and design methodology skills and dissatisfied with provided product development and manufac- with their expert behaviour in dealing and handling the design turing skills. This information certainly should be important problems, dedication and motivation to be a good designer, for Austrian design schools, as these two skills represent the and of sustainability. They are also, as we mentioned, mostly primary product designers’ skills. dissatisfied with their design management competencies, with which Design Professors are highly satisfied. With regard to Croatian surveys, the mismatch between designers and professors’ statements is a bit smaller at least In respect to the Austrian surveys the mismatch between in respect to the number of total knowledge, skills and com- designers’ and professors’ opinion regarding quality of pro- petencies with which both survey groups are highly satisfied. vided, skills and competencies is also considerable, given the From the results of the Croatian Design Professors’ survey, a fact that from the Austrian professors’ survey a total of 20 skills total of 22 skills and competencies were identified with which and competencies were identified with which Design Professors Croatian Design Professors are highly satisfied with, while are highly satisfied, and in case of the designers’ survey the in case of the Croatian Design Professionals this number is number of such skills and competencies is 11. Unlike their 21. As in the case of Macedonian surveys, the Croatian pro- colleagues in Croatia, and Macedonia, Austrian professors fessors are not highly dissatisfied with any knowledge, skills identified 4 skills and competencies with which they are highly and competencies listed in the questionnaire, and Croatian dissatisfied, while the Austrian designers identified 6 of them, designers are highly dissatisfied with 5 of them, where one of where two of them, design methodology and of sustainability them concerning 3D modelling is the one with which Croatian are ones with which Austrian Design Professors are highly Design Professors are highly satisfied. Furthermore, designers satisfied. Also, Austrian designers are not as the professors are not as the professors fairly satisfied, but highly dissatis- fairly satisfied, but highly dissatisfied with managerial com- fied with their managerial competencies, manufacturing skills, petencies, and with overall skills displayed in the execution their ability to manage people and with their entrepreneurship process. As for the , skills and competencies with which the skills. Also Macedonian designers are not as the professors Austrian designers are fairly satisfied, and Austrian professors highly, but fairly satisfied with the following knowledge, skills highly satisfied they are the following: research and analyses, and competencies: oral and visual presentation skills, com- concept development, communicative skills, of and insight into municative skill, sketching, expert behaviour in dealing and the profession, design synthesis, model making, dedication and handling the design problem and knowledge of sustainability. motivation to be a good designer, team work ability and ability On the other side, professors are not as the designers highly, to run task smoothly, of history and theory of design. Both but fairly satisfied with students’ design skills, their capacity survey groups are highly dissatisfied with provided or acquired to grow and innovate, critical thinking, model making skills, [222] 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [223] their dedication and motivation to be a good designer, their design students should gain additional competencies, especially responsibility for outcomes and their formation of judgments. ones concerning the business and social environment. Further- As to the coincidence of students and professors’ atti- more, information from the Focus groups indicates that there tudes on the level of all three countries the only matching is is consensus in the opinion that designers, the business sector related to a high degree of satisfaction in relation to the three and the other stakeholders need to better educate each other following skills and competencies: analytical thinking, task in order to achieve more productive communication. There- clarification and knowledge acquisition and managing tasks. fore, it was concluded that it is especially needed that design In addition, based on the information from the Focus faculties educate newcomers that will also be able to educate groups, it is possible to identify additional skills and competen- their direct environment about the importance of design in a cies that are not mentioned in the survey and which are mostly broader socio-economic context, especially their clients, who related to designers’ professional practice and which are not often do not really know what they need in terms of design. provided through designers’ formal education or if they are, Also the need for multidisciplinary knowledge and integrative they should be improved. Those are as follows: knowledge of approach to design education is emphasized. As for the main financial performance, marketing, intellectual property rights, challenges for the design profession in the 21st century there is product development and placement on the market, design consensus in opinion that innovations, functional quality, and production information, skills in writing EU funded projects, social and economic friendly approach represent crucial factors business plans and market analyses, information about legal in the survival of the design practice in the future. help, technical knowledge and sources where and how to find Taking into account the results of all the research, it can information about materials and techniques, knowledge how to be concluded that Design Professionals and Design Professors make presentations and how to make and organize a portfolio, are generally satisfied with the received /provided design edu- knowledge of negotiation techniques and project management, cation. Although, professors in somewhat greater extent, given communication and presentation skills, design thinking, brand that they are highly satisfied with the larger number of students’ development, product distribution, time management, entre- knowledge, skills and competencies, and that except in the preneurial psychology and team work abilities. case of Austria, did not express high level of dissatisfaction Regarding the practice based learning all survey and with any knowledge or skills listed in the questionnaire. In Focus groups strongly believe that practice based learning the case of Austria for this there may be two reasons. One is is a crucial mechanism for the creation of a good designer. that the Austrian professors, in comparison with Croatian and The practice based learning proved to be an important issue, Macedonian colleagues, are more self-critical and have