Sustainable Brownfield Regeneration (master's thesis)

SUSTAINABLE URBAN REGENERATION OF BROWNFIELDS By Mohamed Haroun Ismael Shaaban A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Engineering at Cairo University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in Architectural Engineering FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, CAIRO UNIVERSITY GIZA, EGYPT 2016 SUSTAINABLE URBAN REGENERATION OF BROWNFIELDS By Mohamed Haroun Ismael Shaaban A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Engineering at Cairo University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in Architectural Engineering Under the Supervision of Prof. Dr. Sahar Attia Prof. of Architecture and Urban Design Department of Architecture Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University Assoc.Prof. Dr. Heba Allah Khalil Associate Prof. of urban planning Department of Architecture Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, CAIRO UNIVERSITY GIZA, EGYPT 2016 Engineer’s Name: Date of Birth: Nationality: E-mail: Phone: Address: Mohammed Haroun Ismael Shaaban 9/5/1989 Egyptien. Mohammed.haroun@hotmail.com 01118235606 1Ebn Elsokkary St., Roda,Manyal. Cairo 1/10/2011 …./…./5016. Master of Science Architecture Registration Date: Awarding Date: Degree: Department: Supervisors: Prof. Sahar Attia Ass.Prof. Heba Allah Khalil Examiners: Prof. Hassanein Abu Zeid (External examiner) Professor of urban planning, Azhar University Prof. Amr El Halafway (Internal examiner) Porf. Sahar Attia (Thesis main advisor) Assoc. Porf. Heba Allah Khalil (Member) Title of Thesis: SUSTAINABLE URBAN REGENERATION OF BROWNFIELDS Key Words: Brownfields, management. urban regeneration, sustainable development, urban land Summary: The thesis is discussing the concepts of brownfields regeneration as an approach to achieve sustainable urban development. The research deals with different layers of complexity of sustainable urban regeneration as a process, and brownfields as sites. It analyzes some case studies, moreover an attempt to build on existing worldwide experience of brownfields regeneration strategies, and investigate the principles of sustainable urban planning strategy. The research main goal is to suggest a conceptual framework for dealing with the process of redeveloping brownfields in the Egyptian context, especially in Greater Cairo cities. SUSTAINABLE URBAN REGENERATION OF BROWNFIELDS By Mohamed Haroun Ismael A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Engineering at Cairo University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in Architectural Engineering FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, CAIRO UNIVERSITY GIZA, EGYPT 2016 Acknowledgment I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my supervisors and my mentors Prof. Dr. Sahar Attia, and Dr. Heba Allah Essam Khalil for their generous, continuous support, patience, and guidance to develop this thesis. I would also like to acknowledge Aya Alkhouly for her patience and help since the early stages of this thesis. In addition, I would like to thank all the professors and colleagues who provided the necessary feedback and support to complete the study. i Dedication To all my dear family members, who supported me and made me what I am, To my father's soul, and my mother whom I cannot thank enough. To my wife & my friend Aya Alkholy, to my beloved daughter Ayatollah, to my brother Moustafa, and my sister Heba. To all my professors and teachers who taught me a lot in life. ii Table of Contents Acknowledgment .................................................................................................... I Dedication ................................................................................................... II Table of contents ................................................................................................ III List of figures ................................................................................................ VII List of tables ..................................................................................................IX Abstract ................................................................................................... X Chapter 1 : Introduction ....................................................................................... 1 1.1.Research background .............................................................................................. 1 1.2.Problem statement .................................................................................................. 2 1.3.Research questions: ................................................................................................ 2 1.4.Goal and objectives: ............................................................................................... 2 1.5.Methodology: .......................................................................................................... 3 1.6.Research structure ................................................................................................... 4 1.7.Detailed structure: ................................................................................................... 6 Chapter 2 : Sustainable Brownfields Regeneration Concept .............................. 7 2.1.Introduction............................................................................................................. 8 2.2.Identifying brownfields .......................................................................................... 8 2.2.1. Brownfield definition....................................................................................... 8 2.2.2. Types and classification of brownfields .......................................................... 9 2.2.3 The existence of brownfields. ........................................................................ 11 2.3.Impact of brownfields in inner cities. ................................................................... 12 2.3.1. Negatives of brownfields ............................................................................... 13 2.3.2. Benefits of brownfields.................................................................................. 13 2.4.Interventions within continuously growing cities................................................. 16 2.4.1. Urbanization and urban expansion. ............................................................... 16 2.4.2. Urban planning challenges ............................................................................ 16 2.4.3. Urban interventions: ...................................................................................... 17 2.4.4. Urban acupuncture and regeneration ............................................................. 19 2.5.Sustainable urban development ............................................................................ 19 2.5.1. Sustainable development dimensions (objectives balance) ........................... 20 2.5.2. The ‘sustainable community’ ........................................................................ 21 2.6.Urban regeneration concept .................................................................................. 22 iii 2.6.1. Urban regeneration definition ........................................................................22 2.6.2. Historical evolution of urban regeneration ....................................................23 2.6.3. Urban regeneration process. ...........................................................................25 2.6.4. The context of urban regeneration .................................................................25 2.6.5. Different approaches to urban regeneration ...................................................26 2.6.6. Sustainable urban regeneration ......................................................................27 2.7.Sustainable brownfield regeneration concept ...................................................... 28 2.8.Conclusion............................................................................................................ 30 Chapter 3 : Complexity of brownfields regeneration.........................................31 3.1.Introduction .......................................................................................................... 32 3.2.Brownfields regeneration in complex urban systems .......................................... 32 3.2.1. Dynamics of brownfield regeneration/creation ..............................................33 3.2.2. Brownfields in the context of urban land management .................................34 3.3.Brownfields in stakeholders’ perspectives ........................................................... 35 3.3.1. Roles and interests of participants..................................................................38 3.4.Drivers and challenges of brownfields regeneration ............................................ 39 3.4.1. Governance factor ..........................................................................................39 3.4.2. Brownfields regeneration drivers: ..................................................................40 3.4.3. Economic viability of brownfields sites .........................................................41 3.4.4. Brownfields regeneration challenges .............................................................42 3.4.5. The impact of brownfield regeneration: .........................................................43 3.5.Brownfield analysis from perspective of sustainability ....................................... 43 3.5.1. Importance of sustainability objectives ..........................................................44 3.6.Conclusion............................................................................................................ 48 Chapter 4 : worldwide experience in urban regeneration of brownfields, international case studies ......................................................................................49 4.1.Introduction .......................................................................................................... 50 4.2.International reactions dealing with brownfields ................................................. 50 4.2.1. United states of america .................................................................................52 4.2.2. The united kingdom .......................................................................................53 4.2.1. Europe experience ..........................................................................................53 4.3.The project chain in brownfield regeneration ...................................................... 55 4.3.1. The idea or start of the project (initiative) .....................................................56 iv 4.3.2. Planning and design of the project................................................................. 56 .4.3.3 Business model and cooperation issues ......................................................... 58 4.4.Brownfield regeneration projects case studies: .................................................... 59 4.4.1. Brownfields to green space projects , ............................................................ 59 4.4.2. Brooklyn navy yard high line, new york, usa ................................................ 60 4.4.3. Brownfield to bright field .............................................................................. 63 4.4.4. Bilbao culture regeneration............................................................................ 67 4.4.5. Hammarby sjöstad, stockholm, sweden ........................................................ 71 4.4.6. Seine rive gauche, paris ................................................................................. 75 4.6.Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 79 Chapter 5 : Brownfields regeneration in Greater Cairo context ...................... 80 5.1.Introduction........................................................................................................... 81 5.2.Greater cairo (study area) ..................................................................................... 82 5.2.1. Main issues of current conditions and urban development strategy .............. 83 5.2.2. Resources allocation utilizing existing assets ................................................ 85 5.3.Brownfields inside greater cairo ........................................................................... 87 5.3.1. Definition of brownfields in egyptian context ............................................... 87 5.3.2. Examples of brownfields inside greater cairo ............................................... 88 5.3.3. Types and scale of brownfield sites in g.c. .................................................... 89 5.3.4. The trend of dealing with brownfields........................................................... 91 5.3.5. Brownfields in gc; a problem and a solution; ................................................ 91 5.4.Brownfields regeneration in g.c ............................................................................ 92 5.4.1. Projects and initiatives ................................................................................... 92 5.4.2. Al azhar park from waste land to park........................................................... 95 5.4.3. Imbaba airport land project. ........................................................................... 99 5.5.Proposed actions for g.c. ..................................................................................... 104 5.6.Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 107 Chapter 6 : Conclusion and recommendation .................................................. 108 6.1.Introduction......................................................................................................... 108 6.2.Research conclusion ........................................................................................... 108 6.2.1. Theoretical conclusion ................................................................................. 108 6.2.2. Analytical conclusion .................................................................................. 110 6.3.Recommendations: ............................................................................................. 112 v 6.4.Further research .................................................................................................. 113 References .................................................................................................114 Appendix .................................................................................................119 vi List of Figures ……………....... 4 Figure 1-2 Research Structure………………………………………………... 5 Figure 1-3 detailed Research Structure………………………………………. 6 Figure 2-1 Brownfield characteristics………………………………………… 10 Figure 2-2 different methods of intervention existing urban environment…… 18 Figure 2-3 Circle of Sustainability …………………………………………… 21 Figure 2-4 four phases of urban regeneration process………………………... 25 Figure 2-5 Illustration of sustainable brownfield regeneration………………. 28 Figure 3-1 Model of phases and potential of circular flow land use management ………………………………………………………….……… 33 Figure 3-2 The Brownfield Bath Model – showing the filling and emptying of the bath…………………………………………………………………… 34 Figure 3-3 The Land Use Puzzle Model. …………………………………… 35 Figure 3-4 Engagement strategy based on the interest/influence stakeholder map ………………………………………………………………………….. 33 Figure 3-5 The Football Model interactive screen showing the stakeholder selection………………………………………………………………………. 33 Figure 3-6 governance actors………………………………………………… 40 Figure 3-7 A-B-C Model, Economic Components of brownfield site. ……… 41 Figure 3-8 Illustrative interaction matrix for the urban land system. ……….. 43 Figure 4-1 steps and recommendations made by governments. ……………... 51 Figure 4-2 government reactions dealing with Brownfields. ………………… 52 Figure 4-3 project chain or the procedure of brownfield regeneration project. ……………………………………………………………………… 56 Figure 4-4 Brooklyn Navy Yard high line phases. ………………..…………. 60 Figure 4-5 high line view. …………………………………………………… 60 Figure 4-5 Brockton’s Brightfield illustrative site plan …………………… 64 Figure 4-6 Bilbao's Abandoibarra area, lift, before the project, on the right after regeneration. …………………………………………………………… 67 Figure 4-7 master plan of Abandoibarra area. ………………………………. 68 Figure 4-8 Guggenheim museum. ………………………………………….. 68 Figure 4-9 hammarby sjostad master plan. ………………………………….. 72 Figure 4-10 hammarby sjostad before and after. …………………………….. 75 Figure 1-1 Methodology and study logic of the Research vii Figure 4-11 hammarby model. ……………………………………………….. 72 Figure 4-12 Aerial image of the area left side (late 1980s) right side 2013. ... 75 Figure 4-13 zones of the project. …………………………………………… 76 Figure 5-1 boundary of Greater Cairo Land Use of urban mass in 2012. …… 83 Figure 5.2 Spatial recommendations inside GC main urban mass. ………….. 85 Figure 5-3 strategic plan of Cairo and Giza governorates. …………………... 86 Figure 5-4 Samples of brownfields or inside Greater Cairo. ………………… 88 Figure 5-5 Unoccupied and Unused buildings inside Greater Cairo Region. 88 Figure 5-6 Classification of Brownfields according to original land use inside Greater Cairo Region …………………………………………………. 89 Figure 5-7 Classification of Brownfields according to average land price…... 90 Figure 5-8 classification of Brownfields according to ownership inside Cairo. ………………………………………………………………………… 90 Figure 5-9 Azhar park project. ……………………………………………….. 95 Figure 5-10 Masterplan of Al Azhar park regeneration project ……………... 96 Figure 5-11 Imbaba airport land project……………………………………… 99 Figure 5-12 North Giza sector development plan……………………………. 100 Figure 5-13 initial proposal for reusing airport land…………………………. 101 Figure 5-14 masterplan for Imbaba Airport land regeneration………………. 102 Figure 5-15 Brownfields integrated regeneration model. ……………………. 104 Figure 5-16 Brownfield regeneration strategic integrated detailed model. …. 106 viii List of Tables Table 2-1 Types and causes of Brownfields site according to location. …….. 12 Table 2-2 possible Benefits of brownfields. …………………………………. 15 Table 2-3 The evolution of concept and practice of urban regeneration. …… 24 Table 2-4 Sustainable brownfield regeneration key points. …………………. 29 Table 3-1 Examples of Stakeholders involved in the regeneration of brownfield sites. ……………………………………………………………… Table 3-2 Examples of Roles and Interests of Participants in brownfield regeneration. ………………………………………………………………….. Table 3-4 Sustainability Objectives that could be met in Brownfield regeneration…………………………………………………………………… Table 4-1 High line case analysis…………………………………………….. 45-46 61-62 Table 4-2 Bogton Brightfield case analysis ………………………………….. 65-66 Table 4-3 Bilbao case analysis………………………………………………... 69-70 Table 4-4 Hammarby Sjöstad case analysis…………………………………... 74 Table 4-5 Seine rive gauche case analysis……………………………………. 77-78 Table 5-1 Examples of implemented projects. ………………………………. 93 Table 5-2 Examples of proposed projects (conceptualized, or planned) …….. 94 Table 5-3 Al-Azhar Park case analysis……………………………………….. 97-98 ix 36 38 Abstract The thesis is discussing the concepts of brownfields regeneration as an approach to achieve sustainable urban development. The research deals with different layers of complexity of sustainable urban regeneration as a process, and brownfields as sites. It analyzes some case studies, moreover it attempts to build on existing worldwide experience of brownfields regeneration strategies, and investigate the principles of sustainable urban planning strategy. The research main goal is to suggest a conceptual framework for dealing with the process of redeveloping brownfields in the Egyptian context, especially in Greater Cairo cities. The research addresses how brownfields regeneration could be considered as a main approach to achieve more sustainable strategic development in G.C.R. This thesis consists of six chapters. Starting with an introductory chapter, followed by the theoretical part, which consists of two chapters. It presents a theoretical review that discusses different concepts of brownfields sustainable regeneration. In addition, it reviews the complexity of brownfields sustainable regeneration and related issues in complex urban systems .It investigates the impact of brownfields regeneration on urban environment, the challenges and driving forces that could affect the process of brownfields regeneration. The analytical part including (chapter four and five) presents different examples of practices in different countries, and cities, recognized benefits, challenges Many cases for a number of projects that have been recognized as examples of sustainable brownfield regeneration. Moreover, it investigates the current conditions of brownfields in Greater Cairo contexts and relevant developmental approaches. Finally, the research proposes a suggested conceptual framework in which brownfields could be integrated strategically in urban development goals. The research ends with conclusions and recommendations related to brownfields regeneration, that can offer the opportunity to promote sustainable, feasible projects that revitalize Egyptian cities. Keywords Brownfields, management. urban regeneration, sustainable x development, urban land Chapter 1 : Introduction 1.1. Research Background Egypt as one of oldest urbanized countries, with old city cores is suffering from environmental declination. City cores require innovative approaches in order to repurpose these distinctive areas according to their high-value land. However these sites are considered as a very important asset in cities cores, they are usually still occupied by very poor buildings and infrastructure. One main reason of having such deteriorated sites inside cities is caused by the change occurring in cities over time. These changes, whether in economic base or demographic shifts and social transformations, lead to emergence of different needs and produced many vacant or under-utilized. These assets are known as Brownfields. Brownfields are frequently vacant or under-utilized properties that would have been used as industrial buildings or at other uses that are now declining. They often exist in desirable waterfront lands, city centers, and old industrial zones or densely populated urban areas which is a waste of land resources. Many scholars made studies related to how to deal with brownfields, brownfields typologies, treating methodologies and found that, resulting problems are not only physical, such as underused or vacant land and abandoned buildings, but also social and economic, such as unemployment and social deprivation. One of the approaches to formulate solutions for Brownfields problems is known as Urban Regeneration. This approach usually takes the form of public strategy in order to regulate urban processes and attempt to improve the urban environment. A central shift has occurred in implementing regeneration from just physical urban renewal, to be defined as integrated sustainable urban development concept. The revitalization of urban areas and development of brownfield sites with the compact city approach in urban development decrease urban sprawl. Therefore, urban regeneration also plays a vital role in developing compact urban forms. With revitalization of declining areas in the city, it could improve the existing fabric, enhance local character, and improve the built environment while achieving economic progress. Egypt used to have many industrial activities inside cities cores; moreover some of the activities of city centers have been transferred to other places, or even don’t exist anymore because of technological development, which lead to a lot of vacant sites-Brownfieldspresenting an asset to be used during redevelopment strategies. The field of the contemporary urban planning practice, many advocate a sustainable urban development by revisiting brownfield sites in the heart of the cities as an essential asset for redevelopment. Those derelict sites have become the target redevelopment areas in major developed cities. Most of brownfields in Egypt are owned by public organizations and government, what makes it easier to deal with and start a regeneration process on a sustainable base according to applicable local needs This research attempts to build on existing worldwide experience of brownfields regeneration strategies, and investigate the principles of sustainable urban planning strategy to achieve sustainable urban regeneration in cities with focus on greater Cairo region. 1 1.2. Problem Statement Many Egyptian cities have been through various transformations. This resulted in many deteriorated city cores with many vacant and abandoned sites. Brownfields usually symbolize urban deterioration, inappropriate uses, and derelict assets, neglected potential adjacent to deteriorated area, abandoned sites require reclamation/revitalization. However, these sites are resource assets that represent neglected potential in redevelopment plans. On the other hand, cities tend to expand, consuming surrounding arable land to fulfill their inhabitants' needs. Thus, this research main problem can be summarized as; The current neglect to brownfields as an important asset that could be reused strategically to regenerate the city and help in achieving sustainable urban development. 1.3. Research questions: The main research question is: Could brownfields regeneration be considered as a main approach to achieve sustainable urban regeneration in G.C.R (Greater Cairo Region)? To investigate the answer of that question the research is addressing more questions such as:  What are brownfields regeneration? How brownfields regeneration can lead to sustainable urban regeneration?  What are the main factors that affect brownfields regeneration?  Worldwide, what are the different approaches and projects experiences in the field of brownfields sustainable Regeneration?  What are the best approaches of sustainable brownfields regeneration for the Egyptian context? 1.4. Goal and objectives: The research aims at proposing a conceptual framework for strategies that can be applied to deal with the regeneration of derelict assets (brownfields) in Egyptian context, especially in Greater Cairo Region. The strategies should focus on brownfields regeneration as resource that will support and contribute to the development and upgrading of the sustainable built environment. Objectives: To achieve this aim, the research has a number of secondary objectives:  Review and understand guiding concepts of the study as: (sustainable development, urban regeneration and brownfields redevelopment)  investigate the complexity and effective factors of sustainable brownfield regeneration  analyze successful international practices and experiences of brownfields urban regeneration to recognize the extent of Brownfields regeneration 2 Egypt: Investigate the applicability of sustainable urban regeneration of brownfields in Egyptian context  Investigate the present condition, problems, challenges, and potentials of brownfield urban regeneration in Greater Cairo.  Propose some recommendations for a refined approach to sustainable urban regeneration of brownfield and its implications in Egypt 1.5. Methodology: To achieve the study goal and objectives, quantitative and qualitative research approaches are adopted. The methodology is divided into two main parts, Theoretical and practical. The theoretical study reviews and discusses concepts related to the brownfields sustainable regeneration, and their implications. Practical study analyses and investigates the applicability of these concepts worldwide and in the Egyptian context. Main study phases of this research, outlined below, (Figure 1.1) describe how the research was carried out and present the methods of outputs produced in the different phases of the thesis. Background research through (Literature Review), Developing the applied framework according to literature and international best practices in the field of study. Using the synthesis analysis framework different examples from deferent counties where urban regeneration was used as an approach or a tool to sustainable planning. Investigating the Egyptian current situation will be through case study analysis, laws and regulations, moreover GOPP strategic development plan. Conclusion and recommendations are based on both theoretical and analytical studies according to Egyptian context. Data collected through internet research; academic databases, international and governmental reports, for secondary sources, in addition to key informants interviews and site visits observations for primary sources. Literature review, case studies, collected data are analyzed according to their contribution to research goals. 3 Analyses Figure 1-1 Methodology and study logic of the Research 1.6. Research Structure The research consists of six chapters fig. 1-2, each chapter starts with an introduction and summing up with conclusion notes on their linkage within the thesis. As shown in fig. 1-3 following the introductory chapter 1, chapter 2 will review and discusses some main definitions, theoretical concepts in fields of urban regeneration, brownfields, and Sustainable development. Chapter 3 then explores the complexity of brownfields regeneration and relevant international concepts, models and tools. Then analyzing drivers and challenges associated with practical aspects of brownfields regeneration projects Chapter 4 includes worldwide experience, where discussion will highlight different approaches and case studies of urban regeneration projects and strategies. Chapter 5 is more concerned with the issue in Egyptian context presented, Briefing the political and socio-economic context affecting the urban regeneration process, and analyzing the existence of brown fields in greater Cairo. And two examples mentioned as overview for the background of brownfields regeneration there. Chapter 6 the research concludes both theoretical and analytical studies, as well as presenting some recommendations in an attempt to include an urban agenda for regeneration strategies of brownfields in Egypt. 4 chapter 1 Introduction chapter 2 Towards sustainable brownfields regeneration chapter 3 Complexity of brownfields regeneration chapter 4 The World Wide Experiences (Best practices) chapter 5 Brownfields regeneration in Greater Cairo context chapter 6 Conclusions and Recommendations Figure 1-2 Research Structure 5 1.7. Detailed Structure: Recommendations Conclusions Ch. 6 conclusion and recommendations Theoretical study Analytical study Figure 1-3 Research detailed structure 6 • National level (laws and policies) • City level (strategies) • Project level Chapter 2 : Toward sustainable Brownfields regeneration Sustainable brownfields regeneration 7 2.1. Introduction Brownfields require interventions to be returned back to active use. In order to achieve sustainable urban development and support facing urbanization challenges. To study the concept of brownfields regeneration, it is very important to identify different terminologies related to Brownfields, regeneration and sustainability. It is also important to dig into literature of these fields in order to know more about the origins of sustainable urban regeneration and how brownfields can be regenerated. Furthermore investigating the positive or negative impacts of brownfields on cities. This chapter is going to focus on the concept of urban regeneration as a concept or an approach of intervention of redeveloping brownfields. sustainability concept will be introduced as a main paradigm for development, particularly urban development. It aims to sum up with a conclusion combining those three main terms to achieve a clear conception for what is called "sustainable Urban Regeneration of brownfields". 2.2. Identifying Brownfields Although the term brownfield is widely used nowadays, there is no a single widely recognized specific definition. Its meaning varies; it is mostly formulated on national level for each country. However, it is a relatively new concept, and its dominant use over the past two decades was in the US and Europe1.next part is going to overview some different definitions for brownfields. 2.2.1. Brownfield definition. In 1992, the term brownfield was first used in the United States 2 . The most commonly cited brownfield definition originates to the Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) 1997. "Brownfields are abandoned, idled, or under-utilized industrial and commercial facilities where redevelopment is difficult by possible environmental contamination"3. In 2000, a multi-disciplinary perspective proposed a definition stating that a brownfield site is “any land or premises which has previously been used or developed and is not currently fully in use, although it may be partially occupied or utilized. It may also be vacant, derelict or contaminated.”4 The term “brownfields” represents land and properties that have been artificially modified, but are not currently used to their optimized potential. Agricultural land is not generally considered as brownfields.5 In other words, brownfields can be conceptualized as „unemployed‟ non-agricultural land resources6 Perovic, S., & Kurtović Folić, N. )5015(. Brownfield regeneration–imperative for sustainable urban development. Građevinar, 24)05.(, 333-383. 2 Greenberg, M. R., & Hollander, J. (2006). The environmental protection agency's brownfields pilot program. American journal of public health, 96(2), 277-281. 3 U.S. EPA. 2003a. Brownfields Definition. U.S. EPA Brownfields Homepage. Available: http://epa.gov/brownfields/index.html . 4 Alker, S., Joy, V., Roberts, P., & Smith, N. (2000). The definition of brownfield. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 43(1), 49-69. 5 Alker, S., Joy, V., Roberts, P., & Smith, N. (2000). The definition of brownfield. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 43(1), 49-69. 6 Myers, D., & Wyatt, P. (2004). Rethinking urban capacity: identifying and appraising vacant buildings. Building Research & Information, 32(4), 285-292. 1 8 Although there are many definitions and interpretations for brownfields, the most widespread definition is the one proposed by the work group called CABERNET. They stated that: "brownfields are sites that have been affected by the former uses of the site and surrounding land, are derelict and underused, may have real or perceived contamination problems, are mainly developed in urban areas, and require intervention to bring them back to beneficial use.1 Brownfield's definitions differ from one country to another2 for example; the United States approach links brownfield with specifically industrial and commercial sites, usually with contamination. On the other hand the UK approach includes housing sites and land that is lying derelict without any concerns about contamination3 In 5003, Dixon described brownfield as “any land, which has been previously developed, including derelict and vacant land, which may or may not be contaminated”4. From all previous definitions, generally the term brownfields applies more to previously used land or to parts of industrial or commercial facilities that are to be redeveloped5. 2.2.2. Types and classification of Brownfields Brownfields could be very small spots in mixed urban areas or large military complexes, public spaces, industrial sites, coastal areas, and airports. While industrial complexes are dominant, areas destined for other occupancies, in which the primary activity is no longer operated, can also be regarded as brownfield sites. It is important to identify and classify brownfield sites for knowing their proper treatment.6 Classification criteria of brownfields can be applied to whole sites or parts of sites7. This criteria are mainly based on the characteristics that describe the current status of the site, which could have one or more of these characteristics see figure 2-1, like;  vacancy,  dereliction,  Size of the site.  contamination,  Partial occupation or partial utilization.  previous use,  the ownership situation 1 Ferber, U., Grimski, D., Millar, K., & Nathanail, P. (2006). Sustainable brownfield regeneration: CABERNET network report. University of Nottingham: L & Quality Management Group. 2 The definition for Egypt will be discussed in chapter five 3 syms, clarke, 2011 4 Dixon, T. (2007). The property development industry and sustainable urban brownfield regeneration in England: an analysis of case studies in Thames Gateway and Greater Manchester. Urban Studies, 44(12), 2379-2400. 5 Maliene V, Wignall L, Malys N (2012). "Brownfield Regeneration: Waterfront Site Developments in Liverpool and Cologne". Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management 20 (1). pp. 5–16. 6 Fakultet u Podgorici, A., Perovic, S., & Folić, N. K. Brownfield regeneration–imperative for sustainable urban development.) 7 Op.cit.1 9 previously developed possible contaminati on vacant land Figure 2-1 Brownfield characteristics Ref.: Page, G. W., & Berger, R. S. (2006). Information on previous use is important to estimate the type and extent of potential contamination of the site. It allows an estimation of the costs for site preparation depending on different reuse options and related construction design needs. As far as site ownership is concerned, the scope ranges from big private and public industrial corporations, to small private enterprises in secondary industries. These various ownership situations lead to different conditions for acquisition, funding and further use options.1 According to their position within an urban community, there are three typical brownfield types can be differentiated:2  In the central area  On the city’s border  In historic areas According to their purposes (previous use), typical brownfields are:3  Industrial zones  Military complexes  Mining installations  Railway complexes  Coastal areas  Municipal public service facilities Many existing brownfield sites are contaminated as a result of past industrial or commercial uses. Depending on what these sites were formerly used for, contaminants may include a range of toxins, such as petroleum, metals, asbestos, pesticides, PCBs and solvents. These contaminants may create significant health and safety risks for those who live and work close to brownfield properties. When abandoned brownfield lands are left neglected, contaminants may migrate off-site, creating hazards for others nearby. 1 Grimski, D., & Ferber, U. (2001). Urban brownfields in Europe. Land Contamination and Reclamation, 9(1), 143-148. 2 Klusáček, P., Krejčí, T., Martinát, S., Kunc, J., Osman, R., & Frantál, B. (2013). Regeneration of agricultural brownfields in the Czech Republic–Case study of the South Moravian Region. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, 61(2), 549-561. 33 Lorber, L., Matlovič, R., & Stiperski, Z. BROWNFIELDS, GEOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHERS IN CEE COUNTRIES-HOLISTIC APPROACH. 10 In general terms, according to the U.S. EPA Types of brownfields Sites, potential environmental pollutants include.1 a) Oil and petroleum facilities; Natural gas manufacturing, Gas stations, Oil production, distribution and recycling. b) Manufacturing; Chemical and dye manufacturing, Ordnance sites, Cement plants, electronics manufacturing, iron and steel manufacturing, machine tool industries, pesticides facilities, plastics facilities, pulp and paper mills, and textile mills. c) Recycling; Automobile salvage and metal recycling,Tank/drum recycling d) Treatment and repair facilities; Metal plating and finishing, Paint shops and automobile body repair, Wood preserver facilities e) Miscellaneous; Agri-business, Asbestos piles, Landfills and dumps, Rail Yards, meat packaging plants, mining sites and wastes, power generating facilities and utilities, quarries, print shops, and radiation mining, refining, and research sites. Even if soil and groundwater at a brownfield site are not contaminated, deteriorated buildings and surface, remains on these sites may still pose health and safety risks, and have a negative impact on property values and on a neighborhood's image. 2.2.3 The existence of Brownfields. Brownfield land exists before it was formally defined. Many scholars have argued that deindustrialization and suburbanization are the two main causes of brownfields 2. Brownfields exist usually in sites of the industrial sector. Worldwide especially in industrial countries began shrinking in the mid-20th century. As many industrial areas were sent out old cities, they often left behind abandoned and contaminated properties. The mid-20th century, also observed the start of population loss in older central cities, as residents moved into new homes on the urban border or relocated to newer population centers outside old cities. Brownfields could be divided into three main types according to, how they originated exist, their location and relative use as shown in table 2.1 1 U.S. EPA. 2003a. Brownfields Definition. U.S. EPA Brownfields Homepage. Available: http://epa.gov/brownfields/index.html 2 Alker, Joy, Roberts, & Smith, 2000; Oliver et al., 2005; Ganser & Williams, 2007; Adams, De Sousa, & Tiesdell, 2010) 11 Table 2-1 Types and causes of Brownfields site according to location Adopted from :( Grimski, D., & Ferber, U., 2001) Brownfields in traditional industrial area The decline in industrial jobs, created a need for wider structural change in industry. This cause a lot of squared meters of Brownfields that are no longer used as industrial sites and some of them classified as contaminated sites because of the precious industry that was there. Brownfields in metropolitan areas Brownfields in rural areas Cities are filled with large scale and small scales sites of unused lands. These sites were previously used for large-scale railway and harbor infrastructure facilities, small industries and buildings. Leaving these areas for years due to the change in use create these Brownfields. Rural areas also contain individual Brownfields sites of a locally limited dimension, which may be hugely significant for the relevant local government authorities concerned. In the past few decades, the sites which were mainly connected with primary economic activities in agriculture, forestry or mining, have been undergoing a consolidation process resulting in the abandonment of many sites. Abandoned residential properties increased as the suburbanization increased. At about the same time as deindustrialization, more people moved to the outskirt of cities seeking better living conditions1. This out-migration made the property owners give up maintaining the property in the inner city because demands fall2. Consequently, The empty properties deteriorated and led to social and physical decline3 . In the declined communities, public infrastructure such as railways or harbors could also be abandoned or underused4. 2.3. Impact of brownfields in inner cities. The deindustrialization and suburbanization result several consequences, in different types of abandoned properties. These Brownfields have many negative impacts but also have many potentials when considering redevelopment. 1 Tang, Y. T., & Nathanail, C. P. (2012). Sticks and stones: the impact of the definitions of brownfield in policies on socio-economic sustainability. Sustainability, 4(5), 840-862. 2 Keenan, P., Lowe, S., & Spencer, S. (1999). Housing abandonment in inner cities-the politics of low demand for housing. Housing Studies, 14(5), 703-716. 3 ibid 4 Grimski, D., & Ferber, U. (2001). Urban brownfields in Europe. Land Contamination and Reclamation, 9(1), 143-148. 12 2.3.1. Negatives of Brownfields Brownfields may have negative impacts on neighboring communities and the city overall in different ways. For example, such properties exist in or near neighborhoods that have a low-income population, inadequate education, high unemployment, crime, real or perceived environmental contamination and other problems1. Brownfields resulted major social and economic issues. The ending of industrial activities resulted in loss of job opportunities and released large amount of land in the surrounding area. Consequently, the economic conditions of the surrounding communities decreased. The deprivation affected the welfare of community and further damaged the value of land. The communities adjacent to these properties usually suffer from criminal activities, unemployment, and decreasing economic output.2 Other aspects of withdrawal such as poor education and underprivileged health care service may follow3. The issue of pollution mostly exists on the sites were previously used by industry. Contaminants Possibility found on brownfield sites can pollute soil, air, and water resources on- and off-site. This poses environmental and public health threats. Safety is also considered as an issue, neglected sites are usually spaces for illegal activities, such as dumping. Derelict or abandoned buildings on brownfield sites are neglected even in an otherwise well-maintained neighborhood. 4 Brownfields are considered as a drain on the local economy and a negative load on community, especially in low-income neighborhoods. They suffer from a number of brownfield sites5. However, urban planning and large-scale facility construction are usually the means to reduce or reverse these negative impacts6. Brownfields are not hopeless places, and, in fact, they are often prime locations for revitalization as they are considered as potential and constraint in the same time. 2.3.2. Benefits of Brownfields Despite the contamination of Brownfields site, they are almost vacant land inside the precious lands of the cities. Consequently, brownfields are perceived from being just contaminated lands to assets for development of the city7. The clean-up and reuse of brownfields provides many environmental, economic, and social direct and indirect benefits. These benefits make worth to vestment in brownfields8. Some of these benefits are direct as follows:  Location benefits: brownfield area considered as an advantage itself, in light of the fact that brownfields are frequently situated in key spots close waterfronts, railways and transportation courses, and downtown area territories. Besides reduction of urban sprawl which decrease the side effects 1 Walkowiak, E., & Frazier, D. (2000). Brownfields redevelopment as a catalyst for creating sustainable cities. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 39. 2 Spelman, 1993; Webster, 2000; Brown, B. B., Perkins, D. D., & Brown, G. (2004); Gibson, 2007 3 Cox, A. M., McKevitt, C., Rudd, A. G., & Wolfe, C. D. (2006). Socioeconomic status and stroke. The Lancet Neurology, 5(2), 181-188. 4 Fuder, J. D. (2005). A heart for the city: Effective ministries to the urban community. Moody Publishers. 5 Kaufman, D. A., & Cloutier, N. R. (2006). The impact of small brownfields and greenspaces on residential property values. The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, 33(1), 19-30. 6 ibid 7 ibid 8 Groenendijk, N. (2006). Financing Techniques for Brownfield Regeneration-A practical guide. 4-29. 13     of transportation (air pollution, congestion, etc.) due to reduction in commuter travel. Infrastructure benefits: Brownfields are sites that have already been developed which means that they are connected with infrastructure. It is more efficient to upgrade the existing infrastructure than extending new one into new zones1. Economic benefits: Brownfields remediate and redevelopment can be a base for economic development and increase the available jobs and taxes base of the government. Environmental benefits: encouraging and supporting the reuse of brownfields can help protecting public health by cleaning –up the contaminated sites and avoid their negative impacts. Social benefits: Revitalization of urban cores, resolve many of socioeconomic problems associated with living in neighboring brownfield sites, access to affordable housing. 2 Brownfields regeneration and bringing them back to life is a tool that widely acknowledged achieving sustainable development.3 Therefore, it can be deduced that brownfield is a condition not a problem. These sites are dead sites that could be revived with new life and vitality, which require intervention but what kind of intervention? Table (2-2) combine and classify the possible benefits and positives of brownfields that could be claimed. 1 Groenendijk, N. (2006). Financing Techniques for Brownfield Regeneration-A practical guide. De Sousa, C. A. (2002). Measuring the public costs and benefits of brownfield versus greenfield development in the Greater Toronto Area. Environment and Planning B: Planning and design, 29(2), 251-280. 3 Paull, E. (2008). The environmental and economic impacts of brownfields redevelopment. Northeast Midwest. 2 14 Table 2-2 possible Benefits of brownfields, based on EPA, CABERNET Location benefits • Brownfield location considered as an asset itself, because brownfields are often located in strategic places near waterfronts, railroads and transportation routes, and city center areas. • Recovers desirable locations, allowing for smarter growth through urban intensification Urban / Infrastructure advantages • Brownfields are places that have already been developed. They typically are served with existing infrastructure, which can be more efficient to upgrade when compared to extending new infrastructure into other new areas. • Locates new development in areas where better use can be made of existing municipal infrastructure and services such as transit • Preserves historical landmarks and heritage architecture • Revives older urban communities and surrounding areas • Preserves arable land, which may be productive farmland or environmentally significant land. • Reduces urban sprawl )Reduction of development pressure on greenfield sites) • Reduction in side effects of transportation; (air pollution, congestion et cetera) due to reduction in commuter travel. • Beautifies urban landscapes Economic Development/ Job creation • Brownfields clean-up and regeneration can be a base for economic development and expand the jobs and taxes base of the government. • Increased competitiveness for cities • . commercial benefits for private parties • Increases property assessment values and the resulting tax base, leading to increased revenue for governments social • Removes or renovates derelict buildings, decreasing the risk of injury, vandalism and arson • Renewal of urban cores, elimination of socio-economic stigmas associated with living in the proximity of brownfield sites, access to affordable housing., Improved quality of life in neighborhoods Environmental • Protection of public health and the environment by encouraging and supporting the reuse of brownfields, communities can facilitate the clean –up of contaminated land and avoid its negative impacts 15 2.4. Interventions within continuously growing cities. The world has been rapidly urbanized, with over 50% of the world population living in urban areas. 1 Urbanization is one of the defining features of the 20th and 21st centuries. The growth rates averaged 2.7 percent per year between 1950 and 2011 2 . Moreover, increasing rate of urbanization imposes different types of challenges such as, economic, physical, environmental, and social challenges3 . To face such challenges, it requires deep understanding of urbanization concepts and context; inter linked concerns, and the effect of available resources in different contexts. Urban planning is a key tool for intervention in cities to deal with such challenging, though it is very challenges itself. 2.4.1. Urbanization and urban expansion. According to the dictionary, urbanization is the processes by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more and more people begin living and working in central areas. 4 That leads to increase in the population in cities and towns versus rural areas. Urbanization began during the industrial revolution; when workers moved towards manufacturing hubs in cities when obtain jobs in factories as agricultural jobs became less common. This process results in the physical growth of urban areas, either horizontal or vertical. The physical urban growth is perhaps the more elementary and obvious meaning. It refers to the use of land for urban purposes. However, urban growth could be functional when focuses on people rather than on land or physical structures. It refers to the activities of the people (economic, social and cultural) and seeks to determine whether in any area these are urban in character or not.5 2.4.2. Urban Planning Challenges Facing urban planning today and over the coming decades is challenging. For example, providing water supply, housing, and sanitation to fulfill the needs of rapidly growing urban populations requires delivery of urban land at scale linked to provision of public infrastructure networks. 6 Urban planning will need to manage urban development processes, because unmanaged urban growth can become a major obstacle to overall sustainable development.7 A major urban challenge is to adequately plan for urban growth, especially in the context of declining financial resources. Urban planning within a context of rapid urbanization is no more a luxury, but a necessity.8 High rates of urban growth in the absence of effective urban planning have resulted in spiraling urban poverty, the spread 1 Cohen, B. (2006). Urbanization in developing countries: Current trends, future projections, and key challenges for sustainability. Technology in society, 28(1), 63-80. 2 Habitat, U. N. (2013). State of the world's cities 2012/2013: Prosperity of cities. Rout ledge. 3 ibid 4 http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/urbanization, August 2016. 5 Hall, P., Gracey, H., Drewett, R., and Thomas, R., (1973) The Containment of Urban England vol I : Urban and Metropolitan Growth Processes George Allen & Unwin. 6 Opcit.2 7 Taipale, K. (2012). Challenges and Way Forward in the Urban Sector: Sustainable Development in the 21st Century (SD21). New York: UNDESA. 8 AlSayyad, N. (2004). Urban Informality: Transnational Perspectives from the Middle East, Latin America, and South Asia. Lexington Books. 16 of urban slums and informal settlements, inadequate urban water and power supply, and degrading urban environmental conditions.1 Urbanization should be realized as a positive phenomenon and a precondition for improving access to services, economic and social opportunities, as well as better quality of life for populations. It is expected that 80 per cent of future economic growth will be in cities2. Over the past centuries, cities have been a major catalyst of progress in the advanced economies of today and this is now being repeated in the developing world. Cities are the platform of social interaction, cultural development. Planning for such cities is not only challenging, but it also could benefit from potentials of urbanization. 2.4.3. Urban interventions: "Cities are never finished objects; land uses change, plots are redeveloped, the urban area itself expands and, occasionally, shrinks"3. The intervention is required as a response to changing and dynamic economic and social factors, that have grown, declined or experienced major restructuring4. Changes in economic production and the demand for buildings and land have resulted in changes in the use and density of urban areas. Moreover, the appearance of new economic and social activities have resulted in an intensification of use in some areas, whereas, in other areas, the closure of old industries, a cessation of economic activities and migration have left abandoned buildings, derelict and vacant land, creating islands of decay and deprivation. Types of interventions oriented to response existing cities vary according to their main concerns. The aim of some interventions is to transform physical structure only; however, some include actions to change social and economic structure. There are two main approaches to deal with existing urban environment, in order to tackle the problems of decay arising from uncontrolled growth.5 These two approaches could be divided into indirect and direct methods. Indirect intervention of urban relocation can be adapted through rearrangement of land uses and activities, making new settlements with job opportunities or increasing employment in existing ones. This method does not consider resolving the existing problems but it attempts to prevent their declining through reducing the inflow of immigrants. This approach also depends on a regional or even national policy. It's a longterm strategy and the results are not as obvious as it's supposed to be. However, the direct method is more effective as its actions are based on direct intervention in the concerned areas. The actions are applied generally to a specific area of a city. They can be divided in two kinds: eradication and relocation of the population of deprived areas and improvement and rehabilitation projects. See figure (2.2) 1 Gandy, M. (2006). Planning, anti-planning and the infrastructure crisis facing metropolitan Lagos. Urban studies, 43(2), 371-396. 2 Heilig, G. K. (2012). World urbanization prospects the 2011 revision. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA), Population Division, Population Estimates and Projections Section, New York. 3 Jones, P., & Evans, J. (2008). Urban regeneration in the UK: Theory and practice. Sage. 4 Couch, C. (1990). Urban renewal: theory and practice. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan. 5 Desai, A. R., & Pillai, S. D. (1990). Slums and urbanization, second edition. London. 17 Interventions in existing urban environment Indirect Intervention Increase of employment opportunities in small towns New settlements with job opportunities Redistribution of land Direct Intervention Improvements and rehabilitation of deprived areas Largescale Small interventio Urban acupuncture Tactical urbanism Eradication and relocation of deprived areas Figure 2-2 Examples of interventions in existing urban environment ,edited by the author Because of the definition and complexity of urbanism, there are different categorization of strategies according to aims are not proper for urban areas. To strengthen economic structure, for example, besides the economic based strategies, physical/ environmental and social oriented strategies are required.1 The aim of interventions that include actions to physical/environmental structure is to improve living standards by supplying basic requirements of urban environment and housing conditions.2 It usually involves policies to the following: 1. Change density and create open space, 2. Improve poor housing conditions, 3. Improve infrastructure facilities, and 4. Solve traffic problems and to increase accessibility. While interventions that aim to improve social structure involve policies to; 1. Improve job opportunities, 2. Reduce crime rates, 3. Increase cultural and education opportunities, 4. Decrease social exclusion and remove social tensions, and 5. Eradicate disease, the provision of adequate housing. Economic based interventions aim to strengthen economic structure may have the policies to; 1. Load new functions or to change functions, 2. Build new economic relations, and 3. Create attractive cities and regions. 1 Wimo, A., Jönsson, L., Bond, J., Prince, M., Winblad, B., & International, A. D. (2013). The worldwide economic impact of dementia 2010. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 9(1), 1-11. 2 Yigitcanlar, T., O’connor, K., & Westerman, C. )5002(. The making of knowledge cities: Melbourne’s knowledge-based urban development experience. Cities, 25(2), 63-72. 18 2.4.4. Urban acupuncture and regeneration Urban acupuncture is a socio-environmental theory which combines recent urban design and traditional Chinese acupuncture; it focus on small-scale interventions to transform the larger urban context 1 . Urban regeneration of brownfields may be considered as a method of urban acupuncture in some cases or cities. Urban acupuncture is proposed to produce small-scale interventions in not only the urban fabric but also through economically socially, catalytic; what make it more sustainable as a concept. The goal of urban acupuncture is to relieve stress in the built environment, many examples of these interventions were presented in Lerner book "urban Acupuncture" 2 . With this concept, brownfields represent critical issues to be tackled by either small intervention or large regeneration projects. 2.5. Sustainable urban Development The concept of Sustainable Urban Development was defined in different ways. Some suggested it to be physical appropriation through social interaction, and environmental balance through compactness of urban form, efficient transportation, density, and walkability. 3 However it must also meet future needs through inter and intra-generational equitable resource management without going beyond the environmental capacity, promoting social justice with inclusive decision-making process4 by citizens’ active participation5. The most commonly cited definition of sustainable development is “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”6 It can be also defined as “the development that provides basic environmental, social and economic services to all residents of a community without threatening the viability of the natural, built and social systems that the delivery of these services depends” 7 . Sustainability got into the focus in city planning during the 1990s.8 Next part is trying to understand how far the concept of Sustainable urban Development affects the development process in the city. A city that aims to achieve sustainable development should have a long-term balance and integration between its systems. It requires not only environmental responsibility, but also the economic efficiency. Moreover social cohesion, which provides 1 Acupuncture: is a collection of procedures involving penetration of the skin with needles to stimulate certain points on the body 2 Lerner, J. (2014). Urban Acupuncture. Island Press. 3 (Banister, Watson, & Wood, 1997; Elkin, McLaren, & Hillman, 1991; Jenks, Burton, & Williams, 1996; Newman & Kenworthy, 2000) 4 Jepson Jr, E. J., & Edwards, M. M. (2010). How possible is sustainable urban development? An analysis of planners' perceptions about new urbanism, smart growth and the ecological city. Planning, Practice & Research, 25(4), 417-437. 5 Girardet, H. (1999). Creating sustainable cities (No. 2). Chelsea Green Publishing. 6 Brundtland Report, World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987. 7 International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives, 1994. 8 Hardoy, J. E., Mitlin, D., & Satterthwaite, D. (2014). Environmental problems in an urbanizing world: finding solutions in cities in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Routledge. 19 opportunities for meeting social, cultural, and spiritual needs by enhancing health, education, security, equity, cohesion, diversity and quality of life1. 2.5.1. Sustainable development dimensions (Objectives balance) Sustainable development has four main dimensions, which are Social, Economic, ecological and Institutional 2 . The development to be sustainable should consider the balance between these four dimensions shown in fig. 2.1 ‫ إ‬Social dimension Development is considered socially sustainable; when it achieves social justice through equitable resource allocation, eliminates poverty, and provides social services, to all members of the society. The social dimension of sustainable development and its main target is struggling to achieve this concept for both present and future generations.3 ‫ إ‬Economic dimension Economically, sustainability means providing economic benefit at present and in the future, while paying more attention to the “natural capital”, which means the natural resources of economic value, considered as the bases for the economic system, such as plants, soil, animals, fish, and bio-environmental system such as air and water purification4 ‫ إ‬Ecological dimension Ecologically sustainable system maintains a solid base of natural resources and avoids excessive use of such resources. This involves the conservation of biodiversity, attaining atmospheric balance, productivity of soil as well as other systems of natural environment. From an environmental point of view, sustainability means setting limits for consumption, population growth and pollution, as well as the faulty of production; including wasting waters, cutting the forests or the soil erosion.5 ‫ إ‬Political dimension The institutional dimension of sustainable development is concerned with the participation of all community members in the decision making process and the attainment of the information that affect their lives transparently and accurately. It is also concerned with the organizations, such as councils and committees.6 1 Law, W. W. Y. (2004). Sustainable Urban Regeneration and Social Impact Assessment: A Case Study of Hong Kong. Unpublished PhD Thesis, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong. 2 Sahely, H. R., Kennedy, C. A., & Adams, B. J. (2005). Developing sustainability criteria for urban infrastructure systems. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 32(1), 72-85. 3 Grizans, J. (2009). Urban Issues and Solutions in the Context of Sustainable Development: A Review of the Literature. Syddansk Universitet. 4 ibid 5 Dincer, I., & Rosen, M. A. (2012). Exergy: energy, environment and sustainable development. Newnes. 6 Citymayors, (2007). http://www.citymayors.com/environment/city's_ecological_footprint. 20 Figure 2-2 Circle of Sustainable development. Source: www.sustainabilitist.org , April 2016. The ‘sustainable community’ 2.5.2. During the 1980s, the concept of sustainable development arose as a popular solution to the problem of meeting the physical needs of a rapidly growing population while minimizing environmental damage.1 Sustainable communities are places where people want to live and work, now and in the future. They meet the diverse needs of existing and future residents. They are characterized by being sensitive to their environment, and contribute to a high quality of life. They are safe, inclusive, well planned, built and run, and offer equality of opportunity and good services for all. Some scholars attempt to implement regeneration projects to create sustainable communities/places. Sustainable communities represent the principles of sustainable development through following2:    Balancing and integrating the social, economic and environmental components of their community; Meeting the needs of existing and future generations; and Respecting the needs of other communities in the wider region or internationally to make their own communities sustainable. All of these principles could be also applied when regenerating brownfields, in order to make it more sustainable. 1 Bridger, J. C., & Luloff, A. E. (1999). Toward an interactional approach to sustainable community development. Journal of rural studies, 15(4), 377-387. 2 McDonald, S., Malys, N., & Maliene, V. (2009). Urban regeneration for sustainable communities: A case study. Technological and Economic Development of Economy. 21 2.6. Urban regeneration concept Currently, urban regeneration is a commonly used term to represent urban recovery or redevelopment projects. Urban regeneration is one of major interventions dealing with existing urban areas. It is conceptualized through its procedure as a discourse of planning and managing existing inner city areas rather than starting something from the empty ground or demolishing the old to build new1. 2.6.1. Urban Regeneration definition According to Dictionary of Webster’s New World, to regenerate means: ‘to cause to be completely renewed, or restored or reformed’2. The term regeneration is also used in the field of Biology in the meaning of “the regrowth of lost or injured tissue, or the restoration of a system to its initial state.”3 "Urban regeneration" is a response to opportunities and challenges in a particular place at a specific moment in time" more over being a result of the interaction between many sources of influence. It is defined as ‘comprehensive and integrated vision and action which leads to the resolution of urban problems and seeks to bring about lasting improvement in the economic, physical, social and environmental condition of an area that has been subject to change’.4 Using previous definitions, it could be said that, urban regeneration project deals with four main characteristics:5  The first one is being comprehensive and integrated; it should be well planned with other surrounding areas, and it should not be fragmented.6  The second is providing a solution for the existing urban problems; through identification of problems, and who has the right to identify these problems and make the decision to carry out urban regeneration.7  The third is urban regeneration should offer a long-term and lasting development. However, urban regeneration has to be done wisely and any short term or unplanned urban regeneration is not acceptable.8  Finally, every urban regeneration project should aim to improve economic, physical, social and environmental aspects with equal weight. Urban regeneration is re-using built environment that could create compact urban form and preserve valuable natural and agricultural areas, minimize costs of urban services. 1 Barnett, J. (1986). The elusive city : five centuries of design, ambition and miscalculation. New York: Harper & Row. 2 http://www.webster-dictionary.org 25/2/2014 3 Couch, C. (1990). Urban renewal: theory and practice. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Macmillan. 4 Roberts, P., & Sykes, H. (Eds.). (1999). Urban regeneration: a handbook. Sage. 5 Raco, M. (2003). Assessing the discourses and practices of urban regeneration in a growing region. Geoforum, 34(1), 37-55. 6 (Hausner, V. A. (1993). 2. The future of urban development. RSA Journal, 523-533. 7 (Lichfield, D. (1992). Urban Regeneration for the 1990s. London Planning Advisory Committee, London. 8 Hausner, V. A. (1993) Ibid 22 Urban regeneration deals with not only physical or environmental issues, but also social and economic issues, as a comprehensive planning approach. That is why urban regeneration can be applied in areas, which suffer economic or social problems. 1 Regenerating the urban tissue could produce some realistic results, such as creating habitable residential or working areas and increasing urban standards. In addition to solving urban or regional problems, it offers creating competitive cities, and also, compact urban form and reducing cost of urban services.2 2.6.2. Historical evolution of urban regeneration The regeneration is the latest term of urban redevelopment, which started even before the world wars 1&2. Its concept started during the era of city beautiful movement.3 The term urban regeneration used for the first time in the USA in the 1960s, after the relocation of some marine activities then most of derelict lands was often reassigned to central business type of activities. In the 1320’s. Its second use was launched, on the London Docklands, and then in Barcelona 4 . Urban regeneration led to the complete transformation of empty lands, through reconstruction of multi-activity ‘‘bits of the city’’. Later, in the1330’s, urban regeneration was launched in many urban areas, oftenhigh density populated, with various functions, but facing many urban problems. Although the priorities of urban regeneration change over time and space, the concepts and practices of urban regeneration have evolved over the years. Table 2.2 provides a summary of past policies and strategies in which the shifting socio-political attitudes is revealed. From the regeneration history, has evolved from a simple form of renovation or rehabilitation of obsolete infrastructure and built-up land, to targeting the restructuring of the urban fabric, the renewal of the urban economy, or the city image. It is clear that urban regeneration shifted its procedure from the straightforward physical problem to a more complex multi-agent dealing with multi- partnership people. However, regeneration objectives became more complex and crucial. 1 Silver, C. (2013). 16th International Planning History Society Conference, 20-23 July 2014. PLANNING PERSPECTIVES, 28(3), 495-496. 2 Gordon, P., & Richardson, H. W. (1997). Are compact cities a desirable planning goal? Journal of the American planning association, 63(1), 95-106. 3 Bianchini, F., & Parkinson, M. (1993). Cultural policy and urban regeneration: the West European experience. Manchester University Press. 4 Tallon, A. (2013). Urban Regeneration in the UK. Routledge. 23 Table 2-3: The evolution of concept and practice of urban regeneration Reference: compiled from Roberts (2000), Beswick and Tsenkova (2002), Couch et al. (2003), Booth (2005), Schenkel (2006) and McDonald et al. (2009) 24 Period 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s Policy type Reconstruction Revitalization Renewal Redevelopment Market-led regeneration Major strategy and orientation and Reconstruction extension of older areas of towns and cities often based on a 'master plan'; suburban growth Continuing from 1950s; suburban and peripheral growth; slum clearance In-situ renewal and Neighborhood schemes; growth; peripheral community-involved slum clearance Many major schemes of and development redevelopment; flagship projects; more a Towards comprehensive form of policy and practice; more emphasis on integrated treatments Sustainable regeneration of notion Extended Sustainability (environment, economy, cultural); and social emphasis on planning and management Key actors and Stakeholders National and local private government; sector developers and contractors greater Towards a balance between public and private sectors in Decentralization government; local partnership growing with private sector Emphasis on private special and sector agencies; growth of partnerships Spatial level of Activity Emphasis on local and site levels level Regional ofactivity emerged Regional levels initially gradually replaced by local emphasis Focus on site initially; mlater more on local level Partnership the dominant approach; devolution of power to the local community authority; empowerment Reintroduction of strategic perspective; growth of regional activity Continuing from 1950s with growing influence of private investment Resource constraints in public sector; growth of private investment Private sector dominant with selective public funds Greater balance between and private public, voluntary funding Continuing from 1990s with much diverse sources of funding Social and welfare Improvement Community-based greater and action empowerment Emphasis on the role of community to Commitment community involvement and development Some continuation from 1950s with parallel of rehabilitation existing areas More extensive renewal of older urban areas Community self-help with very selective state support of schemes Major replacement and new development; flagship projects More modest than 1980s; heritage and retention Major heritage projects; emphasis on architectural quality Selective improvement Environmental improvement with some innovations Introduction of broader idea of environmental sustainability Adoption of technology environmental improvement Economic focus Social content Public investment with private involvement Improvement housing and standards sector some sector of living Physical emphasis Replacement of inner areas and peripheral development Environmental Approach Landscaping and some greening Growth of concern for approach to wider environment Towards a multi-sector partnership; growth of participatory models Continuing local level; reemphasis on neighborhood schemes advanced in 2.6.3. Urban Regeneration process. Urban regeneration began as an attempt to recover the undesirable impacts of changes and enable cities to attract new investment in the global economy Urban regeneration process is expected to promote smart growth, generate sufficient revenue and return from underutilized and abandoned property, create new job and business opportunity, community empowerment, address people’s real needs, increase environment quality, and providing quality of life for all.1 Urban regeneration process may be grouped in four phases;2 1. Process of transition in components of the city, 2. Understanding the need of interference to the built environment, 3. Interfering to the built environment. 4. Generation a new built environment and relations different from the previous one. Generation a new built environment Process of transition Urban regeneration process Interfering to the built environment Need for intervention Figure 2-3 four phases of urban regeneration process Ref.: Researcher based on Couch, C., & Dennemann, A. (2000). 2.6.4. The context of urban regeneration Urban regeneration is not an isolated process. It is affected by wider economic, political and environmental factors. The fortunes of a city are usually tied to the nation and, ultimately, the global economy. Regeneration is a political strategy using a whole range 1 2 Yalcinta, H. A., & Kilinc, G. (2010). Couch, C., & Dennemann, A. (2000). Urban regeneration and sustainable development in Britain 55 of planning regulations and policies to encourage developers to invest in run-down and derelict urban areas. The scale of urban generation projects and their authorities start from the institutional level to local governance. It could also be a large-scale process of adapting the existing built environment. In which they set their own agenda, allocation of finance and power with varying degrees of direction.1 Area based initiatives for urban regeneration projects could range from the renovation of a single derelict building to the regeneration of entire areas of the city. Regeneration projects could be individual regeneration projects, major regeneration areas. , developer-driven regeneration or flagship projects and branding. Urban regeneration projects key elements should include long term perspective, political will and commitment, multi-actor/stakeholder participation, organizational framework; financing and of course maintain the process with consistency2. Every area is independent, it is essential to recognize and appreciate the uniqueness of different local areas3. The two factors of location and time explain why it should always be responding to the ever-changing needs. Consistent with the shift in urban policies, the nature of the area, and the world trend, different schemes and programs have been formed; where each has its own focuses4. 2.6.5. Different Approaches to Urban Regeneration Although, one of the main characteristics of urban regeneration is that each case is unique. There are some approaches that arose as response to urban problems and changes in urban areas evolved depending on the problems and changes   Property-led physical approach: The main aim is profit making. In which a major retail-led or mixed-use scheme is expected to have multiplier effects in the local economy5. The property led regeneration can also bring huge improvement in the physical environment as well as economic benefits through holistic goal to be achieved; single-sectors are usually ineffective to tackle the social, economic, environmental and physical problems in the urban area.6 However, this approach fails to deliberate the social and community problems and issues, which are very important.7 (It may lead to gentrification8) Business-driven approach: in which the goal of regeneration is to increase job opportunities. It highlights the importance of ‘underserved markets’ particularly 1 Galdini, R. (2005). Urban Regeneration Process-The Case of Genoa, an Example of Integrated Urban Development Approach. 2 Alam, A. F. M. (2011). Social practice, spatial forms and sustainable urban. Age (in 2003), 15(1), 3.. 3 Roberts, P., & Sykes, H. (2000). 14 Current Challenges and Future Prospects. Urban regeneration: A handbook, 295. 4 Different experiences will be discussed in chapter 4 5 Dixon, T. D., & Marston, A. (2003). Huston, S., Darchen, S., & May, K. (2013). Recent Ipswich CBD revitalisation-backdrop and reflections. In 19th Annual Pacific Rim Real Estate Society Conference (pp. 1-14). Pacific Rim Real Estate Society (PRRES). 6 Crisp, R., Gore, T., Pearson, S., Tyler, P., Clapham, D., Muir, J., & Robertson, D. (2014). Regeneration and poverty: Evidence and policy review-Final Report. 7 SMITH, N. 1996. The New Urban Frontier: Gentrification and the Revanchist City 8 Gentrification means “the process by which poor and working class neighborhoods in the inner city are refurbished by an influx of private capital and middle class homebuyers” 52 in inner-city areas as important attentions for regeneration through business investment1.  Urban form and design perspective: Highlights the importance of the relationship between sustainable development and urban form.2  Cultural industries approach Cultural industries approach stresses on the importance of creative and cultural media industries for regeneration. Health and well-being perspective, which highlights the role that well designed spaces, can have on neighborhood health and livability  Community-based, social economy approach which highlights the importance of involving local communities in decision making and developing social capital networks3 Most of regeneration initiatives have shifted in emphasis from being purely property led to seeking the integration of social and environmental factors, often through partnerships between different public and private organizations.4 2.6.6. Sustainable Urban Regeneration The definition of regeneration have been developed over time. Currently it is strongly influenced by concepts of sustainability, increasing property values, promoting entrepreneurialism as well as attracting private investment5. Regeneration is increasingly seen as being attached within the sustainable development agenda by tackling physical, social, economic and environmental issues together6. Many of the approaches of urban regeneration are being tested to achieve sustainability around the world in the forms of community participation, area based regeneration, place making, economic restructuring, physical regeneration, development of Brownfield sites, bottom up governance practice, public private partnership etc. 7 In future years, many other techniques will be invented to plan cities in facing their different nature of problems. ‘It has been continually questioned for years in order to identify its scope by defining its focal points, politics and priorities put forward’.8 The main five sustainable urban regeneration concepts9:  Shift to long-term perspective,  Linking the top-down and bottom-up decision making processes,  Combining physical to social and economic regeneration,  Community involvement in regeneration partnership, and leadership  Strategic vision in city level. 1 Porter, M. E. (1995). The competitive advantage of the inner city. The city reader, 274-286. Burton, E., Jenks, M., & Williams, K. (Eds.). (2003). The compact city: a sustainable urban form? Routledge 3 ibid 4 Jones, P., & Evans, J. (2008). 5 IPF (2009) Urban Regeneration: Opportunities for Private Investment. IPF: London 6 ibid 7 Evans, J., Bryson, J., Porter, L., & Hunt, D. (2005). Large-scale Urban Regeneration and Sustainability: Reflections on the" barriers" Typology. 8 Yalcinta, H. A., & Kilinc, G. (2010). Evaluation of Urban Regeneration Practice in Turkey in Comparison to General Framework for Managing Urban Regeneration in Developed Countries. 9 Carley, M., & Kirk, K. (1998). Sustainable by 2020?: a strategic approach to urban regeneration for Britain's cities. Bristol, England: Policy Press. 2 53 Sustainability could be seen as an appropriate concept for guiding urban regeneration, as it is a community based process directed towards achieving the economic, environmental and social well-being of the people through upgrading of the urban areas1. 2.7. Sustainable brownfield regeneration concept The concept of brownfield regeneration in the context of sustainability proposed as: "Sustainable Brownfield Regeneration is the Management of brownfields recovery to beneficial use in a responsive way to people; considering present and future needs, environmentally sensitive, economically viable, institutionally robust and socially acceptable, within the particular regional context2" beneficial use responsiv e way to people economic ally viable institution ally robust Sustainable Brownfield Regeneration socially acceptabl e Urban context present and future needs environm entally sensitive Figure 2 -1 Illustration of sustainable brownfield regeneration, adopted from RESCUE3, edited by Author The hidden key element of this concept is the balance. The balance between the stakeholders' needs, present and future generation, and different sustainability dimensions regarding sensitive response to stakeholders and the context. A regenerated brownfield site can be sustainable; yet, it has negative environmental impacts. Positive effects in one or more aspects of sustainability may outweigh the negative ones and the negative impacts on the site could be balanced on the urban/regional scale. For example, an industrial development on a brownfield site (which may produce negative environmental impacts) can be more sustainable than a public park, as it contributes to saving natural resources of the alternative Greenfield site, generates jobs and produces positive effects in the social and economic dimension. This 1 Ng, M. K., Cook, A., & Chui, E. W. T. (2001). The road not travelled: a sustainable urban regeneration strategy for Hong Kong. Planning Practice and Research, 16(2), 171-183. 2 RESCUE (2005) Best Practice Manual. LQM Press, Nottingham 3 ibid 52 means a brownfield project that does not cause any negative environmental effects overall does not necessarily be more sustainable than an industrial development where potential activities and development are more sustainable in the broader regional context. The concept of sustainable brownfield regeneration can be regarded as a situation that can be achieved some time in the future. However, absolute sustainability cannot be achieved, as the single dimensions of sustainability will always compete against each other to a certain extent. Even the final situation would also contradict the principle of the sustainability concept as future generations would be dealt a matter of fact if ‘sustainability objectives’ are done today. Therefore, the focus should not be laid on situations regarded as optimal from today’s perspective, but allow for adaptation potential and high flexibility when considering how to approach sustainable development. Additional concept development regarding some of the expressions “environmentally sensitive”, “economically viable”, “institutionally robust” and “socially acceptable” in the sustainability definition indicate an approach of “first do no harm”. The four dimensions are equally ranked in the definition meaning that they intend not to worsen the present state1. Alternatively, these expressions could be changed e.g.; “economically viable” with “economically attractive / profitable”, “environmentally sensitive” with “improving the environmental state”, “institutionally robust” with “fostering local and regional institutions”, and “socially acceptable” with “socially desirable”2. There are some points can be considered as the key principles of the sustainable brownfield regeneration that used to guide and evaluate brownfields regeneration projects. See table 2-4 Table 2-4 Sustainable brownfield regeneration key points Sustainable brownfield regeneration Key points Recovery to beneficial use From negative to positive Satisfaction of human needs Solution for existing problems For present & future generations Economic Social and culture Environmental Institutional Physical Long term & lasting development Improve aspects / achieve objectives (balanced & responsive) Socially accepted Linking top down & bottom up (community involvement) Within particular regional context Comprehensive and integrated (strategic vision in city level) 1 Thornton, G. (2008). Brownfield regeneration. Retrieved from http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/150793 2 ibid 53 2.8. Conclusion Increasing urbanization challenges and increasing calls for sustainable development, require more innovative and untraditional solutions like brownfields regeneration. Urban regeneration objectives became more complex and critical. In this chapter, the research the concepts of each of regeneration of brownfields, and how could it be referred to sustainability. Form the theoretical review for the brownfields; they can be defined as derelict, previously developed, under-utilized facilities. One main threat related to brownfields is being contaminated sites. These sites have many problems. However, brownfields are considered as potential and constraint in the same time are mainly located in prime locations for revitalization. Urban regeneration is conceptualized as a major intervention dealing with existing urban areas. It is comprehensive and integrated vision and action to solve urban problems while developing the economic, physical, social and environmental situation of an area. The concept has evolved from a simple form of renovation or rehabilitation of a building, to the integrated, comprehensive, responsive sustainable urban regeneration. Main points have been concluded from compiling different concepts of brownfields, sustainability, and urban regeneration. Physical, cultural, and institutional aspects are considered as the key principles of the sustainable brownfield regeneration moreover, Economic, Environmental, social aspects. The next chapter is going to dig more in the field of sustainable brownfield regeneration, its dynamics, and complexity. 30 Chapter 3 : Complexity of brownfields regeneration 31 3.1. Introduction In chapter two, the research has covered the literature and historical background about each of brown fields, regeneration, and sustainability. An over view have been offered through different layers of the process. However, the complex nature of brownfields, make it needs further understanding. Brownfields regeneration could be conceptually sustainable; however, its process is affected by the dynamics and complexity of the urban systems, which make the process more challenging and complex. This chapter will review and discuss the complexity of brownfields regeneration and related issues. In order to investigate the dynamics of creation and regeneration of brownfields sits, avoiding creating new brownfields, and recycling existing ones. It is also trying to explore how brownfields could be key part of urban land management. It also deals with challenges and driving forces of the regeneration process of Brownfields, with different stakeholders' perspectives, and how their interests and roles affect the process of the regeneration. Internationally, there are governing factors and conceptual models to understand the challenges and driving forces that could affect the process of brownfields regeneration. Moreover the barriers to successful regeneration. Sustainability assessing of brownfield regeneration. 3.2. Brownfields Regeneration in Complex Urban Systems Cities are extremely complex and dynamic system consists of many complicated sub-systems. These urban sub-systems, and their related problems, can only be fully understood in the context of the whole city )in the perception of a ‘whole system’(1. Urban systems are nonlinear systems which are difficult to predict in order to understand the effect of variables across different levels of actions. Feedback, accumulations and nonlinear relationships make up complex nonlinear feedback systems2. In such systems a small change in the initial condition of a system could cause a chain of events leading to large-scale phenomena. This Sensitivity to the initial starting conditions of a model is a characteristic of a “chaotic”3 behavior. Complex and chaotic systems may be unpredictable but they are understandable. This concept is particularly applicable to brownfields. The most significant brownfield challenges are linked to firstly understanding the complexity of regeneration process and then applying this knowledge to find sustainable solutions for the sites that link to regional strategies, but also taking account of the wider dynamics of the overall urban area. 1 Knox, P. L. (1995). World cities in a world-system. Cambridge University Press. Boeing (2015). "Chaos Theory and the Logistic Map" 3 ibid 2 35 3.2.1. Dynamics of brownfield regeneration/creation Brownfield regeneration is a complex process. Brownfield regeneration can be very effective on wider urban development scale, so it is essential to understand the dynamics of the process, and the underlying nature of the brownfields creation problems. In response for clarification of dynamics of the brownfields regeneration/creation as circular process, Brownfields regeneration is a shift from linear to circular economy. Circular economy is an economic and industrial system that takes the reusability of products and raw materials and the resilience of natural resources as a preliminary point, minimizes the value destruction of the overall system and pursues value creation in each link of the system1. In a circular land use model as shown in figure (3.1), Ferber argued for considering the flow into the brownfield stock as well as the flow out through regeneration 2 . This will become more important when urban construction loses its economic or social viability and become derelict. When buildings are first approved for development, second life of the site should be considered in ten to twenty years’ time. Otherwise, there will be a risk of creating more future brownfields rather than regeneration. Figure 3-1: Model of phases and potential of circular flow land use management Ref. Preuß, T., & Ferber, U. (2006) Amount or stock of available land for development influences the approaches of brownfields regeneration. A conceptual model focus on the dynamics of brownfield 1 Tukker, A. (2013). Product services for a resource-efficient and circular economy–a review. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2 Ferber, U., Jackson, J. B., & Starzewska-Sikorska, A. (2011). Circular flow land use management. 33 regeneration/creation was developed by CABERNET 1 . The conceptual model demonstrates that as long as the brownfield bath continues to 'refill' due to the creation of brownfield sites, cities will always have brownfield sites2 as illustrated in figure (3-2). Sometimes more sites become derelict than are regenerated and therefore the overall area of brownfields will increase. More importantly, a number of types of sites remain on the bottom of the bathtub for a considerable amount of time, the so-called persistent or hardcore sites. These sites are often sites with low economic value that have remained abandoned for several years. With a specific concern to the financial feasibility and timing of regeneration, Brownfields sites could be left for more years and used for other productive uses. These uses could include energy production through using the site for solar panels or other renewables, or even finding temporary leisure and cultural uses. This type of temporary use might need extra funding to make it possible. These temporary uses should be actively supported. In terms of brownfield regeneration and the land use cycle, there will always be a flow of brownfields into the bath as sites change in use and are regenerated. However, in terms of the land use cycle, ideally there should be a steady flow of sites into and out of the bath in equal volumes. The remaining volume of brownfields should be at a low level (a low volume in the bath) and this volume should not consist of any hardcore sites (there should be no sludge in the bath).3 3.2.2. Brownfields in the context of urban land management In the context of urban land management, Brownfields distribution and the land use cycle; changes in industrial activities impacts are seen in reducing of enterprises and the loss of a number of old industries. Growth in other service industries and transformations in the urban lifestyle lead to momentous changes in land use. These drivers of land use change have influenced the formation of brownfields in urban areas. The current dynamics of the urban system have resulted in a wide scale dereliction in some areas and scattered temporal declines in other regions. Overall these changes have left many cities with a significant legacy of brownfield sites. The persistence and distribution of brownfield sites represents a major urban management problem. Taking into consideration the complexity of this urban problem, brownfield regeneration should consistently be part of a coherent spatial and strategic land management approach, particularly with respect to the wider issues of economic, environmental and Figure 3-2: The Brownfield Bath Model – showing the social dimensions of sustainable filling and emptying of the bath ref CABERNET (2006) 1 CABERNET (2006) Sustainable Brownfield regeneration: CABERNET network report. ibid 3 For the UK, the target is to build 60% of new housing on brownfield land. In terms of the persistent or hardcore sites, in the UK these are determined as sites that have remained derelict for over nine years. Within the 60% target there is no specific strategy to deal with the hardcore sites. 2 34 development. Land management and brownfields are highly relevant cross cutting topic for urban development however they are usually seen from other spatial or sectorial aspects point of view. Therefore, an integrated approach to comprehensive strategies is needed. The Land Use Puzzle Model 1 demonstrates the interlocked nature of brownfield distribution, land development and the land use cycle. The model demonstrates that the creation of brownfields is part of the overall land use cycle and is in fact necessary to permit cities to manage their development through the creation and stimulation of new regeneration. This model emphasizes the complex and connected nature of the urban system in flux, where land ‘pieces 'are changing in use (moving in puzzle) as land is being redeveloped. The spaces, representing derelict land, can be filled, sites can be reused, within a ‘semi-structured land use plan', as shown in Figure (3-3) Figure 3-3: The Land Use Puzzle Model ref. CABERNET (2006) 3.3. Brownfields in stakeholders’ perspectives Various studies of urban management and planning showed the topic involves so many scientific and social disciplines that it is difficult not only to understand how the whole system works, but also to define its limits2. One of the key dimensions of brownfield regeneration is the diversity of professions involved in the process. This diversity of professions could be categorized into the groups of stakeholders that affect, or affected by, brownfield regeneration as illustrated in table (3-1). The more Stakeholders are identified and involved from the early preparation for regeneration project, the smoother the project planning process. Successful Brownfields regeneration often relies on strong coordination among stakeholders including local communities; local, government; private parties; and nonprofit organizations. Successful development of brownfields can be enabled or accelerated when these stakeholders work together to follow a common regeneration goals. 1 ibid ⁹EEA (2002) Towards an Urban Atlas, Assessment of Spatial Data on 25 European Cities and Urban Areas, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen; 2 35 Table 3-1: Examples of Stakeholders involved in the regeneration of brownfield sites, ref: Williams, K., & Dair, C. (2007) Stakeholder Examples of types of stakeholder within each Group groups Stakeholders involved in land-use planning and regulation Service . Local authority regulators (e.g. planners, urban designers, providers and environmental health officers, highways and transport regulators, councilors, landscape architects) Regulators, Environment Agency regulators legislative . Councilors consulters, . Building control (Local authority or approved inspectors) . Utility regulators and service providers (gas, electricity, water and drainage) . Central government departments and regional authorities Non-statutory . Business interests consultees, . Pressure groups interest groups, . Community group interests and individuals . Individuals Stakeholders involved in development and construction Property Public sector and private developers developers and . Investors developer . Land owners interests . Shareholders of investing institutions and developers . Construction workers . Suppliers Professional . Lawyers . Architects, planning consultants, conservationists and advisors archaeologists . Civil and environmental engineers . Surveyors . Insurers and valuers . Landscaping consultants Stakeholders involved in end use End users . Clients of developers (e.g. manufacturers, business entrepreneurs, retailers, home buyers, public service providers) . Residents of dwellings and residential homes . Proprietors of commercial businesses including, offices, shops; restaurants, and their suppliers, employees and customers . Manufacturers and their suppliers, employees and customers . Managers and proprietors, of public/ private institutions including schools, hospitals, and leisure centres and their employees and visitors . Landowners of public/private open space, parks, gardens, woodland and the public that uses those areas 32 Different stakeholders have diverse perspectives and unlike needs. As a result, problem-oriented solutions for brownfields will need to focus on multi-stakeholder approaches that respect the range of perspectives as well as the diversity of stakeholder values. It should be noted that although new tools and approaches are required, there are already available several good practice examples and valuable tools that are widely recognized and used. To identify the individuals or groups that are likely to affect or be affected by a proposed action, and sorting them according to their influence on the action and the influence the action will have on them ,stakeholders mapping and analysis could be effectively used1 as shown in figure (3-4). Stakeholder analysis is used to assess how the interests of those stakeholders should be addressed in project plan, policy, program, or other action. The previously mentioned analysis should be done during the preparation phase of a project to evaluate attitudes of stakeholders regarding the potential changes. However, in the future it can be done once or frequently to track changes in stakeholder attitudes over time. Figure (3-4): Engagement strategy based on the interest/influence stakeholder map ref.: http://www.stakeholdermap.com/stakeholder-analysis.html 1 Fletcher, A., et al. (2003). "Mapping stakeholder perceptions for a third sector organization." in: Journal of Intellectual Capital 33 3.3.1. Roles and Interests of Participants Each participant of these previously mentioned groups has either a role or interest or both, which affect brownfield regeneration project. The following table (3-2) summarizes the roles each participant could play in brownfields regeneration and their interest in a successful transformation. The key idea is to consider multi perspective approach where every participant has incentive or interest to make brownfield regeneration happens. Table 3-2: Examples of Roles and Interests of Participants in brownfield regeneration, EPA (2006) Participants Examples Sell or develop the Property Property Owner ‫ إ‬Local Governments ‫ إ‬Community PublicGroups Sector ‫ إ‬Grant Stakeholders Recipients ‫ إ‬Nonprofit Organizations PrivateSector Stakeholders Other Parties Role ‫ إ‬Investors ‫ إ‬Lenders ‫إ‬Developers ‫ إ‬Insurers ‫ إ‬Attorneys ‫ إ‬Environmental Consultants ‫ إ‬State and Federal Regulators Redevelop the property from a community and economic development perspective Provide resources to develop the property Provide technical, regulatory, or other guidance 32 Interest ‫ إ‬Want to receive the value of their property ‫ إ‬Want to manage any liability concerns ‫ إ‬Want to see the project succeed in terms of revitalizing blighted properties and generating economic or community growth ‫ إ‬May want the successful property assessment, cleanup, and reuse to enhance the community’s image ‫ إ‬Want to see the project succeed in terms of revitalizing blighted properties and generating economic or community growth ‫ إ‬Want to earn an appropriate return on investment ‫ إ‬May want to tie the property redevelopment into a larger redevelopment plan for the neighborhood or community ‫ إ‬Want to ensure that the property is cleaned up and safe for appropriate levels of use and/or reuse ‫ إ‬Want to alleviate future environmental concerns on the Property Due to the diversity of stakeholders and their different roles, effects, interest, and perspectives, The Football model was developed by CABERNET to highlight how different stakeholder perspectives can affect the regeneration process (represented by the football) as shown in figure (3-5). With this interactive model, individuals are asked to list the most significant regeneration drivers. When the process (football) is activated, the significant 'driver' determines where the football falls. When various groups of stakeholders list their drivers, it is informative to review the divergence and convergence in their views and how they 'kick' the football. Figure (3-5): The Football Model interactive screen showing the stakeholder selection , ref.: CABERNET (2006) 3.4. Drivers and challenges of brownfields regeneration Brownfields regeneration complexity is mainly affected by multi-disciplinary issues. Urban planning, economic, environmental, social and technical issues are key factors that could affect the regeneration of a brownfield site between challenges and opportunities. Some factors may act as drivers for the regeneration while others act as obstacles or challenges, that needs to dealt with. 3.4.1. Governance factor Governance could be either a driver or obstacle for brownfields regeneration. Governance’ refers to the policies and actions of government, market and society that 33 together aim to influence urban developments 1 . Governance involves a process of interaction, coordination and collaboration between different groups of actors. Within the complex settings of urban development, there are three important groups of actors; Public actors; as Government, society private actors; as Market and Societal actors; as society as illustrated in figure (3-6). Actors from these three groups have different Market policies and actions instruments to contribute.  Government instruments could be one or Government more of the following; - laws and regulation, - policies, - financial instruments i.e. taxes and funds, - Information and communication. Figure (3-6): governance actors, developed by the Some of these instruments could be more researcher effective than others.  Market instruments are tools that admit the competitive character of the market; it could be affecting supply or demand.  Instruments of societal action could be; organized ad-vocative action, such as NGO action, interest groups, campaigns and protests, neighborhood networks, joint procurement initiatives, and cooperatives. Collaboration and coordination between different actors and synchronizing of actions are essential to be sustainable. 3.4.2. Brownfields regeneration drivers: One of the most influential drivers for regenerating brownfields is the expected benefits. Benefits for society and all stakeholders could be economic, social, environmental, political, physical upgrading. For example, economic benefits could be commercial benefits for private sector and fiscal benefits for governments. Private stakeholders are motivated to interfere in brownfields regeneration because of the profit factor which can be developed through transforming the site into a useable and marketable object by directly selling the property after remediation. In some cases an additional motive for the owner is to divest liability risks/costs2 Although often it will be the private sector that gains commercial benefits, such benefits can also be achieved by the public sector if it is involved in property selling and/or economic exploitation after redevelopment.  Public fiscal profits: In addition to possible commercial benefits for government, some of the benefits of brownfield redevelopment translate directly into positive financial effects for government: 1 2 Tosics, I. (2011). Governance challenges and models for the cities of tomorrow. Groenendijk, N. (2006). Financing Techniques for Brownfield Regeneration-A practical guide. 40 - Restoration and/or enhancement of the tax base of unoccupied and underutilized sites (increase in revenue from property tax, income taxes) - increased utilization of existing hard (infrastructure) and soft public services (efficiency gains due to better dispersion of fixed costs, increase in revenue from user charges) - Revenue from development charges. Brownfield regeneration can facilitate the reuse of industrial lots in cities. Incentives for developers can encourage high-density urban development in city centers, but this development must be a respond to demand. On the one hand, there are many barriers for redevelopment, such as expensive land prices, demolition cost of existing facilities, and limited land use by zoning regulation and cleanup costs. On the other hand, there are much welfare from brownfield redevelopment, such as urban revitalization, increased asset value of the site and the surrounding site, improved tax base, increased employment, environmental protection, effective use of existing infrastructure and prevention of urban sprawl.1 3.4.3. Economic viability of brownfields sites One of the most important drivers of brownfield regeneration is the economic viability of individual sites. This can be affected by many different factors, which can alter quite considerably over time. The economic status of a site can be affected by: ‫ إ‬Indirect as well as direct costs of the regeneration, ‫ إ‬Predicted revenues / return from the site ‫ إ‬The type of financing and the associated financial risks ‫ إ‬National and local taxes and their perceived risk of fluctuations ‫ إ‬Any development agreements between the land owner and / or the municipality and the developer The "Economic Components of the A-B-C Model" can illustrate different types of brownfield regeneration projects, representing their economic status, as shown in figure (3-7). Figure (3-7): A-B-C Model, Economic Components of brownfield site, ref. CABERNET 1 Trends in Urbanisation and Urban Policies in OECD Countries: What Lessons for China?, 2010 www.oecd.org/urban/roundtable/45159707.pdf 41 This model identifies three types of sites according to their economic status (due to the cost of regeneration, the value of the land, and revenue drivers for brownfield regeneration). Sites are classified as: ‫ إ‬A Sites – are highly economically viable and private funding drives the development projects. ‫ إ‬B Sites – are on the borderline of profitability. Such projects tend to be funded through public-private co-operation or partnerships ‫ إ‬C Sites – are not in a condition where regeneration can be profitable. Their regeneration mainly depends on public sector or municipality driven projects. Public funding or specific legislative instruments (e.g. tax incentives) are required to stimulate regeneration of these sites The A-B-C model highlights the funding drivers for brownfield regeneration. The conceptual model can be used to assist decision makers, responsible for urban development and investment to characterize strategies for dealing with different types of brownfields. By identifying the type of site and considering the factors that are affecting a site's category, i.e. if it is an A, B, or C site, both public and private bodies can examine intervention options and regeneration strategies1. 3.4.4. Brownfields regeneration challenges Several challenges helped in make brownfields remediation and regeneration unique in comparison to other real estate development projects. Obstacles and constraints of regenerating brownfields sites could be of the followings:2     Cleanup Considerations: The site could be polluted and require cleanup, which require more time, and cost. Cleaning up brownfields can be expensive, so contamination is unlikely to be removed unless a site is intended for a new use that makes the clean-up financially viable3. Brownfields regeneration may take longer than typical real estate development due to environmental assessment and cleanup activities. Technical and governance: Absence of adequate and consistently accessible expertise within government agencies dedicated to the development of brownfields. Lack of a common vision, and a consistent system for development. Reuse Planning: A reuse plan goals or economic and environmental information (e.g., market potential) may be unacceptable from people owns the land or live by it to change, use or develop it. Environmental Liability Concerns: Developers and property owners want to manage past and future liabilities associated with the property’s environmental history. 1 CABERNET (2006) Sustainable Brownfield regeneration: CABERNET network report. Paull, E. (2008). The environmental and economic impacts of brownfields redevelopment. Northeast Midwest. 3 What are brownfields? (n.d.). Retrieved August 30, 2016, from http://cielap.org/brownfields/ 2 45  Financial Barriers: The requirement for large capital investment; in some cases, cleanup costs for a property may ultimately be more than the property’s value. Despite these challenges, significant opportunities exist for successful brownfields redevelopment. A redevelopment idea that mechanism to bring new life to an area, enhanced by public support for the project, can create the momentum necessary to overcome the challenges associated with brownfields transactions. Researches demonstrates that effective redevelopment of brownfield sites has the potential to impact urban communities by providing well-paying jobs in blighted communities, reducing urban sprawl and related fossil fuel consumption, and to revitalize neighborhoods 1 . The governmental intervention to revitalize these areas may be indispensable to make them more economically attractive2 3.4.5. The impact of brownfield regeneration: The impact of brownfield regeneration into residential development on deprived areas differs according to neighboring area type3:  Escalation: where incomers arrive from similar or more deprived areas and out movers go to less deprived areas. This neighborhood type represents upward progression through housing and labor markets;  gentrification: where the social composition is altered by incomers from less deprived areas and out-movers to similar or more deprived locations;  isolation: where there is less inward and outward migration to and from other less deprived areas, resulting in socially isolated neighborhoods;  Transit: where most incomers and out movers come from and go to less deprived areas. Typically, this represents young households moving on to the housing ladder. These impacts must be considered or at least anticipated, to direct the regeneration process to success. 3.5. Brownfield analysis from perspective of sustainability Taking into account the complexity of this urban problem, brownfield regeneration should consistently be part of a coherent spatial and strategic land management approach, particularly with respect to the wider issues of economic, environmental and social dimensions of sustainable development. A systemic approach to objective focused problem solving has been shown to map onto the challenge of ensuring that brownfield regeneration meets the criteria of sustainability. 1 Nazon, D. (2007). Brownfields Redevelopment and Competitive Advantage Theory: Urban Revitalization and Stakeholder Engagement in South Troy, NY. ProQuest. 2 Grimski, D., & Ferber, U. (2001). Urban brownfields in Europe. Land Contamination and Reclamation, 9(1), 143-148. 3 Brownfield residential redevelopment in England report,2010 43 3.5.1. Importance of Sustainability Objectives When considering the sustainable development objectives, brownfield opportunities and regeneration responsibilities can be characterized as follows1: • Economic: Mobilizing human resources, using existing sites and infrastructure to develop and improve the urban fabric. Generate economic growth in urban area, increase public and private income. • Ecological/ environmental: Cleaning up, restoring previously used land and Placing brownfields regeneration at the forefront of regeneration strategies and using this program as a driver for the clean-up of contaminated land. land consumption reduction and urban sprawl by encouraging sustainable brownfield regeneration projects. • Social/ cultural: Ensuring the long-term sustainability of brownfields regeneration by including socio-cultural dimensions. Communities can be encouraged to provide representatives and equitable sustainable development; which may reduce the potential for subsequent decline and recreation of brownfields, improving the quality of life in city areas. In order to achieve more progress in terms of sustainable brownfield regeneration, a number of key aspects of the regeneration process need to be identified and assessed. Sustainability assessment is a process of evaluating of possible outcomes across all sustainable development elements (economic, social and environmental) as an integrated discipline in decision-making2. Sustainability assessment is increasingly being used in support of decision making for brownfield restoration projects3 . There is no standard prescriptive or method for assessing sustainability of brownfields regeneration 4 , nevertheless there are general principles and descriptive standards as evaluative approach. For example, an informative framework was developed by Williams and Dair, with an objectives-led approach to assess the sustainability of brownfield regeneration using sustainability indicator framework. The objectives-led approach focuses on a discrete number of clear sustainability aims and expands the framework by adding practical examples of how these objectives could be achieved5, the framework is illustrated in table (3-4). 1 Tölle, A. (2009). Report about concepts and tools for brownfield redevelopment activities (Output No. 3.1. 1 of the COBRAMAN project) 2 Bardos et al., 2011, Applying sustainable development principles to contaminated land management using the SuRF‐UK framework 3 RESCUE, 2005; CL:AIRE, 2006; REVIT, 2007 4 Bartke, S., & Schwarze, R. (2015). No perfect tools: Trade-offs of sustainability principles and user requirements in designing support tools for land-use decisions between greenfields and brownfields. Journal of environmental management, 153, 11-24. 5 Williams, K., & Dair, C. (2007). A framework for assessing the sustainability of brownfield developments. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management,50(1), 23-40. 44 Table (3-4): Sustainability Objectives that could be met in Brownfield regeneration Adopted from Williams and Dair Examples of how these objectives can be met in brownfield developments Economic sustainability objectives 1. To enable businesses to be Reduce energy consumption in construction. efficient and competitive . Reduce waste in construction e.g. recycling of materials. . Provide infrastructure and buildings that enable businesses to keep energy and water consumption to a minimum. . Provide developments with renewable energy power sources. . Provide high quality urban design, including secure premises. . Provide high quality buildings that are flexible and can be adapted with minimum costs. . Provide transport infrastructure to meet business needs. 5. To support local economic . Provide higher densities to enhance commercial diversity viability. . Provide a mix of uses to increase viability and vitality of commercial areas. . Enable a supply of properly serviced land and business premises. . Use locally produced goods and materials in construction. 3. To provide employment . Provide a mix of uses to give choice of employment. opportunities . Develop high quality buildings for manufacturing and commercial activities. . Increase the recruitment of local unemployed people. . Provide a mix of uses to give choice of employment. Environmental sustainability objectives 1. To minimize the use of . Use renewable materials, e.g. sustainably produced timber. resources . Use recycled materials, e.g. aggregates. . Use renewable energy sources, e.g. wind turbines, photovoltaic cells. . Design developments for minimum waste during construction, life and after-life. . Use materials with low energy inputs 5. To minimize pollution . Remediate contaminated land. Sustainability objectives 45 . Reduce air pollution including dust during construction. . Mitigate noise pollution both during and after construction. . Provide infrastructure for public transport, walking, cycling. . Raise densities on sites within 200 m of existing centers, services and transport corridors. . Design buildings for minimum energy consumption in use. 3. To protect biodiversity and . Conserve flora, wildlife and habitats on site. the . Provide wildlife refuges, such as ponds and wild areas. natural environment 'Use sustainable urban drainage systems to protect rivers and watercourses from pollution and flooding. Social sustainability objectives 1. To adhere to ethical standards . Ensure ethical trading throughout the supply chain of a development. during the development process . Provide a safe and healthy work environment. . Comply with labour conventions e.g. nondiscrimination at work and reasonable hours. 5. To provide adequate local . Provide space for training. services and . Provide open space for community benefit. facilities to serve the . Develop good quality energy efficient buildings for development community activities. . Offer a mix of retail spaces. 3. To provide housing to meet . Develop a mix of housing tenure and type. local . Provide affordable housing. . Provide high quality and flexible buildings that Needs minimize the use of resources. . Provide secure dwellings with the layout of buildings and spaces arranged to deter crime. 4. To integrate the development . Provide multiple links to adjacent neighborhoods. within . Reject or discourage gated developments. the locality . Create a mix of transport provision with a variety of modal links to services, work, leisure and homes. . Provide good access for people with disabilities. 5. To conserve local culture and . Reuse locally valued buildings. heritage, . Design developments to reflect local heritage and use if appropriate local materials. 42 Another sustainability assessment approach is the Interaction Matrix. It is a conceptual model that can be applied to brownfield regeneration1. The approach involves a welldefined sequence of actions that ensures that all factors relevant to a proposed brownfield regeneration project in a specific location have been explicitly considered. This matrix can be used to study the relative inter-activeness, dominance and dependence of the parameters. As illustrated in figure (3-8) Figure 3-8 Illustrative interaction matrix for the urban land system, ref. CABERNET, 2006 Sustainability assessment usually provides a framework for assessing the overall outcomes in a holistic way. It could be used as a guiding base for financial investment decision making, however there is no clear measurable financial outcome in economic value, and the investments required for brownfield regeneration are financial. Alternatively, cost–benefit analysis is used as the basis for investment decisions2. Cost– benefit assessment compares the expected benefits of a project with its costs as a form of economic valuation. 1 CABERNET (2006) Sustainable Brownfield regeneration: CABERNET network report. Bardos, R. P., Jones, S., Stephenson, I., Menger, P., Beumer, V., Neonato, F., ... & Wendler, K. (2016). Optimising value from the soft re-use of brownfield sites. Science of The Total Environment, 563, 769782. 2 43 3.6. Conclusion Brownfields regeneration is not a simple process, but a complex one. It is affected by many factors and its result are not granted, however it could be managed to reach a certain limit of sustainability. Brownfield regeneration can be very effective on wider urban development scale. The dynamics of the brownfields regeneration/creation is a shift from linear to circular process. There will always be a flow of brownfields in and out of the land use cycle, as sites change in use and are regenerated. As possible, there should be a steady flow in equal volumes. Regeneration of brownfield should consider soft reuse and temporary uses as well as the hard reuse as built constructions or infrastructure development. Brownfield regeneration should be part of a comprehensible strategic land management approach. Land management and brownfields are highly relevant cross cutting topic for urban development. Therefore, integrated approaches and comprehensive strategies are necessary. The regeneration of brownfields is a challenging issue that requires the involvement of the entire range of stakeholders. Many studies, projects and organizations have recognized the importance of stakeholder involvement and have promoted public participation. Stakeholders’ perspectives proved to be different according to their interests, and roles in the regeneration process Brownfields are usually perceived as complex systems, where several issues need to be addressed. Such issues could be Urban planning, economic, social, environmental and technical aspects; for example contamination and remediation strategies and options, site investigation, and risk assessment, project planning and financing. However, the economic, social, environmental and political benefits represent driving motivation for regenerating brownfields. From the decision-making point of view, the context of policies and actions of government, market and society could be either a driver or obstacle for brownfields regeneration, as well the economic viability of individual sites. According to the cost of regeneration, the value of the site, and the revenue, brownfield site could classified as A, B, or C site which assist in regeneration opportunity valuation, and investigating intervention options and regeneration strategies. Sustainability assessment could be also used in support of decision making for brownfield regeneration projects. However, there is no standard prescriptive or method for assessing sustainability of brownfield regeneration. Objective and general principles have been identified for the regeneration context of brownfields. Stakeholder involvement and balanced objectives are important part of sustainability assessment. This assessment usually provides a framework for evaluating the overall outcomes in a holistic way. However, regarding the financial investments required for brownfield regeneration, sustainability evaluation should be combined with cost–benefit analysis as a base for investment decision making. Ultimately, to develop a strategy for sustainable brownfields regeneration, multi stakeholders approach is essential, where every stakeholder has role and interest to fulfill. Sustainable Brownfield sustainable regeneration is a balanced approach that incorporates environmental, socio cultural, technical, and economic aspects “to meet the present needs without compromising the needs of the future”. 42 Chapter 4 : Worldwide Experience in Urban Regeneration of brownfields, International Case Studies 43 4.1. Introduction This chapter presents analytical study of the applicability of previous concepts of sustainable urban regeneration of brownfields. It reviews the international examples of reactions to brownfields, how countries and governments deal with such condition. Brownfields regeneration is an international concept in which most of world nations are working on. As it is one main tool in sustainable development, however each country deals with brownfield regeneration differently, according to its needs and priorities. The goal of this chapter is to investigate and analyze variety of international experiences of dealing with urban regeneration as a condition sustainably. It is also going to review different types and the scales of interventions. Moreover, some good practices from different counties presenting different previous uses and different goals in development, taking in to consideration factors related to environment, economy and urban conditions. After finishing this chapter, research will have covered a comprehensive background about sustainable urban regeneration of brownfields, not only theoretically, but also in real life experience.in addition to different stages and methodologies done during project chain. 4.2. International Reactions dealing with Brownfields The regeneration of brownfields, especially in inner-city locations plays an important role in revitalizing the whole city. Therefore, the international research and policy activities increased in the context of spatial planning, economic and environmental restoration and social and technical science1. Many governments and countries e.g. OECD2 countries recognized the presence of brownfields as a complex problem that goes far beyond single economic, environmental, social or urban concerns. They started actively to promote brownfield regeneration as an important policy that contributes to sustainable development3 Most of the international reaction to Brownfields have been affected by4 some factors which include:  The scale and number of contaminated properties,  Land availability,  Population density,  Historic preservation objectives,  Governmental priorities. For example, The U.K., Netherlands, and Germany are countries, which have limited undeveloped land and need to preserve their remaining green space5. 1 Ferber, U., & Grimski, D. (2003). Brownfields and Redevelopment of Urban Areas: Report Prepared by Working Group" Brownfield Redevelopment" (CLARINET). 2 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development 3 Trends in Urbanisation and Urban Policies in OECD Countries: What Lessons for China?, 2010 www.oecd.org/urban/roundtable/45159707.pdf 4 Smith, G. (2008). Contributions of brownfield development to urban internal expansion and urban renewal in practice. In 44th International Society of City and Regional Planners Congress, Dalian, China (pp. 19-23). 5 IEDC 2008 50 On the other hand, Countries such as the United States, Canada and Australia are less restricted by availability of land; however, they recognize the importance of brownfields to economic efficiency and urban renewal and, particularly in the United States, have established integrated environment protection and land use planning approaches to facilitate Brownfields activities1. Although the underlying conditions are different, there are brownfields sites in the traditional industrial centers and in metropolitan cities, as well as in peripheral locations. Thus have led towards different strategies and programs to support the regeneration of brownfields. Governmental interventions were essential, as property market forces were not enough to resolve the problem. Accordingly, and in light of the major benefits of Brownfields to urban growth, governments in many nations are increasingly taking steps to facilitate the reuse of Brownfield sites2. List of steps3 many governments made as shown in figure (4-1) could also be used as recommendations. Define brownfields Quantify, inventory and describe brownfields Encourage applied research projects Develop integrated strategy Develop a system of gradual treatment Provide financial efforts to reduce risks Figure 4-1 steps and recommendations made by governments. Source; Author based on CLARINET report Figure (4-2) summarize the governments' reactions towards the issue of brownfields Most of the reactions were in kind of initiatives, policies, and research programs. Activities on different levels, considered constraints and requirements of the regeneration, for examples; the technical and economic risks, land valuation complications, time scales required for land acquisition and legal matters. In many cases, policies considerations and programs were directed to the level of priorities for individual projects and objectives.4 1 US EPA 2007 Smith, G. (2008). 3 COMMISSION EUROPEEENE, 1992 4 CLARINET, E. (2001) 2 51 Figure 4-2 government reactions dealing with Brownfield, source; Author based on CLARINET report 4.2.1. United States of America The U.S.A government reaction to Brownfields was initially directed towards cleaning up contaminated sites for protection of the public and the environment In 1980, the US government decreed the 'Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act' (CERCLA) Law, also known as "Superfund". This law imposed a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries, and the tax went to a trust fund for cleaning up disused contaminated waste sites1. The CERCLA established regulation regarding contaminated brownfields and identified the liability of who is responsible for cleaning up the toxic wastes at these sites. As a result of such strict regulation, developers and business institutions preferred to keep these brownfields untouched and preferred greenfield development. Many state governments responded to the problem by providing economic incentives and liability exemption to developers. Pushed ahead by the state governments, federal government enacted Brownfield Act in 2002 to support the activities of state governments.2 The EPA’s Brownfields Economic Redevelopment Initiative started in 1335. The objective of the initiative- as outlined in the brownfields Action Agenda- is to assist states, communities, and other organizations or individuals in assessing, cleaning up, sustainably reusing and preventing future brownfield 3 . Additionally to develop the knowledge, experience, and public confidence required for continued implementation of future brownfield projects at the local community level4. In the beginning, brownfields redevelopment was directed towards cleaning up contaminated sites for protection of the public and the environment. The success of the 1 OECD (2010). Regional development policies in OECD Countries ibid 3 EPA, 1998 4 https://www.epa.gov/brownfields access 4-2016 2 55 brownfield initiative is the ability of redevelopment project to stimulate sustainable environmental restoration and economic development. With support from EPA, working group called ''Brownfield Redevelopment" undertook a comparative study of the economic outcomes of efforts to regenerate urban brownfields in several countries. The main goal was to assist governments to develop sustainable policies and methods for achieving sustainable brownfield regeneration with positive economic outcomes and benefits to society.1 Incentives from federal, state and local governments were provided by the government who lead the way, more corporations followed and became interested. Investors, developers and experienced contractors were involved and owners became interested. Brownfields Law & Incentives were created to address the environmental issues for property transactions, expansions and Liability protection. Funding was provided for Assessment, Cleanup, Redevelopment of eligible sites and entities 4.2.2. The United Kingdom As the World’s first industrialized country, de-industrialization mainly occurred in the 1970'-90's need to reactivating previously developed sites. (PDL) Previously developed land is the term used in UK to represent brownfield. Regeneration in UK approach include reusing the land and buildings in unexploited former industrial, commercial, transport, military etc. Regional development agency (RDA) and English partnership (EP) 2 are the main governmental bodies responsible for dealing with brownfields or (PDL) UK government agendas focused on several, integrated goals not only on environmental recovery. Mainly the government was less involved in particular Brownfield sites; additionally they used incentives and regulations. Private developers initiated about 75 % of regeneration projects in the UK, as they can take advantage of tax credits for remediation costs3. Government provided tax incentives and other financial aid (e.g. dereliction aid and gap funding scheme) to confront obstacles of brownfield regeneration which usually require higher financial costs. In the UK, the policy main objectives were economic development– attraction of inward investment, for example by the establishment of business and industrial parks, job creation, etc. These programs have been accompanied by ecological improvement in areas damaged by former use. In recent years, there has been new emphasis on reuse of brownfield sites for much needed housing land. In the "urban white paper" and "sustainable communities plan" document, The UK government increased the brownfield development targets for regional/local planning authorities from 50% to 60%.4 4.2.1. Europe experience Since the 1980th Decline of industries; coal, steel and textile led to structural change in industry in many EU countries. Due to low land value and high rehabilitation and cleansing costs, brownfields were left derelict. Consequently, governments have developed Comprehensive strategies and programs for brownfield revitalization with 1 https://www.epa.gov/land-revitalization access 4-2016 English partnership act 2008 3 Smith, G. (2008, September). Contributions of brownfield development to urban internal expansion and urban renewal in practice 4 OECD (2010). Regional development policies in OECD Countries, P.G. 360. 2 53 support of the European structural policy, especially in UK, France and Germany. The European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) was the main funding instrument used for regeneration of derelict industrial sites. besides sector-specific “Community Initiatives” for example; ”RESIDER” for steel sites, ”RETEX” for textile industry sites, ”RECHAR” for coalfields, and ”RENAVAL” for ship building sites help to realize the structural change in traditional industrial regions.1 ERDF interregional activities have been initiated since 1989 by Article 16 projects, RECITE II and INTERREG e.g. BERI: Brownfield European Regeneration Initiative CONVERnet: Development of a Central European Conversion Network, REVIT: Revitalizing industrial sites. The main focus have been on the exchange of best practice on the site by site level integrating environmental aspects/soil contaminations, management models and public participation.2 In 1998 the European Commission agreed that a more strategic and integrated approach to urban issues is needed at the European level3.In 2000 the Urban Environment Expert Group stated that “Brownfield issues play a major role in the context of sustainable land use”4. The Brownfield regeneration was recognized as a key to tackling urban sprawl and ensuring a more sustainable environment5 European research Networks, such as CLARINET (Contaminated Land Rehabilitation NETwork), have highlighted the need for the consideration of contaminated and brownfield land in a broader context. In 5005 the “Concerted Action on Brownfield and Economic Regeneration NETwork )CABERNET(” provided a framework to enhance the incorporation of sustainable development into land use planning decisions, by focusing on the specific need to reuse the brownfield resource, recommendations related to policy, good practice and research programs Multiple initiatives were made in European Union countries on many levels; policies, Research networks, projects, for example6; BERI Brownfield European Regeneration Initiative, CABERNET Concerted Action of Brownfield and Economic Regeneration Network, LUDA Improving the quality of life in the Large Urban Distressed Areas, PROSIDE Promoting Sustainable Inner Urban Development, RECULA Restructuring Cultural Landscapes, RESCUE Regeneration of European Sites in Cities and Urban Environments, REVIT Revitalizing Industrial Sites. In addition, central and local governments made their own reactions and started programs for reusing their derelict sites.For examples: In German: Local governments deal with brownfields as opportunities for economic development. Their planning efforts increasingly encourage development goals regulated by the potential land use7. Netherland: central government administers programs that direct funding and support to priority Brownfields sites, coordinated with local land use and planning processes. Providing a strategic approach to reuse of contaminated sites, utilize 1 Ferber, U. (2011). Brownfield Integrated Governance–BRING Baseline Study–Development phase Mai. 2 ibid 3 Communication Sustainable Urban Development in the European Union: A Framework for Action (COM(98)605). 4 Expert Group, 2000 5 Soil Framework Directive, COM (2006 6 Tölle, A. (2009). Report about concepts and tools for brownfield redevelopment activities. 7 Garry, S. (2008) 54 Brownfields redevelopment to contribute to further urban planning goals, such as improved housing, transportation, and quality of life1 Most of these programs offered approaches and recommendations to solve urban development, economic, social and ecological issues, which include: ‫ إ‬Limiting greenfield development by re-generating brownfields. ‫ إ‬Functional and design improvement of the affected urban structures by recovery of brownfields and while aiming at wider urban revitalization; ‫ إ‬conserving the architectural heritage of the industrial history by retrofitting historic industrial buildings with new uses; ‫ إ‬creating employment opportunities and increasing the skills of unemployed people. ‫ إ‬restoring the landscape and improving of environmental quality, distorted by industrial use. As a result, International experience of brownfield regeneration in relation to initiatives, policies, and programs showed that most of integrated land management policies addressing brownfield regeneration focused on indirect incentives (market-led initiatives), and enabling public intervention. policies mainly designed to address the challenges facing brownfields regeneration: (legal obstacles and clarifying legal liability legal incentives/regulations and direct and indirect financial incentives to encourage brownfield development and discourage greenfield development using ‘taxation’ dealing with public opposition to brownfields through research programs and information on the benefits of regenerating and reusing brownfields. 2 4.3. The project chain in brownfield regeneration Nations have their own strategies, policies, and agendas in dealing with brownfields as a condition of assets; however, most of brownfield sites are usually treated as development projects. As every urban development project, there is project chain consists of the procedure that brownfield regeneration project has to go through. These stages starting with initiatives then planning, and a business model including the three stages of finance, site or/and real estate development, and finally operation and maintenance.as shown in fig (4.14) These projects may differ in their goal, actors and stakeholder from public and private sector play a role in each process. They all aim to apply regeneration process regardless the source of their initiatives, which sometimes is government, other times may be developers or even community itself. Steps of the procedure of brownfield regeneration project3: 1. Initiative (I) 2. Planning (P) (including site assessment, initial design) 3. Financing of the project (F) 4. Site development (SD) (clean-up, remediation) 5. Real estate development (RD) (building) 6. Operation & maintenance (O) facilities in public domain (like public infrastructure) 1 ibid 2 The Challenge of Sustainable Brownfield Regeneration in Europe, European Commission, 2007 3 Groenendijk, N. (2006). Financing Techniques for Brownfield Regeneration-A practical guide. 55 I Initiative P Planning F Financing SD Site developm ent RD Real estate developm ent O Operation & maintena nce Business model & cooperation issues Figure 4-3 project chain or the procedure of brownfield regeneration project, reference: Groenendijk, N. (2006) 4.3.1. The idea or start of the project (Initiative) The idea for a regeneration project could be generated or developed by the property owner, private investor, neighboring community, or the government1. Government initiated projects : Government usually gets involved in regeneration either because it originally owns the property or its powers are needed to assemble land because of disparate ownership, bankruptcies, or abandonment. In such projects public outreach is essential, although it takes more time, effort and require different methods to be applied. The main reasons for public information efforts are developing ideas for projects and seeking support for them. It's essential to use public planning tools (e.g., request for proposal, public open Competitions, Panel discussions, etc.). 2 Owner/developer-initiated projects: These kind of projects usually are followed by developers who understand the challenges or who have much experience in renovation or by the original asset's owners who choose to transform their properties rather than destroy or abandon them3. Usually these projects are profit oriented which are affected by market forces. Community-initiated projects: These could happen only if the community is powerful and enabled. however their input or initiative can be two-edged influence. They can initiate as well as impede, prevent, or change projects—whether for the better or worse is relatively subjective. 4 4.3.2. Planning and Design of the project Planning strategies for a brownfield regeneration project are different from case to case along with different conditions and context. Starting with regeneration goals which vary 1 Berens, C. (2010). Redeveloping industrial sites: A guide for architects, planners, and developers. John Wiley & Sons. 2 Ibid, Berens, C. (2010). 3 Ibid 4 Ibid 52 according to many factors, e.g., economic needs of the community, nearby residents and businesses, the characteristics of the project location, and ownership of the property1, etc. For example, popular opinion often opts for parks rather than factories as the use for many of these sites, especially those on waterfronts. Developing a program and design for brownfield regeneration project could be affected by many factors e.g. Future use, Site preparation, Economic viability, Legal framework2.However planning for such projects must take into consideration the longterm economic consequences, future directions of a city and the standard concerns and aesthetics of a project. A master plan is very useful tool in design and development phase which provides a coordinated approach for achieving the target goals. It focus on ideas that provide the highest possible return of regeneration. To achieve that, every master plan should consider three design elements as main criteria: development quality, beautification, and value enhancement3. 1. Development Quality The quality of development can be managed and maintained with: a master plan, design guidelines for circulation, open space, and phased building construction, even when multiple developers participate. 2. Beautification of the public realm, including streets, parks, and waterfronts. Beautification elements include landscape, lighting, street furniture, commercial signage, and way-finding signs. Beautification can have an effect in enhancing the identity, value, and desirability of a project. 3. Value Enhancement for the property and neighboring community e.g., Assembling land into larger parcels, enabling additional density and infrastructure development Infrastructure development can provide two kinds of incentive for regeneration projects: access improvements and public facility development. Both add value and can be part of a community’s economic development and very useful on city level development. 1. Access Improvements Transit and street redesign, new bicycle paths, pedestrian walkways, parking, and other access improvements can add value to a project property as well as to the larger community. 2. Public Facilities New public facilities, such as transit hub, green parks, government offices, and cultural and educational facilities, convention centers, arenas, museums, create new jobs and bring in visitors. All can help improve a city’s economy and desirability. Investment in public facilities also conveys a community’s positive commitment to and trust in its future transformation. 1 Ibid CLARINET, E. (2001) 3 Kriken, J. L., Enquist, P. J., & Rapaport, R. (2010). City building: Nine planning principles for the twenty-first century. Princeton Architectural Press. 2 53 4.3.3. Business model and cooperation issues The activities in phases P, F, SD and RD constitute an iterative process where different forms of cooperation between the public and the private sector can be as; - Private development. The private sector is in charge of the process throughout all stages, however assistance may be offered by government during the planning and financing stages . - Public development, in which private parties act only as buyer of redeveloped sites. The initiative to redevelop is taken by government, that plans, finances, takes care of remediation, and builds. Moreover, government remains firmly in charge of the operation of public facilities on the site. - procurement & concession. This development is publicly driven, but there is significant involvement of the private sector in the project by means of procurement of at least one of the phases of the redevelopment. Private involvement can extend over almost all phases of the process, from design to building and/or operation. In the latter case a concession system can be used that can be based on the life cycle of the project (15-25 years). If all phases are incorporated the arrangements are called integrated contracts. - alliances. With procurement & concession private sector involvement can be major, but private parties still act as contractors. With alliances, there is equivalence between the parties involved. Cooperation development model could be Private, Public, or PPP (public private partnership) Procurement & Concessions or Alliance. One of these models could be taken as starting point; usually PPP P&C or PPP Alliance could be more effective or add values. The urban re/development project could be divided into four main phases: Design (D), Finance (F), Build (B), and Operate (O, or: Maintain, M)1. In many cases, public-private partnerships are the main approach where one or more of these phases ownership can be transferred (T) from one to another. Legal arrangement could be made in the phases which the private sector take responsibility, or transfer of ownership takes place2. Some examples are: - DFBT: the private sector takes care of the full development of the project which is then transferred to the public sector. - BOT: the private sector builds the project (designed and financed by the public sector), operates the infrastructure for a certain amount of time, after which the project is handed over to the public sector; - F: private financing only Costs and benefits analysis has to be considered for the regeneration project, for each stakeholder. As costs and benefits will vary with end-use, it may be sensible to use 2-3 different variants. For each stage of the project-chain, participants and stakeholders have to be identified and involved, and their type of involvement has to be specified. In many cases, to encourage regeneration investment, public incentives are used to help achieve the goals of the project. These Incentives could be3 • tax reductions, 1 Groenendijk, N. (2006). Financing Techniques for Brownfield Regeneration-A practical guide. ibid 3 Kriken, J. L., Enquist, P. J., & Rapaport, R. (2010). City building: Nine planning principles for the twenty-first century. Princeton Architectural Press. 2 52 • • • • • • subsidies for land costs, site assembly and preparation, infrastructure development for transportation and utilities, providing health care, education, and public safety services open space and landscape beautification additional density allowances 4.4. Brownfield regeneration projects case studies: Many cities and region recognized their underused land, infrastructure, and buildings as targets for governmental or private redevelopment seeking to attract new interest and investment. The goal of regenerating these brownfields is to identify more economically viable or socially desirable uses that best respond to city's needs. Individual projects shows that in practice different strategies exist. Several good cases around the world represent successful examples 1 of brownfields urban regeneration, and the challenge was which case to select, how many cases to present. The following Cases were selected to represent diversity of dealing with brownfield regeneration in different cities around the world, different in size, location, approaches, use, goals 4.4.1. Brownfields to green space projects , The regeneration of brownfields has become a central part of government efforts to revitalize many cities. While the focus of these efforts has concentrated on promoting industrial and commercial redevelopment, some cities have started to also consider converting brownfields into parks and open space as part of a more comprehensive regeneration strategy2. Many types of green Space could be generated from previous brownfields for example3: ‫ إ‬Linear Parks )restoration/passive( ‫ إ‬Neighborhood parks )active/passive( ‫ إ‬Large multiple use parks ‫ إ‬Ecological/Natural Habitat Many objectives and benefits could be achieved from turning brownfields into green spaces. Firstly, Bringing people back to once abandoned areas, while encouraging recreation and connectivity could increase community's quality of life. Besides the value of surrounding property could be increased as public facility is usually a catalyst for new development. The challenge mainly is the high costs (capital and maintenance) limited revenue and financing of the project which are usually public driven.4 1 following examples which are not included in the research : Washington Olympic Sculpture Park, London olymbic regeneration, Munich Messestadt Riem, Hamburg (Hafen City), Shanghai Houtan Park, Hong Kong Kai Tak Airport, Vancouver Dockside Green, 2 De Sousa, C. A. (2004). The greening of brownfields in American cities. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 47(4), 579-600. 3 https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-05/documents/desousa-remediation-restorationrevitalization-201603-33pp.pdf 4 ibid 53 4.4.2. Brooklyn Navy Yard high line, New York, USA Location: new York City Former use: elevated railroad track Project: park Developer: New York city, friends of the high line (NGO) Public outreach: information meetings, public forums, Competitions, website updates, active publicity through Newspaper and magazine articles Time line: from 1999; first phase completed 2009; 2015 High Line Park is a 2.33 km an elevated section of a disused New York Central Railroad. Inspired by the 4.8kilometer Promenade plantée (tree-lined walkway), a similar project in Paris completed in 1993, the High Line has been redesigned and planted as an aerial greenway and rails-totrails park.1 In the 1980s after the rail is out of services, a group of property owners lobbies for demolition while neighboring areas' residents and activist challenges demolition efforts in court. In 1999, Residents of the High Line neighborhood founded Figure 4-3 Brooklyn "Friends of the High Line" organization, to advocate for the High Navy Yard high line Line's preservation and reuse as public open space. Study showed phases ref. that the High Line project is economically rational, leads to an thehighline.org open ideas competition2, designing the High Line. In 2006 CSX Transportation Inc. donated the High Line ownership to The City. 3 Figure 4-4 high line view ref. www.archdaily.com The High Line has become a defining feature in its neighborhood and a powerful catalyst for investment. It's recognized as a significant contributor in the revitalization of Manhattan's West Side. In 2005, the City rezoned the area around the High Line to encourage development while protecting the neighborhood character. The combination of the rezoning and the success of the park have helped to create one of the fastest growing and most vibrant neighborhoods in NYC. Afterwards, new building permits 1 https://www.thehighline.org/blog/2012/02/01/an-elevated-park-%C3%A0-la-fran%C3%A7aise 5-2016 http://cargocollective.com/Uofanycstudioarch/HIGH-LINE-COMPETITION access 8-2016 3 http://www.thehighline.org/ 5-2016 2 20 increased and many major development projects have been initiated increased private investment including 12,000 new jobs1. The design of the park is iconic and specific to its place inspired other cities to investigate the feasibility of replicating it in their cities. the High Line is significant and meaningful as a project that is politically, ecologically, historically, socially, and economically sustainable 2 . Politically as a proof to community activism, saved by neighboring community residents. Ecologically as a 6-acre green roof in the middle of the city. Historically as a retrofit project, transforming an abandoned rail line into a new public space. Socially as both a neighborhood and world-class park, where families, tourists, and the community meet and socialize, and Economically as an entrepreneurial effort that has demonstrated the ability of public spaces to generate revenue, attract businesses, and stimulate local economic growth. Table 4-1 high line case analysis Factors/ examples Recovery to beneficial use (From negative to positive) from derelict elevated railroad track to vibrant park Satisfaction of human needs and solving existing problems The need for preserving High Line and reusing it as public open space Long term and lasting development for present and future generations From 1990 to 2015 considering the present and future needs for public green spaces The project is a defining feature for neighboring areas and a powerful catalyst for investment. It's recognized as a significant contributor in the revitalization of Manhattan's West Side, and one of the for New York city Residents of the High Line neighborhood founded "Friends of the High Line" organization, to advocate for the High Line's preservation and reuse as public open space. New York city government supported the idea and committed $50 million to establish the proposed park. The New York City Department of City Planning actively contributed to the success of project development. CSX Transportation company donated the High Line ownership to The City The success of the project created fast growing and vibrant neighborhoods in NYC. many major development projects have been initiated increased private investment including 12,000 new jobs Conserve local culture and heritage, Provide open space for community benefit. Comprehensive and integrated (strategic vision in city level) within particular context stakeholders involvement (Linking top down & bottom up) Improve aspects / achieve objectives (balanced & responsive) 1 2 Economic Social and culture https://www.asla.org/2013awards/524.html 6-2016 ibid 21 driving factors Challenges Results 1 To minimize the use of resources for example Environmental Reuse existing structure and recycled materials To provide natural environment for biodiversity Institutional cooperation of responsible institutions Creating recreational amenity and public Physical promenade through adaptive reuse of the existing structure The main driver of this project the co-initiation and Governance collaboration of community and the governmental factor bodies. Economic study presented the viability of High expected Line project, which pushed to an open ideas benefits competition for designing the High Line. Most of the challenges were technical and they Technical and were addressed in design like dealing with governance accessibility and the spaces below the line, as a negative space. Funding for the project was from many sources governmental and non-governmental; from the City of New York, Federal Government, the State of New York, and Friends of High Line, Financial including other private and corporate funding Barriers sources (a contribution from private developers of an adjacent luxury apartment building was in exchange for zoning rights which enabled them to add more floor area to their building)1 The return of this project is direct and indirect, it benefits for the community and the city overall in many ways;  Politically, it represents neighboring community residents activism,  Ecologically, providing 6-acre green roof in the middle of the city. Investment Historically, as a retrofit project, transforming an return impact abandoned rail line into a new public space. satisfaction  Socially as both a neighborhood and world-class park, where families, tourists, and the community meet and socialize  Economically as an entrepreneurial effort that has proved the ability of public spaces to generate revenue, attract businesses, and stimulate local economic growth http://cargocollective.com/Uofanycstudioarch/HIGH-LINE-COMPETITION 25 4.4.3. Brownfield to Bright field Many Cities in United States of America Use Brownfields to Go Solar1. New York City, Chicago, and Philadelphia view their contaminated inner-city brownfield sites as potential locations for large-scale solar installations. However, Chicago was the first to create a mega urban solar plant in brownfield site2. The U.S. Department of Energy created a bright fields program to enable communities to transform idle, unproductive assets into pleasant properties that generate clean energy and revenue for the community3. A bright field is a brownfield that is redeveloped using solar energy technologies – Concept created by US Department of Energy(DOE)4. The Bright fields approach links solar energy to brownfields redevelopment. It transforms community derelict sites into productive, green projects. This unprecedented campaign will help our nation put its hundreds of thousands of brownfields back into productive use and at the same time create high-tech jobs in blighted urban neighborhoods, improve air quality, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The term ‘brightfields' refers to different types of solar applications on brownfields, including photovoltaic arrays that can reduce cleanup costs, building-integrated solar energy systems as part of redevelopment, and solar manufacturing plants on brownfields.” New York City launched SPEED, a searchable database of brownfield properties, a “real estate search engine” that has gotten great traffic from the local developer community. New York City government said SPEED includes historical maps so developers can “toggle through time” and explore some 3,150 vacant commercial and industrial brownfield sites spread throughout the city. The idea is to use some of these sites for solar power plants. The brightfield concept has been characterized in case of Brockton, Massachusetts, a town known for its industrial backgrounds. 27-acre brownfield site, one of the legacies of former industry near downtown transformed into brightfield. The is a 460-kilowatt electricity plant consists of 1,512 Solar modules that, when compared to conventional fossil fuels, accounts for an annual reduction of 589,570 pounds of carbon dioxide and other emissions5. Contamination of the soils called for placement of a relatively shallow membrane cap, which made most redevelopment ideas almost impossible. Instead of leaving the property derelict , the U.S. Department of Energy’s Brightfields program helped conceptualize Massachusetts’ largest array of photovoltaic cells and largest brownfieldto-brightfield project. 1 http://www.sustainablecitiescollective.com/dirt/23753/cities-use-brownfields-go-solar 10-2015 http://urbanshapers.info/2011/09/08/transforming-brownfields-to-brightfields-the-inventive-nationalinitiative/ access 5/2016 3 Ribeiro, L. (2007). Waste to watts: A “brightfield” installation has the potential to bring renewed life to a brownfield site. Refocus, 8(2), 46-49. 4 http://web.mit.edu/cron/class/nature/archive/student_projects/lrc/about_bright.htm access 5/2016 5 http://web.mit.edu/cron/class/nature/archive/student_projects/lrc/about_bright.htm access 5/2016. 2 23 ‫ إ‬Brockton’s Brightfield 1 Project has many Benefits – Converts blighted industrial brownfield into clean energy platform – Enhances local property values and encourages reinvestment – Improves Brockton’s image, innovative, cleaner and greener ‫ إ‬Environmental; opportunity of brownfield regeneration without pollution, or noise or traffic and it also reduce emissions CO2, SO2 Figure 4-5 Illustrative site plan for Brockton and NOx brightfield . Designed by Dufresne-Henry ref. ‫ إ‬Economic; Converts idle web.mit.edu/ brownfield into revenue generating asset, Jobs for local installers Revenues to MA-based renewable energy businesses, Eliminate city’s liability for City-owned parcel ‫ إ‬Community-based project with political support on different levels local, state and federal ‫ إ‬Community investment with multiple funding sources Partnership approach This project is a proof it is viable to turn brownfields into environmental, aesthetic, economic and educational assets2. Table 4-2 Brockton’s brightfield case analysis Factors/ examples Recovery to beneficial use (From negative to positive) Satisfaction of human needs and solving existing problems Long term and lasting development for present and future generations Comprehensive and integrated (strategic vision in city level) within particular context 1 2 27-acre former industry site into active solar energy platform (brightfield). The project solves a problem of an empty polluted brownfield, and fulfilling the need for clean renewable energy The project is considering the current and future generation bring together fixable soft reusing for brownfield with long lasting development of generating solar energy The project itself presents an example for integrated brownfield regeneration into strategic development of the city. www.newmoa.org/.../LoriRibeiro-BrownfieldstoBrightfields-NEWMOA2008.pdf Ribeiro, L. (2007) 24 the U.S. Department of Energy’s Brightfields program helped conceptualize Massachusetts’ largest brownfieldto-brightfield project. Federal, state and local officials, solar experts, environmentalists and community leaders were involved The construction of the project was funded by multiple organizations; city, grant from the U.S. Department of Energy, the Massachusetts Technology Collaborative Renewable Energy Trust. besides, the US Environmental Protection Agency and NiSource, also provided the city of Brockton with planning and educational grants for the project. stakeholders involvement (Linking top down & bottom up) Economic Converts idle brownfield into revenue generating asset, Jobs for local installers The project provides educational benefits for the community as a learning plaza, which will enable visitors Social and to learn about how photovoltaic solar energy works, and culture for surrounding school districts to use the site to teach Improve aspects / students more about pollution and solar energy. achieve The use of solar power to produce electricity, Reducing objectives (balanced fossil fuels consumption, carbon dioxide and other & responsive) emissions for electricity Environmental opportunity of brownfield regeneration Without pollution, or noise or traffic and it also reduce emissions of CO2, S The project improves physical and perception condition of the city's polluted brownfield to more futuristic and better Physical urban condition, improved the aesthetics of the neighborhood. Partnership and cooperation between government Governance agencies, nonprofit organizations and businesses is one of factor the success factor of the project. Due to its size and economies of scale, the Brockton Brightfield's large utility scale size reduced the cost to about $7 per watt. By selling the electricity and Renewable Energy Credits, driving factors the city of Brockton expects to secure more than $130,000 expected in annual revenue from the project. These revenues will benefits be used to pay debt service on the city and cover the brightfield's operations and maintenance costs1. The city estimates that the brightfield will pay for itself within 15-20 years. The project also support the city against rising electricity prices. 1 http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/nations-largest-brightfield-dedicated-in-brocktonmassachusetts-71477032.html access 8/2016 25 Challenges Technical and governance Results Investmentreturn impact satisfaction The soil was contaminated and required replacement of a relatively shallow membrane cap, which made many redevelopment ideas very difficult and not feasible Brockton’s Brightfield Project has many Benefits – Enhances local property values and encourages reinvestment – Improves Brockton’s image, innovative, cleaner and greener Revenues to city-based renewable energy businesses, Eliminate city’s liability for City-owned parcel ‫ إ‬Community-based project with political support on different levels local, state and federal ‫ إ‬Community investment with Multiple funding sources Partnership approach This project is a proof it is viable to turn brownfields into environmental, aesthetic, economic and educational assets 22 4.4.4. Bilbao culture regeneration Bilbao represent a unique example of cultural regeneration. In addition to the Guggenheim museum, it contains many architectural landmarks by star architects like Calatrava, Frank Gehry, Norman foster and Arata Isozaki1. Bilbao was a large industrial port city with focus of mining and industrial activities on both sides of the river. Economic crises of the 1980s Deindustrialization affected the entire waterfront, and provided an opportunity for urban regeneration within the city. General process of urban transformation of the city made by recovery of old industrial spaces and its waterfront. The area once was shipyards, the container areas are now riverside promenades, open-air art galleries, new districts and business zones, where quality architecture is one of the key aspects of renovation project. The strategy for recovery was re-branding Bilbao as a “poly-centered global city” to become a "city for innovation and knowledge" to attract creative and knowledge professionals of all kinds 2 . Starting with iconic cultural building as a catalyst of development framework focusing on services, culture as a new industry3. One of four element of revitalization plan was the "recovery of the damaged urban infrastructure" through the exploitation of the obsolete or abandoned industrial spaces and the rehabilitation of the old town4. In 1992 the Bilbao Ría 2000 public limited company was established with the only goal to plan and manage the urban renewal of the city5 . Its role is to facilitate land acquisition and development, coordinate and execute projects in relation to town planning, transportation and the environment. Abandoibarra (whose name means valley of Abando (Abando + Ibar) it's area: 348,500 square metres) Brownfield land formerly occupied by harbour and railway Figure 4-6 Bilbao's Abandoibarra area, lift, before the project, on the right after regeneration. ref http://www.skyscrapercity.com/ 1 http://www.thecitiesproject.com/2008/09/bilbao-1.html access 5/2016 http://designobserver.com/feature/does-bilbao-need-another-guggenheim/25978/ access 6/2015 3 http://www.bilbaoria2000.org/ria2000/ing/bilbaoRia/bilbaoRia.aspx?primeraVez=0 access 5/2016 4 http://www.bm30.es/plan/pri_uk.html#5 access 6/2016 5 http://www.bilbaoria2000.org/ access 6/2016 2 23 infrastructure on the riverfront in central locations. The project involved the creation of Bilbao’s new urban heart with a focus on new investment. The project involved the replacement of the industrial quarters in the Abandoibarra district. Several ship-building industries existed within this area, as well as the main freight railway station of the city. The Abandoibarra regeneration project intended to replace the whole industrial quarters with parks, museums, office buildings, university facilities and residential buildings, see fig. ( Figure 4-7 master plan of Abandoibarra area ref. http://www.skyscrapercity.com/ According to master planner, Objectives of the plan was enabling a smooth flow of vehicular traffic while encouraging walking and public transportation, a main high- speed roadway became a boulevard with pedestrian paths. A new light rail connects the Guggenheim Museum and the Euskalduna Conference Centre and Concert Hall with the rest of the city. The plan makes Abandoibarra an integral part of the city by extending the city grid to the area and by adding new green spaces that link to existing ones. .it creates a long promenade beginning at the old park, passing the museum and concert hall1. Gugenhaim museum was of the first part of revitalization effort for the area and the city of Bilbao. The regeneration project of the area was initiated and financed by the government. The Guggenheim Foundation agreed to establish and manage a Guggenheim Museum in the area. After The Guggenhem Museum was opened in 1997, became a popular tourist attraction, In its first three years, almost 4 million tourists visited the museum, helping to generate about €500 million in economic activity. The regional council estimated that the money visitors spent on hotels, Figure 4-8 guggenheim museum ref. restaurants, shops and transport allowed it to www.guggenheim-bilbao.es collect €100 million in taxes, which more than paid for the building cost2. 1 2 www.pcparch.com/pcpa_assets/2015/12/abandoibarra_mp.pdf Crawford, L. )5001(. Guggenheim, Bilbao and the “hot banana”. Financial Times, 4. 22 This regeneration project is a benchmark that "Bilbao effect" refers to how the museum transformed the city1. Table 4-3 Bilbao case analysis Factors/ examples Recovery to beneficial use (From negative to positive) Satisfaction of human needs and solving existing problems Long term and lasting development for present and future generations Comprehensive and integrated (strategic vision in city level) within particular context stakeholders involvement (Linking top down & bottom up) Improve aspects / achieve objectives (balanced & responsive) 1 Economic Social and culture Ploger, J. (2008). Bilbao city report. former harbor and railway infrastructure on the riverfront into (culture park; museums, office buildings, university facilities and residential buildings) the need for revitalization and "recovery of the damaged urban infrastructure" while reusing the obsolete or abandoned industrial spaces and the rehabilitation of the old town The city of Bilbao has transformed its image from a declining industrial city to a modern postindustrial one through long term and lasting development goals including the development of a knowledge-based high-tech sector, inner-city urban renewal, environmental improvements and the strengthening of cultural identity. The strategy for recovery was re-branding Bilbao as a “poly-centered global city” to become a "city for innovation and knowledge" to attract creative and knowledge professionals of all kinds. quality architecture iconic cultural building as a catalyst of development framework focusing on services, culture as a new industry. The plan makes Abandoibarra an integral part of the city by extending the city grid to the area and by adding new green spaces that link to existing ones. The regeneration project of the area was initiated and financed by the government, the agency of Bilbao Ría 2000, a non-profit, publicly sponsored partnership that operates based on a complex model involving all levels of government To transform the economy from traditional industries to culture and knowledge-based economy To increase the value of land and properties through high quality urban design To provide services and facilities to serve the development of the city To support cultural identity 23 To improve the natural environment and to reduce Environmental environmental contamination of the city and the harbor. To link and coordinate between different actors and Institutional balancing different intersts Improve the connectivity, mobility and accessibility Physical with the rest of the city. Governance factor driving factors expected benefits 1 Challenges Technical , governance and Financial Results Investmentreturn/ impact of the project /satisfaction the key success drivers was linking all levels of government in the project, and the balance between different political interests The financial model (self-supporting approach) of land value enhancement through changing the land-use of old industrial sites has been very successful in financing urban regeneration in Bilbao1. Most of the challenges were handled by creating public company responsible for the urban regeneration projects in the city. The company of Bilbao Ría 2000 was able to finance and manage redevelopment strategies, and take actions even in the context of strained public budgets. The project of regeneration brought many benefits for the city; economic restructuring, employment opportunities, environmental and physical improvements, better mobility and accessibility, and “Bilbao Effect,” a new term resulted due to the success of this example of culture regeneration that attracted tourists, generated rapid economic transformation, and generated profits for the city more than the costs of investment. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/partnership/?p=2197 access 7/2016 30 4.4.5. Hammarby sjöstad, stockholm, sweden 1 Location: Stockholm, Sweden Duration: 1996–2017 Area: 200 hectares (160+40) water excluded) Previous use: industrial and harbor area New uses: residential district. The Hammarby Sjostad project is a recognized model in urban regeneration of a brownfield site made up of a former industrial area. It's marketed as a sustainable district, and a highly attractive and desirable environment. Figure 4-9 hammarby sjostad master plan, ref. http://goo.gl/WqDKbh The project began in the 1990s as a way to meet the sustainable housing and infrastructure needs of the city’s growing population. The project has involved regenerating an old industrial and harbor area into a modern mixed-used space that has a low environmental impact. The 5004 Olympic bid was incorporated into the site’s redevelopment, however after Sweden did not receive the bid, the city shifted it development focus to building a sustainable community that is twice as efficient as a typical one2. The City of Stockholm decided to turn the area around the Hammarby lake into “a leading showcase of urban sustainability” Figure 4-10 hammarby sjostad before and after 1 http://www.c40.org/case_studies/industrial-area-transformed-hammarby-sjostad http://issuu.com/siemens_the_crystal/docs/stockholm_hammarby___jaerva_sustain?e=3714297/4945801 12/2015 2 Gaffney, A., Huang, V., Maravilla, K., & Soubotin, N. (2007). Hammarby sjostad. stockholm, sweden: a case study. Urban Design in Planning, 1-82. 31 200 hectare residential district 9000 housing units 20,000 people 200,000 square meters of commercial space, jobs for 10,000 people1. wide range of educational, cultural and recreational uses2. Hammarby Sjöstad operates according to its own ‘eco-cycle’, the Hammarby Model see fig. (4- ), which outlines environmental solutions for waste, energy, water and sewage. The aim is to have half the total environmental impact compared to similar districts built during the 1990s. In order to achieve that, the project has six main goal areas:  Land-use: transforming brownfield sites, creating green spaces;  Transport: attractive public transport (including a free ferry), carpooling, cycle lanes;  Buildings: ‘environmentally sound’ materials;  Energy: use of renewables (solar, solar cells,); biogas and re-use of waste; energyefficient buildings (overall, half of energy for consumption to be produced onsite); Water and sewerage: clean and efficient; using new water-saving technology; re-use of drainage water; and  Waste: thorough sorting; maximum recycling and re-use. Figure 4-11 hammarby model ref. http://greencitychallenge.org/hammarbysjostad-sweden/ 1 CABE, 2007 Dastur, A. (2005). How should urban planning engage the issue of sustainable development? the case of hammarby sjostad, stockholm(Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University). 2 35 Hammarby Sjöstad is planned as an integrated part of the city as natural extension of Stockholm city centre1. - Unique cycle system The hammarby model is an eco-cycle system that integrates energy, solid waste, water and wastewater for homes, offices and other activities in the area. the cycle also includes storm water, rainwater and melt water. Domestic refuse is separated into different chutes and the various fractions are then transported by vacuum to containers at a central collecting station. - Sustainable and renewable energy renewable fuels, re-use of waste heat, biogas and household energy efficiency. The adjacent hammarby thermal plant extracts heat from the treated wastewater and also contributes by-product energy to the district cooling network. - Waste as a resource combustible waste as an energy source in electricity and district heating production. thermal plant as sustainable heat supply, which recovers waste heat from treated wastewater piped from the sewage treatment plant. Centralized production of district heating and cooling, with cooling generated as a clean by-product of district heating production. solar panel installations on its walls and rooftops that use photovoltaic cells. Wide range of public transports: light railway, bus services, ferry and Car pools for residents and people working in the area. - Eco friendly materials : All materials used - inside and outside the buildings - were carefully selected based on environmental considerations. Hammarby Model is a holistic approach to infrastructure service provision and integration of separate systems in order to accomplish the environmental objectives2. The model combines urban utilities for the purposes of efficiency, innovation, and ecological betterment. Municipal control and restructuring brought about the project’s integration of infrastructure as envisioned by the Hammarby Model and ensured that the developer teams retained their commitment to the environmental program through project design and construction. Coordination across and between agencies at all levels of government and public/private cooperation were of key success of the project. The project could be very successful example of brownfield sustainably regenerated to ambitious environmentally housing project with many lesson to learn integrating modern and complicated technologies and models. 1 http://www.symbiocity.org/en/approach/Cases-undersidor/Hammarby-Sjostad-three-in-one/1-2016 2 Dastur, 2005 33 Table 4-4 Hammarby Sjöstad case analysis Factors/ examples Recovery to beneficial use (From negative to positive) Satisfaction of human needs and solving existing problems Long term and lasting development for present and future generations Comprehensive and integrated (strategic vision in city level) within particular context old industrial and harbor area into a modern mixed-used district that has a low environmental impact Integrating brownfields sites into city development plans for extensions of the city instead of new suburbs to meet the growing demand for urban living. Providing a new residential district considering sustainable urban development with high environmental standards. Hammarby Sjöstad has been planned as an integrated part of the city as natural extension of Stockholm city centre The project was initiated and managed mainly by the city municipality with cooperation in financing it from private sector investors. the city planning department was able to coordinate transportation, land use and development for Hammarby Sjostad in a very efficient way specially with the high specific environmental standards. To support and local economic development Economic Provide a mix of uses to increase viability and vitality of commercial areas. Improve aspects / achieve Social and To provide housing to meet local needs, Develop a mix of objectives (balan culture housing tenure and type. ced & responsive) To be sustainable housing project with the specially designed Environmen “Hammarby Model” which treats cycles of water, waste and tal energy. The main driving factor is the determination of the city Governance driving factors government to achieve the goal and environmental strategies, factor in addition to the cooperation of private investors. Before the regeneration, some of the sites were derelict, but the majority were in active use, so the city expropriated the private properties with compensation at prices above market value to speed up the acquisition process. Technical During and after the regeneration, land ownership is an issue Challenges and where political parties usually have different ideologies. While governance the left goes for municipal ownership, the right supports sale of public land to private developers. That made a challenge for what type of tenure to adopt; it has been changed over time based on political majority. The project is very successful example of brownfield Investmentsustainably regenerated to ambitious environmentally housing return Results project with many lesson to learn, starting with integrating impact brownfield regeneration to the specific model of closed cycle Satisfaction and environmental strategies 34 stakeholders involvement (Linking top down & bottom up) 4.4.6. Seine rive gauche, Paris Location: 13th arrondissement, Paris, France Duration: 1995-on going (2020) Area: 130 hectares Previous use: rail yards and industrial facilities. New uses: Housing, offices and activities, commercial outlets, services, schools, universities, public and cultural amenities Figure 4‑12 Aerial image of the area ,left side (late 1980s) right side 2013 ©Philippe Guignard, According to project developer Seine Rive Gauche is considered one of the French capital’s largest and most important urban project since Haussmann’s time 1. A dense, compact, mixed use, mix income, pedestrian and cycle friendly, and public transport rich set of new development built from 1995 onwards on former rail yards, ware houses, and industrial land, it has been cited as a model of quality in urban design and planning integration with sustainable transport2. Project objectives3:  To provide a balanced development for the east side of Paris and generate employment opportunities in Paris Rive Gauche.  To response the need of housing, offices and new public facilities for the city  To link the neighboring district to the river Seine.  To develop the new districts with mixed land uses including office buildings, housing, schools, etc.  To achieve sustainable urban development, with its principles considering the architectural context 1 http://stephanekirkland.com/seine-rive-gauche/ access 4-2016 https://www.itdp.org/our-cities-ourselves-principles-for-transport-in-urban-life/ access 1-2016 3 http://goo.gl/2xHJiV access 4/2016 2 35 Gauche is an example of publicly driven urban development, where the role of the private sector is limited to developing individual plots within the overall plan. The site was divided into zones, each with its own coordinating architect, with different architects and owners for each of the individual buildings. Figure 4-13 zones of the project ref. http://stephanekirkland.com/seine-rivegauche/ The Paris Rive Gauche project is managed and developed by semi-public company SEMAPA 1 which is directed by the Mayor of the 13th arrondissement and many shareholders2 (governmental bodies and institutions). 13th arrondissement was declared as a ZAC (mixed development zone) in 1991, thus enabled the launch of an operation conducted by SEMAPA and named Paris Rive Gauche. In 2003, with changes to the PAZ (zone development plan) aimed at ensuring high social mix, the Council of Paris changed the program to be more responsive to social needs. Project program: - Administrative scope: 130 hectares of which 26 hectares covering rail tracks. - Housing 585,000 sq.m. (7,500 units) i.e. around 20,000 residents eventually ; - 6,000 family housing units (3,000 social and 3,000 private) ; - 1,500 student accommodation units (750 social and 750 private). - Offices 745,000 sq.m. : i.e. around 60,000 workers - Activities 405,000 sq.m. : Small trades, liberal professions, commercial, research, related to the river. - Public amenities 665,000 sq.m.: National Library of France: 250,000 sq.m, University: 210,000 sq.m, local amenities: 55,000 sq.m. - Green spaces 98,000 sq.m. . The role of SEMAPA3 is:  To buy or acquire the land from railway company or any other private owners Société d’Économie Mixte d’Aménagement de Paris municipality of Paris (57%), the national railway company SNCF (20%), the Parisian building authority RIVP (10%), the French State (5 %) and the Île-de-France Region (5%). Only the remaining 3 % is open to private investors. 3 http://en.semapa.fr/Urban-development/Operations-in-progress/Paris-Rive-Gauche access 1-2016 1 2 32  To outline the urban and architectural project with the partnership of the city council services and the coordinating architects  To carry out the works of infrastructure like streets, networks, sewer system, etc.  To sell the building land to the developers, either private or public, even the state to build for instance the new French library or the university complex. The developers are appointed by the city council for public housing or public facilities. There are competitions for private developments as office buildings, private housing, shopping center, private facilities The SEMAPA legally owns the land only for a very short time, acting as an intermediary between the railway company, which owns the majority of the plots, and interested outside investors. The construction of infrastructure for the site is hence financed through the difference in acquisition and sales price between both parties. development company had to acquire all land at the project’s start and hence immobilized its capital for a very long period of time, until the sale of the last development rights over 20 years later these legal structures was designed to allow to apply more liberal rules of private law which offer less bureaucracy in the tender procedure compared with an entity of public law. Table 4-6 Seine rive gauche case analysis Factors/ examples Recovery to beneficial use (From negative to positive) Rail yards and industrial facilities to new livable district with housing, offices, commercial outlets, services, schools, universities, public and cultural amenities. Resolving the problems of neglected underused brownfields sites while fulfilling the growing demand for urban living. Providing a new dense, compact, mixed uses Long term and lasting development for district considering sustainable urban present and future generations development Integrating brownfields sites into city development plans to meet the growing Comprehensive and integrated demand for urban living. (strategic vision in city level) within Creating compact development which reduce particular context sprawl by focusing development in areas adjacent to and within existing developments. The Paris Rive Gauche project was initiated by stakeholders the local authority of Paris city. It is managed involvement and developed by semi-public company (Linking top down & SEMAPA which is directed by the Mayor of bottom up) the 13th arrondissement and many shareholders (governmental bodies and institutions) Satisfaction of human needs and solving existing problems 33 Economic Improve aspects / achieve objectives (balanced & responsive) driving factors Challenges Results To provide a balanced development for the east side of Paris and generate employment opportunities in Paris Rive Gauche. Social and culture To response the need of housing, offices and new public facilities for the city To achieve sustainable urban development, with Environmental its principles considering the architectural context To link the neighboring district to the river Seine. Physical To develop the new districts with mixed land uses including office buildings, housing, schools, etc. The project was publicly driven, one of the key success drivers was creating semi-public Governance company that manage the regeneration project. factor The site was divided into main zones to facilitate and accelerate the op The bureaucracy of procedure and public law, Technical and however legal structures was designed to apply governance rules of private law. The project represents a response to the city’s situation, providing a vibrant mixed livable Investmentdistrict that attract people and businesses to an return impact area that was underused. It is an opportunity to Satisfaction renovate part of the city. 32 4.6. Conclusion The main conclusion of case studies that every country and every city looks at their brownfields as development potential and turn it to beneficial uses that are integrated into strategic planning. Worldwide sustainability of brownfields regeneration is the ultimate success. The uniqueness of each site means there is no single recipe for success. Still there are some lessons that can be learned amongst global practitioners, both similar and disparate, are worth thinking about. With effective policies and appropriate incentives, brownfields can be transformed from threats to development potentials. Great work on the sustainable regeneration of brownfields is already being done throughout all over the world, but that effort needs to continue and grow. The goal of policies was to direct development and investment towards those areas in which it was most needed. Another important issue, is how almost all of initiatives worked on social sustainability. Through involving all stakeholders in vision, and applying appropriate designs according to Master plans community input. Additionally Considering various needs and opportunities; not only Community, but also Economy, Environment, Smart growth & livability principles for sustainable communities. Practical implementation of brownfields regeneration requires consideration of a range of factors including: the economic drivers of real estate development, the land use regulation, and skills of urban planning. Many of countries having brownfields have been required to cooperation between the activities of planning and environment protection agencies, and frame specific legislation to facilitate such cooperation and shared control. All these previous concerns are considered as factors in the success and effect of sustainable urban regeneration of brownfields worldwide. Based on international successes and the strategic improvement in Brownfields planning, such projects may be expected to become increasingly attractive. Regarding the implementation of brownfields regeneration projects, the sustainability issues are considered not just in planning phase, bust in every possible phase. In the next chapter, research will try to investigate the Egyptian context. In addition to seeing the opportunity of dealing with brownfields sustainably relative to international experience. . 33 Chapter 5 : Brownfields regeneration in Greater Cairo context 20 5.1. Introduction This chapter discusses the concept of brownfield regeneration in greater Cairo context, and reviews the previous experience of brownfield regeneration. It investigates the applicability of brownfields regeneration as a concept in greater Cairo; it starts with defining scope of the study of greater Cairo, the city features, and brownfield sites to what extent they could be considered as an asset during development process. The main aim of this chapter is to develop a conceptual framework to integrate existing brownfields as resource in strategic urban planning, in order to develop guidelines and recommendations for existing and potential brownfields in the future. Main challenges and issues facing urban development in GC are also going to be discussed. Brownfields regeneration could be one of the major opportunities in dealing with these issues. It could be a tool for effective urban management and achieving sustainable urban development. Hence relooking to the existing assets that are mainly neglected and reusing these assets (brownfields). With different approaches of brownfields regeneration that consider beneficiary use not only for the asset owner but for the community and the city also. Additionally, Analysis of case studies that represent examples of brownfields regeneration. Two implemented projects will be investigated, as they present initiative practices of sustainable urban regeneration of brownfield sites. As a final point, Sustainable urban regeneration of brownfields can be considered as promising approach for the Greater Cairo strategic urban development, and other Egyptian mega cities. 21 5.2. Greater Cairo (study area) Greater Cairo (GC) is one of the most densely populated capital cities in the world with a population of approximately 20 million people1. The increasing pressure of the population on the existing built environment and infrastructure called for a significant urban and spatial change. The lack of adequate urban management through this change led to the deterioration of the existing city and the chaotic urbanization of the city's out skirts. GC represents an interesting case study of "brownfield regeneration", as it has been transformed2 through massive urbanization process that have increased its population and area in the last decades. GC inner city (urban mass) is the scope of the study area for which the concept of brownfield regeneration is addressed. Main urban mass represents 69% of GC total urban area 804.2 km2 (191468 feddans). The study focuses on the urban mass of Cairo Governorate in addition to some parts of the Governorates of Giza and Qalyubia. it includes Districts and divisions of Cairo and Giza, especially urban areas on the ring road and Nile River from the South (Maadi and Helwan), Al Salam from the North and Shubra El- Kheima in Qalyubia governorate, excluding the new urban communities (namely the 6th of October, Sheikh Zayed, the 15th May, New Cairo, Obour, Shorouk and Badr). The main urban mass is completely full, where very limited pieces of land are available for development see fig 5.1. 1 CAPMAS, 2016 2 The global dynamics of urbanization has deeply transformed Cairo, which have increased the city's population six times in the past 60 years. (Vignal & Denis, 2006) The fast expansion of G.C.R.. Agglomeration has not been met with effective use of limited financial resources allocated to the region. Besides, the governance of the agglomeration has been always an elaborated issue given the intervention between central ministries responsibilities with the local government roles (Madbouly, 2010). G.C.R. as one of the world's most densely populated areas, with one of the lowest road space per capita percentage and growth in the number of private vehicles; this was aggravated by constructing bridges and flyovers by the government. (El Naggar & others, 2006) The green area per capita is 1.5 m2 in the total agglomeration. In addition, a significant part of that green area is not allowed for public users as it comprises private facilities that have a closed membership. (Koei CO., and others, 2008) 25 Figure 5-1 boundary of Greater Cairo Land Use of urban mass in 2012, Source: GOPP 5.2.1. Main issues of current conditions and urban development strategy Urban development in GC is very challenging and dynamic. Identifying the challenges facing the GC is very important for developing a strategic plan that meet population’s need; and ignoring such challenges make it even more difficult to deal with them over time. However, GC has a population that usually resists official designs for the organization of the city1. Partially, Cairo’s urban development has been carried out by private developers and property speculators rather than by the city’s planners. Private dynamics prevail gradually that the planners have been forced to approve private developers' results2. It can be argued that, Greater Cairo has not been mastered or planned 3 . However, strategic planning is still an active tool for managing urban development. 1 Denis, E. (1997). Urban planning and growth in Cairo. Middle East Report, 27, 7-12. Sutton, K., & Fahmi, W. (2001). Cairo's urban growth and strategic master plans in the light of Egypt's 1996 population census results. Cities, 18(3), 135-149. 3 ibid 2 23 According to "Greater Cairo urban development strategic vision" report 1 , which describes strategic directions of urban development and land use to meet the needs of several sectors and residents. The main issues facing GC -particularly main urban massregarding urban development and land use are: 1. Population and economic growth. The GC needs to contain the massive population growth and create the conditions for sustainable economic growth, while ensuring social justice. with Population concentration in 5.7% of the total area, urban sprawl and erosion of agricultural lands2 and extent of land suitability for development. 2. The unplanned growth of housing and services. The GC needs to change the legacies that Egypt suffered from because of unplanned growth in the last period, in addition to being ready for future development. 3. The environmental degradation of the urban areas. The GC needs radical solutions to stop such degradation. More detailed points from land use analysis in the areas of the main urban mass3: - Increasing use of land allocated for housing even in the areas of other nonresidential activities - The large number of industrial buildings that are mainly located in the North in Shubra El Kheima and in the South in Helwan; - Institutional/administrative activities are highly concentrated in the middle areas of the main urban mass. - Scarcity of empty available land for development, - Very low per capita share of green space - Overall High population density, especially in unplanned areas. Most of urban development challenges are related to the GC high densities of activities and residential areas, in addition to the limited available vacant land. Moreover, