Sufism in India

The Sufis in Sindh-o-Hind A brief discussion of the role that Sufism played in Indo-Muslim society from 1200-1700. Hasan M Zulfiqar Qureshi St. Cross College, Oxford Essay No. 1: January, 2015 In this descriptive analysis of Sufism’s role in Indo-Muslim society from 1200-1700, I first begin with a brief discussion of the contested meaning of Sufism as understood today. I then detail a chronological account of Sufism’s arrival in Hind, closely tied with the political developments of Islam’s gradual penetration into the subcontinent. I then look at the main Sufi orders and personalities which have played the most crucial roles in medieval and early modern Indian society. With this, I examine the central question of the paper, namely the various roles and contributions of Sufism in the period, focusing on; societal and ethical contributions.; their role in the politics of the ruling classes and the Ulama; their relationship with non-muslims and attitudes towards conversion; their part in the major debates of the day; and various dual roles that Sufis played in society. Interspersed is a regional analysis of the Sufi centers of Deccan, Awadh, and Bengal. _________________________ I will not going into the details of what Sufism is, as the term and meaning is highly contested. Many ‘Sufis’ themselves reject the term, preferring no such terminology which distinguishes them as different or separate from Islam and humanity. Neither will I discuss terminology as this too is highly contentious. So is Sufism's place within, and its relationship, with mainstream Islam. Sufism is very hard to distinguish from other forms of practicing Imaan within Islam, and even from many concepts of the other religions/philosophies with which it has had prolonged contact. Those it has come most into contact with; Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Greek philosophy. One thing Sufism is not though is a sect. Ernst, 1997 There are Sunni Sufis, Shia Sufis, and Sufis from other Islamic sects; historically there have even been Christian and Jewish Sufis. Schimmel, 1975 Sufism is both a separate hierarchical structure with its own defined practices and ideologies (for some), and a way/form and occurrence – a happening (for most). Schimmel, 1980 Anything ethically imbued or of spiritual thought may be termed Sufiana – a state of being. Over the course of history ‘Sufi’ has meant anything from a certain way of imagining a concept, to a whole new pseudo-religion or outlook which is far removed from majority accepted interpretations of the Quran and Hadith. That is, Sufism is not one thing, it is many. For the sake of clarity however, this essay will use the definition of Sufism in its most generally understood context – the search for something other than worldliness with the use of ‘mystic’ (non-conventional) worship to reach a spiritual enlightenment, by practicing liberal ethics, the relaying of inherited knowledge, travel (both physical and temporal), love and acceptance of difference, and the occasional intoxicant and trance. Arrival in Hind Whatever the actual origins of the Sufism that we understand today –either originating in early-mid 8th century Khorasan/Baghdad or even pre-dating Islam’s arrival; we know that Sufism as an idea arrived in the subcontinent first in the Southern Coasts and Sri Lanka, through the long established and growing Indian Ocean trade route, either simultaneously with the arrival and settlement of Muslim traders, or not long after. Asher, 2006 However, this was sporadic and the vast majority of Muslim thought penetration in the southern regions was overwhelmingly of Arabized Shafi’i jurisprudence, as opposed to the Central Asian and Persian Hanafi law which had a much closer relationship with the early and still developing Sufi orders. Rizvi, 1978 Sufism would assume a far greater importance in the south only after it had penetrated the northern regions of India. In the north, early in-roads by a succession of Muslim campaigns since 711AD (bin Qasim) had slowly cemented Muslim influence in Sindh, parts of modern Punjab, and moving east into India proper. Over the ensuing centuries, a growing number of Sufi’s began migrating to India to travel to a land of opportunity, on knowledge seeking missions, for dawah, to escape persecution elsewhere and most importantly by accompanying a succession of conquerors. As empire building in India began in earnest from the 12th century onwards, with the Ghaznawids and then the Ghurids, Sufis came too and settled. Schimmel, 1980 In these new courts of Turkic and Persian mix, the Sufi’s found great patrons. It is during this time that the first major works of Sufi thought in Hind were produced, including the Kashf al-Mahjub (written in Lahore) by Shaikh Abul Hasan Ali Hajwairi (d. 1071) -known as Daata Ganj Baksh- which became a major source for early Sufi thought and practice. The Ghurids, by 1204, had extended their rule over Rajasthan, Benares, and Bihar, penetrating the regions of Bengal as well. Asher, 2006 By this time, many Sufi’s had developed into structured orders in Persia and Central Asia and were further consolidating themselves in the regions of Sindh, Kashmir, Punjab and Delhi. Ibid From 1206-1526AD, during the period labeled the Delhi Sultanate, Sufi orders fleeing the collapse of the Khalifat in Baghdad amid the scourge of the Mongol invasions, established themselves in the relative peace and prosperity of Hind, first expanding with the borders of the Delhi dynasties. Rizvi, 1978 Under the Tughluq dynasty (1290-1388AD) Sufism spread to the Deccan plateau which would become a Sufi stronghold over the coming centuries. Ibid Finally, with the consolidation of the much larger and wealthier Mughal Empire from 1526 onwards, Sufism’s dominance in Indian society would only increase. Tariqas Examining Sufism’s role in South Asian society would be