higher given that participants from the Business Actors Focus groups standards, and the other is that results reflect the real situation. argued that designers, upon leaving the design school, lack As far as knowledge, skills and competencies that in practice and understanding of entrepreneurship skills, and regard to design education should be improved or in a greater that they need additional training in order to understand the extent introduced, the following knowledge, skills and com- ways in which this world is functioning. Participant from all petencies were identified: three Focus groups in all countries also strongly believe that 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [224] 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [225] Knowledge and competencies with which designers in all three countries are highly dissatisfied belong to the group of design PART IV: management and social skills and they are related to: — Managerial competencies CONCLUSIONS — Ability to manage people AND — Entrepreneurship skills GUIDELINES In addition to these skills, designers are also highly dissatisfied with the following skills: — Design thinking and design process skills: design methodology (HR), manufacturing and 3D modelling (AT). — Design management skills: overall skills displayed in the FOR execution process (HR, MK), managing design action (MK). — Dublin descriptors: knowledge of and insight into profession (MK) FURTHER — Specific knowledge: knowledge of sustainability (AT) ACTION On the basis of the information given by all three Focus groups the following lacking skills and competencies that are not mentioned in the survey were identified: knowledge of financial performance, marketing, intellectual property rights, TO product development and placement on the market, design production information, skills in writing EU funded projects, business plans and market analyses, information about legal help, technical knowledge and sources where and how to find information about materials and techniques, knowledge of how to make presentation and how to make and organize a portfolio, knowledge of negotiation techniques and project management, communication and presentation skills, design thinking, brand development, product distribution, time management, entrepreneurial psychology and team work abilities. 5 BE 5 Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives [226] [227] Comparative Analysis of Research on Key Stakeholders’ Perspectives CONSIDERED Given that the purpose of this Study is to investigate and estab- PART IV: CONCLUSIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR FURTHER ACTION TO BE CONSIDERED lish the current challenges facing the design education today and on the basis of research results, in the form of additional competencies, knowledge and skills, propose appropriate guidelines for the improvement of education, in the final part of the Study main conclusions of previous parts of the Study were rehearsed and drawn together based on which a set of suggested guidelines were presented. [228] [229] 1 CONCLUSIONS FROM THE STUDY as visualizers of other people’s ideas or incremental improvers of existing products. The second is related to the challenge manifested in the fact that the Knowledge Economy acts in a network order. Consequently, designers must function within institutional structures of various kinds that enable and constrain their endeavours. The Zeitgeist is also manifested through grow- PART I CONCLUSIONS ing spread, use and sharing of knowledge and new matrices The first part of the Study explores effects of a new of knowledge creation and application. Therefore, designers socio-economic context brought with paradigm shift to Knowl- must be able to connect to, collaborate with and be inspired by edge Based Society on design profession and the design disci- different disciplines – architecture, material science, business, pline itself. Those challenges are directly connected to certain marketing, ethnography, ecology, philosophy, sociology and knowledge, skills and competencies which designers have to more. Only in that way designers will be able to create the great possess if they want to have successful carriers in today’s user experiences they aim for. So the design industry should changing environment. The results of the research conducted demonstrate that it is able to create communication strategy for the purpose of the first part of the Study indicate several with different stakeholders, to induce concrete initiatives, and conclusions, elaborated bellow. to encourage cross-disciplinary and cross-institutional dia- The first one concerns technological challenges. The Zeitgeist – the spirit of our time is expressed through continuous innovation and application of innovation. Consequently the rising expectations from design that as a creative discipline contributes to social and economic well-being brought increasing pressure to design profession to continuously innovate. To be able to do that, designers have to understand the changing pattern of innovation, to cope with constant technological changes, to continuously develop new skills, and to possess the ability to understand technological opportunity and act upon it. But, exploring possibilities of new technologies also brought challenges of underestimating the importance of the core skills and knowledge required to be a great designer, ones related to true craftsmanship. In other words, instead of how to know to do sketches and make 3D presentations, designers have to know how to do projects in a comprehensive way. Otherwise as John Heskett (2009) had said, they will remain logue as well as synergies from joint research, educational modules and development projects. Therefore, it is expected from designers to possess excellent communication skills, multidisciplinary attitude and knowledge, and willingness to cooperate and continuously learn from all relevant stakeholders important for their projects. The third conclusion is related to necessity of mutual education between designers and Business Actors. The lack of productive and meaningful communication is emphasized in the opinions of many who think and talk about this issue. The prevailing opinion is that design graduates emerge from schools without the skills necessary to thrive in the real world. But designers are no pure artists. Specifically, product designers cannot exist by themselves in an isolated world, and therefore they have to be able to articulate ideas and their value to clients, as Gropius did. To be able to do that they have to understand the main terms and principals concerning the business world [230] 1 Conclusions from the Study 1 Conclusions from the Study [231] before they finish their education. They have to know how to design in terms of new innovative solutions, better material articulate the value of their ideas and work to the client, and choices and smarter manufacturing processes could be seen through setting new standards within product categories or to truly understand the needs of their clients. The fourth conclusion is related to social challenges. with regard to how we solve any given problems. As such, Terms such as: user friendly design, production friendly design, design in close collaboration with technological innovation environmental friendly design, community friendly design, and production companies can help in substituting harmful design for all, tell us that the design community is aware of the processes and materials. great importance of user-centred approach, or in other words, The sixth conclusion is related to the contemporary meeting the real needs of people and society as whole for perception of the economic value of design. In economic con- the designers’ community represents an important challenge. text, design is expected to build the capacity to innovate and Design should promote involvement, inclusion and coherence deliver world-class brands, products and services, to strength for all human beings and it should also focus on interactive, competitive positions of national economies, and to improve more human use in the public sector, in the sense of reduction the understanding of firms regarding design methods and their or elimination of barriers between the individual citizen and utilization. Also there are challenges considering expanding public services/spaces. In order to succeed in this, designers design awareness of corporate management, design profes- must essentially understand the existential, cultural and social sionals and the public sector through education and training, needs of their environment. challenges concerning the use of design as a strategic tool for The fifth conclusion is related to environmental and innovation, and challenges regarding articulation of the value sustainable development challenges. The one negative but of design, and its importance to social and economic success. unfortunately main characteristic of our time is the massive Finally there is a question of efficient protection of value of environmental pollution that threatens to jeopardize the health design since forthcoming and new technologies such as 3D of all living species and the health of our planet. Since the life- printing, brings great challenges in regard to efficient protec- time of most products is shortened to an average of two years, tion of intellectual property rights relating to design. a huge amount of discarded old products represent a growing problem for the ecosystem of our planet. The responsibility of PART II CONCLUSIONS design in this context is extremely great, since designers are The second part of the Study explores possible directions in a position to control or partially control the selection of of design education in the future, detects the main challenges materials and methods of product creation and their production. and main dilemmas facing the design education, and identi- It is believed that one of the most effective ways of achieving fies the possible mismatch between competencies and skills sustainable and eco-friendly design is to create products that provided in current design education and the ones needed in are more meaningful to the individual and that are kept and the market. The main conclusion of this chapter is that as a cherished rather than disposed of and replaced long before response to the pressures and challenges of the new socio-eco- their functional lifetime has come to an end. Furthermore, nomic paradigm, the higher design education is currently literature on this subject emphasizes that the contribution of undergoing some substantial realignment. In principle, this 1 1 Conclusions from the Study [232] Conclusions from the Study [233] adjustment has to do with the most basic characteristics of the Generally observed, one of the first things that can be paradigm of Society and Economy Based on Knowledge, with noticed in relation to the direction in which the design educa- the preconditions and ways in which this paradigm evolves and tion institutions are currently going, is that actually, despite operates: more pronounced complexity of the functioning of the existing curricula, there is no completely clear course, or the system; intensive communication between the actors of at least consensus, about how and what to teach future design- the system; openness to receiving and sharing information ers. The global design community, especially the academic and knowledge, the network matrix of learning and innovation one, leads an intense debate about whether higher education with intensive collaboration in knowledge production, multi- institutions in the field of design should remain independent disciplinary and comprehensive way in observing and problem and stay outside of the universities and in that way retain their solving, integration of thinking and acting, taking into account autonomy concerning creation of design curriculum, or they the needs and expectations of all interested parties for certain should be integrated into a university complex where they will outcomes of the activities of the system; integration of theory have greater resources, but less autonomy. Design academic and practice, the need for both specialization and generaliza- community also debates about the essential purpose of design tion. In regard to the changes, possibilities and expectations education as well as the very purpose of design as a discipline, which contemporary age brought to design education, the about the philosophy and values on which the content of design design community leads intensive discussions concerning the curriculum should be based, and the ways of knowledge trans- future direction of the design education. The design education fer to students. Also there is an intensive debate about what is seen as one of the main mechanisms through which design- combinations of three design discipline archetypal elements – ers will be enabled to respond to challenges in the future and art, science and technology, should be applied in structuring the therefore it should be tailored accordingly to the needs of the content of design curriculum, and how those curricula should future. Design curricula should address the future by engaging be defined. In addition, there are doubts regarding general a platform of ethics and focusing education towards social versus specialist education, and conceptual versus realistic ecology and service to humanity. Design education must be approach to design as a discipline. Furthermore, there is an enhanced with new knowledge that embraces diversity, multi- important question concerning the establishment of balance culturalism, and collaboration. From the perspective of public between designers’ skills and competencies required by the job policy, the design education represents the main mechanism market, and their education on the issue of ethical and value through which designers should be equipped with commercially principles which have to reflect many levels of responsibility oriented and international design competencies, which should arising from designers work in the real world. All these pressing lead to improved competitiveness of businesses and to the issues suggest that this discipline is undergoing intense review- improvement of the quality of life. Also the focus of public ing of the very purpose of the design as well as the purpose of policy is on building a multidisciplinary approach and collab- the structure and content of the design curriculum. oration between design, business and others schools, and on The general impression is that the educational design fostering interaction among design managers, organizational institutions embarked on the race with the changes which executives and managers, educators, and public policy makers. are not possible to follow but only to acknowledge. Despite 1 1 Conclusions from the Study [234] Conclusions from the Study [235] the general impression of disorientation of design discipline, Taking into account the results of the research, it can it is possible to observe the trend towards the integration of be concluded that both Survey groups, Designers and Design educational content and towards a holistic and multidiscipli- Professors are generally satisfied with the received /provided nary approach to design education. But because of the speed Design Education. Although, professors in somewhat greater of changes, and limitations regarding financial resources and extent, given that they are highly satisfied with the larger length of bureaucratic procedures, additional skills and com- number of students’ knowledge, skills and competencies, and petencies are not included fast enough into formal design with the exception of Austria, did not express a high level education. Massification, diversification, internationalization, of dissatisfaction with any knowledge or skills listed in the and “Academic Capitalism” make it increasingly hard for high questionnaire. In the case of Austria for this there might be educational design institutions to not succumb to the quantity two reasons. One is that the Austrian professors, compared at the expense of quality of design education. to Croatian and Macedonian colleagues, are more self-critical and have higher standards, and the other is that results reflect the real situation. PART III CONCLUSIONS In the third part of the Study, results from the empiri- As far as knowledge, skills and competencies that in cal research conducted through surveys and Focus groups in regard to design education should be improved or to a greater Croatia, Austria and Macedonia were presented and analysed. extent introduced, the following knowledge, skills and compe- The main purpose of this research was that, together with the tencies were identified from the survey results: managerial com- theoretical research results, it creates a base for defining and petencies, social skills, managing design action, entrepreneur- proposing appropriate guidelines for the improvement of cur- ship skills, overall skill displayed in execution process, design rent Design Education and the content of the design curriculum, methodology, manufacturing and 3D modelling, knowledge of in form of deficient design knowledge, skills and competencies. and insight into the profession, knowledge of sustainability. Those guidelines should help bridge the gap between the design- On the basis of the information given by all three Focus ers’ educational and working environment. Research is carried groups, the following lacking skills and competencies that are out involving three stakeholders’ groups: Design Professionals, not mentioned in the survey were identified: knowledge of Design Scholars, and Business Actors with the intention to financial performances, marketing, intellectual property rights, obtain their opinion on the quality and relevancy of knowledge, product development and placement on the market, design skills and competencies which designers acquire during their production information, skills in writing EU funded projects, education, as well as their opinion on the potential current business plans and market analyses, information about legal mismatch of the skills which designers obtain in their formal help, technical knowledge and sources where and how to find education and skills needed in their current and future practice. information about materials and techniques, knowledge of how In the questionnaires intended for designers and professors, in to make presentations and how to make and organize portfolios, addition to other questions that are projected to determine the knowledge of negotiation techniques and project management, level of practice based learning, there are questions related to communicational and presentational skills, design thinking, 40 different knowledge and skills competencies. brand development, product distribution, time management, [237] 1 Conclusions from the Study 1 [236] Conclusions from the Study entrepreneurial psychology and team work abilities. 2 Results of the research also show that all survey and GUIDELINES AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER ACTION TO BE CONSIDERED Focus groups strongly believe that practice-based learning is a crucial mechanism for the creation of a good designer. The practice – based learning proved to be an important issue, given that participants from the Business Actors Focus groups argued that designers, upon leaving the design school, lack practice and understanding of entrepreneurship skills, and that they need additional training in order to understand the Taking everything in account the following guidelines could ways in which this world is functioning. Participant from all be proposed: three Focus groups in all countries also strongly believe that — Design education should be carried within a multi- design students should gain additional competencies, espe- disciplinary context, which will embrace all necessary cially the ones concerning the business and social environment. knowledge, skills and competencies needed for future Furthermore, information from Focus groups indicate that successful professional practice. there is consensus in opinion that designers, Business Actors — Empirical evidence of this Study shows that skills, com- and other stakeholders need to better educate each other in petencies and knowledge mismatch is mostly related to order to achieve more productive communication. Therefore, the problems and demands of real life design practice and it was concluded that it is especially needed for design faculties designers professional work and to a lesser extent with to educate newcomers that will also be able to educate their practical design knowledge and competencies. It is not direct environment about the importance of design in a broader only the responsibility of the educational design institu- socio-economic context, especially their clients, who often do tions, but also of the policy authorities who need to find not really know what they need in terms of design. Also, the a way to bring them into the formal design education need for multidisciplinary knowledge and integrative approach programme. Those skills, competencies and knowledge to design education is emphasized. As for the main challenges are particularly related to: general managerial knowl- for the design profession in the 21st century there is consensus edge, social skills, entrepreneurship skills, ability to dis- in the opinion that innovations, functional quality, and a social play overall skill in an execution process, knowledge of and economic friendly approach represent a crucial factor in the financial performance, marketing, intellectual property survival of the design practice in the future. Finally, it can be rights, product development and placement on the mar- concluded that the results of empirical research largely confirm ket, design production information, skills in applying the arguments presented in the theoretical part of the research. and information on public grants, business plans and market analysis, technical knowledge and sources on where and how to find information about materials and techniques, knowledge of how to make a presentation and how to create a portfolio, knowledge of negotiation 1 Conclusions from the Study [238] 2 Guidelines and Suggestions for Fur ther Action to be Considered [239] techniques and project management, communication and economic issues, like students of economy are. Therefore, presentation skills, design thinking, brand development, the transmission of economic and business knowledge product distribution, time management, entrepreneurial should be strongly linked with the context of design, with psychology and team work abilities. a lot of practical and interesting examples from design — Design education should be more practice-based oriented business practices. and educational institutions should establish close and — Designers, business representatives and relevant stake- more intensive cooperation with external environment, holders use different languages to find a way to express with the aim of providing students with work on specific themselves professionally. From the business client’s projects. This in particular concerns Croatia, because perspective, ability to think in business terms and the design schools in this country do not have internship/ so-called soft-skills are seen as crucial for productive apprenticeship activities as an obligatory part of their communication between designers and Business Actors. Study program. Also, research and development collaboration with the industry is the key factor for methodological exercise in design studies. This approach enables students to experience solving real-world product design problems, working as a part of a multidisciplinary team, and communicating their work in written and oral form. — Since the evidence suggests that educational institutions in their attempts to provide additional skills and competencies are faced with financial and bureaucratic constraints, which create the gap, or lack of professionals from other specialist disciplines, design education institutions should consider finding alternative sources for financing those specialist and alternative ways of training students in deficient disciplines or skills. For example, international projects related to the exchange of teaching stuff, and collaboration with vocational design organizations which may be carriers of these training and which possess the ability to respond and adjust faster to the changing nature of design which nowadays needs a constant redefinition. — There is a need for finding more effective ways of transferring economic knowledge to design students. Design students cannot be expected to be equally interested in 2 Guidelines and Suggestions for Fur ther Action to be Considered 2 [240] Guidelines and Suggestions for Fur ther Action to be Considered [241] [243] ENDNOTES 1. Ferguson, M. (1980), The Aquarian conspiracy: Personal and Social Transformations in our Time, J.P. Tarcher, Los Angeles, CA.; Capra, F. (1982). The Turning Point: Science, Society, and the Rising Culture , (1982), Simon and Schuster, Bantam paperback; Harman, W. (1988), Global Mind Change: The Promise of the Last years of the Twentieth Centur y, Knowledge Systems, Indianapolis, IN. 2. Drucker, P.F. (1969), The Age of Discontinuity; Guidelines to our Changing Society . Harper and Row, New york; Drucker, P.F. (1993), PostCapitalist Society, HarperCollins, New york.; Lundvall, B-Å (2003), “Why the New Economy is a Learning Economy”, Economia e Politica Industriale , 117: 173–85.; Foray D., B.A Lundvall, (1996), “The Knowledge–Based Economy: From the Economics of Knowledge to the Learning Economy” in oECD, Employment and Growth in the Knowledge Based Economy, Paris: oECD, str.11–32. 3. Hayek, F. A. (1945), “The Use of Knowledge in Society,” in: Hayek, F. A. (1976) [1948], Individualism and Economic Order . London: Routledge and Kegan Paul; Schumpeter, J.A. (1951) The Theor y of Economic Development , Cambridge, MA: Har vard University Press.; Penrose, E.T. (1959), The Theor y of Growth of the Firm . oxford: Basil Blackwell. [244] 4. Contrar y to the neoclassical theories of growth, for the new theories of growth, technical progress is not seen as exogenous but endogenous element of the economic growth process. The focus of the new growth theories is on the analysis of the impact of knowledge on economic growth, its implementation and diffusion in the economy. 5. The concept of the knowledge economy so far was defined in many ways, but in the simplest terms it means that economic wealth is generated through the creation, production, distribution and consumption of knowledge and products intensively based on knowledge. 6. Lev, B. (2001), Intangibles: Management, Measurement, and Repor ting , Brookings Institution press, Washington. 7. Jelčić, K. (2004), Handbook for Intellectual Capital Management , HGK. Zagreb. 8. Pulić, A. (2003),“Value Creation Efficiency in the New Economy“, Global Business & Economics Review . Vol. 5 No 1. pp. 111–128. 9. Heskett, J. (2009) “Creating Economic Value by Design”, International Journal of Design , Vol. 3, No 1. Endnotes [245] 10. Pulic, A. (2000a), “MVA and VAIC analysis of randomly selected companies from FTSE 250” pp. 1–41, www.vaic-on.net 11. The latest versions of the Frascati and Oslo Manuals are no longer exclusive of science and technology. The concept of ‘research’ is now open to include any creative work. Experimental development is open to the use of any stock of knowledge to devise any new application. Innovation is open to any implementation. As a result of this broad treatment of Innovation, Development and Research, the conceptual framework of the Frascati family of manuals does not leave any room for design to be characterized either as a step after innovation or as something different from innovation. Thus, within the existing conceptual framework of Research, Development and Innovation, design can only be described as a specific form of Research, Development or Innovation. 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(1993), “The Commercial Impact on Investment in Design”, Design Studies , Vol.12, No.2; Potter, S., Roy, R., Capon, C.H., Bruce, M., Walsh, V.M. and Lewis, J. (1991) The Benefits and Costs of Investment in Design. Repor t DIG03, Design Innovation Group, The open University and UMIST, Milton Keynes. 35. Hekker t, P., Schifferstein, H. (2008). Product experience . Amsterdam: Elsevier Science 36. Umber to Eco, “In Retrospective of Italian design”, in Ed Dizajn Kultura , Radionica SIC, Beograd, 1985. 37. Walsh, V., Roy, R., Bruce, M. and Potter, S. (1992), Wining by Design: Technology, Product Design and International Competitiveness, oxford, Blackwell Business. 38. Gemser, G., Leenders, M. A. (2001), “How integrating industrial design in the product development process impacts company performance”, Journal of Product Innovation Management , Vol.18 No1, pp. 28–38 39. See in: The Economic Review of Industrial Design in Europe, Final Repor t, 2015, Europe Economics. p 32. 40. The Economic Review of Industrial Design in Europe, Final Repor t, 2015 , Europe Economics. pp. 32–35. 41. Contrar y to the neoclassical theories of growth, for the new theories of growth, technical progress is not seen as exogenous but endogenous element of the economic growth process. The focus of the new growth theories is on the analysis of the impact of knowledge on economic growth, its implementation and diffusion in the economy. 42. Heskett, J. (2009), Creating Economic Value by Design , International Journal of Design , Vol. 3, No 1, pp. 74–84. 43. Ibid. 44. Komnenić, B., Mikić, H. (2008) “New Ways of Increasing Nation Wealth in the Creative Age” pp.: 477–484, In Monograph: Challenges of Economic Sciences in the 21st Centur y, Institute of Economic Sciences Belgrade. 45. Florida R. (2002), The Rise of the Creative Class , Basic Books, New york. Endnotes Endnotes [246] [247] 46. Howkins, J. (2001), The Creative Economy: How people make money from ideas . London: Penguin. 47. Creative Economy Repor t 2013, Widening Local Development Pathways , Special Edition, UNDP/UNESCo. 48. Howkins, J. (2001), The Creative Economy: How people make money from ideas . London: Penguin. 49. Creative Economy Repor t 2008, UNCTAD. 50. Creative Economy Repor t 2013 , Widening Local Development Pathways , Special Edition, UNDP/UNESCo 51. See Creative Industries Mapping Document (1998), p. 4. 52. The classification under the term of cultural and creative industries is constantly evolving as new dialogues develop, and as consequence number of different models has been developed as a means of providing a systematic understanding of the structural characteristics of the cultural and creative industries. 53. Cunningham, S. D., Higgs, P. L. (2008) “Creative industries mapping: where have we come from and where are we going?” Creative Industries Journal , Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 7–30. 54. Hutton W. (2010), Design in the Knowledge Economy 2020 , Design Council Repor t. 55. W. o. Sung., M.J. Song,, J. Park and K. Chung. (2007), “Changing roles of design promotion organizations in the global context and new theoretical model for design promotion system”, Industrial Design Depar tment, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Korea. Endnotes 56. Global Design Watch 2010, DESIGNIUM - Centre for Innovation in Design. Aalto University School of Ar t and Design. 57. National and regional policies for design, creativity and userdriven innovation , Pro Inno Europe & University of Manchester (2009) in Design Council Review 2010, Review by Mar tin Temple, p 18. 58. Design for Growth and Prosperity , Repor t and Recommendations from European Design Leadership Board, EU Commission. 59. Howkins, J. (2001), The Creative Economy: How people make money from ideas . London: Penguin. 60. Design for Growth and Prosperity , Repor t and Recommendations from European Design Leadership Board, EU Commission. 61. Howells, J. et al (2004) “Innovation in ser vices: Issues at stake and trends”, EU Research repor t. 62. “Design Policy Monitor 2015”, produced by PDR, the International Design Research Centre at Cardiff Metropolitan University. 63. See http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/ policies/innovation/files/ius-2011_ en.pdf 64. EU: Intellectual proper ty rights intensive industries: contribution to economic performance and employment in the European Union” – September 2013. The definition of each of the IPR-intensive industr y branch and the corresponding industr y list are available in Appendix 9 of this repor t. 65. “The Economic Review of Industrial Design in Europe, Final Repor t - 2015”, Europe Economics. 66. Locarno Classification is the international classification system for industrial designs that is administered by the WIPo. In an effor t to better map all the different goods for which a design could be registered, the European Union (EU) Intellectual Proper ty Offices and OHIM agreed to create a Harmonized Database (HDB). This database follows the Locarno Classification structure (with the same classes and subclasses), including its product indications and adding many more. 67. Heskett, J. (2009), “Creating Economic Value by Design” , International Journal of Design , Vol 3, No 1, pp. 74–84. 68. Chandrasegaran. S.K. et al. (2013), “The evolution, challenges, and future of knowledge representation in product design systems”, Computer-Aided Design, Vol. 45 No. 2, pp. 204–228 69. From ar ticle “Prof, Mrithaa leads ICSID into the era of the solutinon economy, http://www.ICSD.org/feature/ current/ar ticles2091.htm. 73. Argan, G.C. (1955), Progetto e destino , Ed. II Saggiatore, Milano. 74. Technological challenges, Industrial Designers in the 21st Centur y: Masters of the Experience ARTEFAC GRoUP Fernd Van Engelen, Industrial Design, https://www. ar tefactgroup.com/about/ 75. From ICSID inter view of Dr. Mark Evans “Industrial design has bright and challenging future” http://www. icsid.org/feature/current/ar ticles2041. htm. 76. Technological challenges, Industrial Designers in the 21st Centur y: Masters of the Experience ARTEFAC GRoUP Fernd Van Engelen, Industrial Design, https://www. ar tefactgroup.com/about/ 77. Ibid. 78. Helen Walters: The 7 Biggest Challenges in Merging Design and Business, By now, businesses should have learned to embrace design. yet they still don’t. Why? http:// helenwalters.com/2010/11/12/designand-business-the-bottom-line/ 79. Ibid. 70. Technological challenges, Industrial Designers in the 21st Centur y: Masters of the Experience ARTEFAC GRoUP Fernd Van Engelen, Industrial Design, https://www. ar tefactgroup.com/about/ 71. From ICSID ar ticle Dr. Evans “Industrial design has bright and challenging future” http://www.icsid. org/feature/current/ar ticles2041.htm. 72. http://www.dezeen.com/2015/01/23/ lucas-verweij-opinion-design-industr yproblems-issues/ opinion from Lucas Verweij. Endnotes [248] [249] 80. Ibid. 81. http://www.dezeen.com/2015/01/23/ lucas-verweij-opinion-design-industr yproblems-issues/ opinion from Lucas Verweij. 82. From ICSID’s inter view: Dr. Mark Evans “Industrial design has bright and challenging future” http://www. icsid.org/feature/current/ar ticles2041. htm. 83. The Role of Design in the 21st Centur y: Danish Designer’s “ Manifesto”: A Vision for the Future of Danish Design , 2010. 85. Papanek, V. (1972), Design For the Real World , Thames and Hudson Ltd, London. 93. Sporn, B. (2000), “Current Issues and Future Priorities for European Higher Education Systems” in Altbach, P.G., and Peterson, M.P. edition (2000): Higher Education in the 21st Centur y: Global challenge and national response, Institute of International Education and Boston College Center for International Higher Education, pp. 67–79. 86. Ibid. 94. Ibid. 87. From ar ticle “Prof, Mrithaa leads ICSID into the era of the solutinon economy, http://www.ICSD.org/feature/ current/ar ticles2091.htm. 95. Dar vas, P. (2000), “A Regional Perspective: Central and Eastern Europe” in Altbach, P.G., and Peterson, M.P. edition (2000): Higher Education in the 21st Centur y: Global challenge and national response, Institute of International Education and Boston College Center for International Higher Education, pp. 79–89. 84. Ibid. 88. Slaughter, S., Rhoades, G. (2004). Academic Capitalism in the New Economy . Baltimore, Md.: The John Hopkins University Press. 89. Ibid. 90. Altbach P.G. (2007), “The logic of mass higher education”. P.G.Altbach (ed.), Tradition and Transition: The International Imperative in Higher Education , Netherlands, Sense Publishers, pp. 3–22. 91. Sporn, B. (2000), “Current Issues and Future Priorities for European Higher Education Systems” in Altbach, P.G., and Peterson, M.P. edition (2000): Higher Education in the 21st Centur y: Global challenge and national response, Institute of International Education and Boston College Center for International Higher Education, pp. 67–79. 92. Liem, A., Sigurjonsson, J.B. (2011), “Adapting Industrial Design Education to Future Challenges of Higher Education, International conference on engineering design”, ICED, Technical University of Denmark. 96. Liem, A., Sigurjonsson, J.B. (2014), “Positioning Industrial Design Education within Higher Education: How to face increasingly challenging market forces?”, Uniped argang , Vol. 37, No.2, pp. 44–57. 97. UUK. (2004) ‘‘UUK, Higher education in facts and figures’’, Universities UK, London. 98. See: Design Council, (2006). ‘‘Creative & Cultural Skills, Design a New Design Industr y: Design Skills Consultation’’; Swann, C. (2002) “Nellie is Dead Ar t”, Design & Communication in Higher Education. Vol. 1, pp. 50–53. 99. Liem, A., Sigurjonsson, J.B. (2014), “Positioning Industrial Design Education within Higher Education: How to face increasingly challenging market forces?”, Uniped argang , Vol. 37, No.2, pp. 44–57. 100. Liem, A., Sigurjonsson, J.B. (2011), “Adapting Industrial Design Education to Future Challenges of Higher Education”, International conference on engineering design, ICED, Technical University of Denmark. 108. Buchanan, R. (1996) “Elements of Design”, In Liem, A., Sigurjonsson, J.B. (2011), “Adapting Industrial Design Education to Future Challenges of Higher Education, International conference on engineering design”, ICED, Technical University of Denmark. 101. Ibid. 102. Lucas Verweij, “We are coming to view design more as a mentality than a skill, .http://www.dezeen. com/2014/03/25/opinion-lucas-verweijdesign-education/ 103. Friedman, K. (2001), “Design education in the university: Professional studies for the knowledge economy”. Re-inventing design education in the university . Proceedings of the Per th Conference. School of Design, Cur tin University of Technology: Western Australia. pp. 14–28. 104. Liem, A., Sigurjonsson, J.B. (2014), Positioning Industrial Design Education within Higher Education: How to face increasingly challenging market forces?, Uniped argang Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 44–57. 105. Niederhelman, M. (2001), “Education through Design”, Design Issues, Vol. 17, No. 3 (2001), pp. 83–87., In Liem, A., Sigurjonsson, J.B. (2011), Adapting Industrial Design Education to Future Challenges of Higher Education, International conference on engineering design, ICED, Technical University of Denmark. 106. Liem, A., Sigurjonsson, J.B. (2014), Positioning Industrial Design Education within Higher Education: How to face increasingly challenging market forces?, Uniped argang, Vol. 37, No.2, pp. 44–57. 109. owen. C. L. (1990) “Design Education and Research for the 21st Centur y” Design Studies, Vol.11 No. 4, pp. 202–206. 110. Cross, N. (1999), “Design Research: A Disciplined Conversation”, Design Issues , Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 5–10., In Liem, A., Sigurjonsson, J.B. (2011), “Adapting Industrial Design Education to Future Challenges of Higher Education, International conference on engineering design”, ICED, Technical University of Denmark. 111. Baudrillard, J. (1975), “Le crepuscule dessignes”, in Sec Ed: Design and Culture , SIC, 1985, Belgrade. 112. Le Bot, M. (1974), “Ar t/Design”, Traverses, Vol 2, pp.8–26., in Sec Ed: Design and Culture , SIC, 1985, Belgrade. 113. Maldonado, T. (1975), “Disegno Industriale: un riesame, Definizione Storia Bibliografia”, Feltrineli Economica, Milano, in Design and Culture, 1985, CIN, Belgrade. 114. Gropius, W. (1913),“Die Entwicklung moderner Industriebaukunst” in: Design and Culture , 1985, CIN, Belgrade. 115. Gropius, W. (1925), Grundsatze der Bauhausproduktion , Munchen. in: Design and Culture , 1985, CIN, Belgrade. 107. Ibid. Endnotes Endnotes [250] [251] 116. Le Bot, M. (1974), “Ar t/Design”, Traverses, Vol. 2, pp.8–26., in Sec Ed: Design and Culture , SIC, 1985, Belgrade. 126. owen. C. L. (1990) “Design Education and Research for the 21st Centur y” Design Studies, Vol.11 No. 4, pp: 202–206. 117. Maldonado, T. (1975), Disegno Industriale: un riesame, Definizione Storia Bibliografia, Feltrineli Economica, Milano, in Design and Culture, 1985, CIN, Belgrade. 127. For deatail look regarding the issue of integrative approach to design education and fundamental reform of design curriculum read the whole ar ticle: Alain Findeli, (2001), “Rethinking Design Education for the 21st Centur y: Theoretical, Methodological, and Ethical Discussion”, Design Issues, Vol.17, No.1 pp.5–17. 118. Ibid. 119. Menna, F. (1965), “Design, comunicazione estetica e mass media” in Sec Ed: Design and Culture , SIC, 1985, Belgrade. 120. Baudrillard, J. (1975), “Le crepuscule des signes”, in Sec Ed: Design and Culture , SIC, 1985, Belgrade. 121. Meštrović, M. (1980), Teorija dizajna i problemi okoline, Naprijed, Zagreb in Sec Ed: Design and Culture , SIC, 1985, Belgrade. 128. Ibid. 123. Baudrillard, J., (1975), “Le crepuscule des signes”, in Sec Ed: Design and Culture , SIC, 1985, Belgrade. 124. Findeli, A. (1994), “Ethics, Aesthetics and Design”, Design Issues, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 49–68 125. Lucas Verweij, “We are coming to view design more as a mentality than a skill, http://www.dezeen. com/2014/03/25/opinion-lucas-verweijdesign-education/ Endnotes 138. Lewis, W.P., Bonollo, E. (2002), “An analysis of professional skills in design: implications for education and research”, Design Studies , Vol. 23 No.4, pp. 385–406. 139. Press, M., Cooper, R. (2003), “ The design experience: the role of design and designers in the twentyfirst centur y”, Ashgate Publishing, UK. 129. Ibid. 130. owen. C. L. (1990) “Design Education and Research for the 21st Centur y” Design Studies , Vol.11 No. 4, pp. 202–206. 140. Ming-ying yang, et al. (2005), “Competencies and qualifications for industrial design jobs: implications for design practice, education, and student career guidance ”, Design Studies, Vol. 26, No 2, pp. 155–189. 131. Ibid. 132. Ibid. 122. Menna, F. (1965), “Design, comunicazione estetica e mass media” in Sec Ed: Design and Culture , SIC, 1985, Belgrade. 137. Buchanan, R. (2000), “The problem of character in design education: liberal education and professional specialization”, International Design Education Conference Reinventing Design Education in the University. 133. Liem, A., Sigurjonsson, J.B. (2011), “Adapting Industrial Design Education to Future Challenges of Higher Education”, International conference on engineering design, ICED, Technical University of Denmark. 141. Hor váth, I. (2006), “Design competence development in an academic vir tual enterprise”, Proceedings of IDETC/CIE International Design Engineering Technical Conferences & and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference , September 10–13, 2006, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. 134. Ibid. 135. Lucas Verweij, “We are coming to view design more as a mentality than a skill, http://www.dezeen. com/2014/03/25/opinion-lucas-verweijdesign-education/ 136. Lin, H. L. 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Her research interests is Theory and Economics of Enterprises; Theory of Intellectual Capital, Knowledge Economy, Innovation and Entrepreneurship; Measuring and disclosing intangible assets, and other advanced financial management methodologies. In last four years she studies the potential of intel- Walsh V., Roy R., Bruce M. and Potter S. (1992), Wining by Design: Technology, Product Design and International Competitiveness, oxford, Blackwell Business. lectual capital in creative sectors. She is author of 4 scientific monographs, 4 handbooks and number of scientific and expert papers published in national and international journals. Wernerfelt B. (1984) “A resourcebased view of the firm”, Strategic Management Journal , Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 171–180. Ivana Borovnjak holds a MA in product design from the School of Design, Faculty of Architecture in Zagreb, Croatia, and Mdes in Conceptual Design in Context from the Design yeh W. D. (2003), “The demand and the evaluation of the industrial design profession from the industries” The 6th Asian Design Conference. Academy Eindhoven, The Netherlands. Since 2009., as a member of the management board, and later, since 2013., as a president of Croatian Designers Association, she has been actively involved in creative direction of projects such as Design Tourism, collaborative initiatives and platforms, such as Balkan Design Network and International Design Festival D Day. Other activities include author concepts, product and graphic design, curating, writing and design research. She is one of the founders and members of The Art and Design Collective Oaza, founded in 2013 in Zagreb. References [260] Severin Filek was born in Vienna in 1961. Following his Gordana Ćorić, MSc. Econ. is a Deputy Head of Under- studies in Liberal Arts and Sciences at the University of graduate study program Entrepreneurship Economics and Vienna and the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, Senior Lecturer of Dynamic Entrepreneurship and Business Severin gained his Master of Arts in 1984 from the Univer- Ethics at the University of Applied Sciences VERN’, Zagreb, sity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA. Since 1992 he Croatia. Before taking part in the Practicing Design pro- has been the Managaing Director of designaustria, Aus- ject, she has been involved in one other project related to tria’s national representative body for professional design- design education – Entrepreneurship in Applied Arts and ers. From 1998–2000 he was the President of the Bureau Design. She is the owner-manager of consultancy and of European Designers’ Associations (BEDA) and has been training company Festina lente (business services, coun- board member since then. He is one of the conceptual seling, consulting, training programs). She is a teacher, fathers of the BEDA Communication Series and the BEDA trainer, mentor, researcher and program/project manager. European Design Report(s). He is the author of numerous Previous experience includes working for the European commissions in books and magazines, a presenter and Foundation for Entrepreneurship Research (EFER), and guest teacher nationally and internationally with clients World Learning in projects of education of entrepreneurs including the Austrian Ministries for External Trade, CRID and economic empowerment of women. She has published (Spain) and Harper and Collins Publishers Ltd. (Great over 25 professional, scientific and review papers. Britain). Currently lecturing at Kunstuniversität in Linz, FH Joanneum in Graz, NDU – New Design University in St. Pölten and the Graphische in Vienna. In 2015 the President of Austria Dr. Heinz Fischer appointed him Professor. Aleksandar Velinovski is a founder and managing director of Public Room – Centre for Design and Innovation in Skopje. After five years spent in the Netherlands as managing director of Eastern Neighbors Festival working on development and implementation of various cultural and economic activities between Holland and Balkan countries, at 2011 he establishes Skopje Design Week festival which turns to be one of the biggest design platforms. Velinovski is one of the founders of regional design platform, Balkan Design Network, and actively contributes to the realization of the international annual exhibition Young Balkan Designers – On Tour. PROjECT PARTNERS Austria Croatia Macedonia PRACTICING DESIGN PRACTICING DESIGN DESIGN DESIGN DESIGN PRACTICING PRACTICING PRACTICING PRACTICING DESIGN