incomplete without first outlining the major Tariqas (orders, more literally way or path) of the period and their structures. Tariqas had been around for some time before their arrival in the subcontinent. Though not all Sufis identify with a Tariqa (some preferring a more fakiri/qalandari, unattached life), there are many followers in the subcontinent today who do. A Tariqa is a hierarchical order which usually has a Murshid or Pir (guide) at its head who is a Sheikh or an Aalim, having attained a certain degree of spiritual enlightenment, and often claiming direct descent from the Prophet Muhammad through a chain of holy people who followed the ‘way’ (a silsila). Such Tariqas can have from a few hundred to tens of millions of Murids (followers, literally committed ones) who have a ta'alluq (relationship or link) with the Murshid and a place within the Tariqa, following and seeking advice from the Murshid. This is a form of Taqlid (imitation of another in religious matters) which can be distinguished from Ijtehad (independent reasoning), Taqlid is not only a Sufi phenomenon but is widespread in most of the Muslim world today. making proselytization among an illiterate populace much easier. Tariqas may also have regional branches or franchises; one for example in the Maghreb, and another in the region of Sham and so forth. Tariqas may and usually do have sub-braches named after an individual who professed his own path, but still related in some way to the main tariqa. Ernst, 1997 The Tariqas and their contributions Though there were (and still are) numerous Tariqas in the subcontinent from 1200-1700, Some which are not discussed here include: Shadhili (concentrated in Tamil Nadu), Kubrawiyyah (in Kashmir), Qadriyya (South India) Mujahidiyya, Firdausiyya, and Mahdawi. a few were particularly successful in capturing the loyalty of the populace, being granted royal favor and thus growing much larger than their contemporaries. Tariqas also had a regional concentration, being more prominent in one area compared to others. One of the earliest Tariqas to arrive in the subcontinent was the Chisti order (Chistiyya – from Herat, Afghanistan), which soon became the dominant early Tariqa, patronized by the various Delhi sultanates. Ernst, 2002 This lineage gave Sultanate Hind some of its earliest and most active societal reformers in Khawaja Hasan Moeenuddin Chishti (d. 1236) (Ajmer), Hazrat Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, and Shaikh Nizam al-Din Auliya (d. 1325); who was the Shaikh of Amir Khusro, Nizami, 2007 himself the progenitor of Indo-Muslim classical music which is such an integral part of Pakistan and India’s culture today and also one of the most popular Sufi methods of attraction. The Chistis ordinarily shunned materialism, and had an aversion to court life and all its worldly trappings, especially power. Ernst, 2002 However, their mission was also to spread their message and the best way this could be done was by using the power of the court. The courts of Hind, be it the later Mughals, or in this case the Delhi Sultanates, in turn sought to use a close relationship with the Chistis to further their own legitimacy; though this connection was also sought on a more personal level with many rulers truly believing in the miraculous powers (karamat) and inherited knowledge of the Sufis. Ernst, 2004 Using this royal relationship, the Chistis increased their presence in the local population, not differentiating between Muslim and non-Muslim, unlike the traditional Ulama. Aquil. 2010 This ability to use, adopt and tell the Islamic story using the local folklore was immensely successful in the subcontinent. Though evidence suggests that conversion (never mind forced conversion) amongst the local non-muslims was not as widespread as the Orientalists surmised in the early period, Ibid an adoption of Sufi practices (not necessarily Islamic per say) and sympathy for the Sufis was certainly apparent among Hindus, Buddhists and Jains. Conversion in the early period was more prevalent in the ruling classes, who used it as a political option to stay in the circle of power. The translation of Islamic texts which the Sufis undertook (along with the other non-Sufi Muslim movements) into the local vernacular languages greatly aided the Islamisation of Hind. More importantly, in a country with a long tradition of oral history, the Chistis used newly popularized music in the form of Ghazals, Qawwali, Khayal, Tarana, Dhrupad, Raag and Sangeet to popularize their message both in urban and rural areas. Much like Fateh Ali Khan popularized for the common folk Allama Iqbal in the 20th century, so did Sufis of the early period use qawwals to their own benefit. The use of such music and the accompanying trance-like state often encouraged by hashish or opium became a point of contention with the more traditional Ullema, who had their own place of importance in Indian society and its courts. Ernst, 2002 But unlike the Ullema, the Sufis were much closer to the people and thus endeared themselves to them. The debate on music was but one of the major debates which Chistis were part of in the diverse religious atmosphere of Sultanate, and later, Mughal Hind. The practice of celebrating the urs (death anniversary) of a saint, in their lavishly decorated mazars or dargahs (mausoleums), was another highly controversial aspect of the Chistis (and other orders), with a backlash from orthodox scholars who termed it akin to grave-worshipping. Rizvi, 1978 In addition, the fact that many Sufi orders emphasized the need for a spiritual and worthy intermediary between a non-Shaykh and Allah, has led many times to debate turning into conflict between traditionalists and Sufis in India. Ibid However, such specific controversies aside, the Chistis, and the Sufis as a whole entrenched themselves in Indian society during this period, and in extension became mainstream, a crucial and undeniable facet of Islam in Hind. Ernst, 2002 As examples of discipline, piety, justice, and understanding they not only served as a comprehendible bridge between non-Muslims and Muslim in India, but also endeared themselves in the hearts of many – Muslim and Dhimmi alike. Under the Sayyid and Lodhi dynasties (1414-1526) the political geography of North India changed with regional kingdoms rising to compete with the Sultans of Delhi. This gave other Tariqas the opportunity to ingrain themselves within the religious structures of these new powers. Sufi ideas also began to proliferate at a rapid pace with non-Muslim Sufi inspired personalities emerging such as Guru Nanak, Kabir and the Vaishnava bhakti movement. Ernst, 1997 Sufis had close relationships with all these communities, much closer than had the traditional Ullema. Aquil. 2010 In the south, the recent expansion of Muslim rule into the Deccan plains, and the ensuing Muslim power structures in Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golkanda allowed Sufis to use the developing Deccani Urdu in verse to spread knowledge. Eaton, 1978 The contribution to culture made by Sufis with and in the guise of qawwals and shayirs is still felt strongly today, and was a unifying factor in that period. Ibid Later, the area of and around Aurangabad became synonymous with Sufis, with nary a village without its own mazar. Ibid In Bengal too there was considerable Sufi success and permeation in the form of the Suhrawardiyya tariq which was centered around Maner Sharif. Eaton, 1993 Notable Suhrawardiyyas in Bihar and Bengal include Makhdoom Yahya Maneri and Makhdoom Shahabuddin Pir Jagjot. Ibid However Bengal is given less scholarly attention due to the focus on North India. The Sultanate of Jaunpur (1394-1479) in Awadh was also a major benefactor of Sufis. Islam, 2002 The ruling Sharqi dynasty was of local origin (reverts to Islam), and Muslim-Hindu relations being better here allowed Sufis of various orders to flourish. Ibid A vital link for the Sufi orders between not only the different regions of Hind, but beyond its borders as well, was the khanqah, which were buildings usually along or near major roads, which served as rest stops for travelling Sufis (saliks), and meeting places for discussion or meditation. Ernst, 2004 These allowed Sufis from different lands and maybe different orders to stay up to date with the issues affecting the Ummah and keep up with the latest debates. In all the places of Hind where the Sufis were present, they were involved in (except those who had actively become ascetics) and part of the daily life of society. Sufis often doubled as warriors, scholars, scribes, judges, agriculturalists, skilled Ustaads, hakeems and various other professions. Nizami, 1984 People of different beliefs came to them for more than religious guidance or perceived miracle powers; many Sufis were also wise in the ways of the world too and counseled all from kings to local petty chieftains, mostly in methods of either acquiring more power or keeping it. Thus from the village pir to the courtly sheikh, Sufis permeated, interacted with and affected different levels of everyday societal structure. But there was also a misuse of authority and power. Individuals claiming to be wise in the ways of the Sufis took monetary and other advantages from a largely illiterate population. The way in which such taqlid could be so easily misused (and examples of heavily corrupt and criminal pirs) was another facet of the orthodox attack on Sufism. With the arrival of the Mughals, their uniting of the various Indian kingdoms under one banner, and the vast resources that they commanded, another powerful Sufi order, the Naqshbandis, entered the diverse Sufi landscape of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Asher, 2006 Though the Chisti saints were still highly venerated, the Naqshbandis of Kabul (and certain Shattaris) were also courted by Babur and his descendants. The Naqshbandis in turn gained huge impetus by royal affiliation. They were also put to work for the Empire; for example, bringing together local Muslim populations into expanding the boundaries of settled agriculture towards the North-West, squeezing the pagan populations of modern day Pakistani GB between themselves and the Muslim Pashtuns – leading to a gradual conversion of the populace, through economic necessity. Metcalf, 2002 The Mughal affiliation with the tariqs was more than mere politicking or seeking Islamic legitimacy. The Mughal emperors did not really need Sufi legitimacy; imperial legitimacy was embodied within them, through their lineage and power. But emperors such as Akbar and Jahangir sought out not only the Sufis, but also non-Muslim mystics, to seek divine sanction for their endeavors. Akbar went a step further and sought Sufi allegiance invested in himself as part of his ill-fated din-e-Ilahi. In this narrative, he embodied the very enlightened perfection of soul and character that only the greatest of Sufi sheikhs could attain – he was thus, in a very specific manner, imitating the Sufi grand masters. Conclusion This short essay has touched on the major roles, contributions and debates by Sufis of various orders, over a 500 year period. This period could be called the golden age of Sufism in Sindh-o-Hind, when they were at the very center of religion, power, and society – helping shape the region into what it is today. __________________ Bibliography Aquil, R. 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A History of Sufism in India, 2 Vols. (New Delhi, 1978). Schimmel, A. Islam in the Indian Subcontinent (Leiden, 1980). Schimmel, A. The Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Chapel Hill, 1975) ____________________________________________________ Hasan M Q Zulfiqar The Sufis in Sindh-o-Hind The Islamic History of South Asia 10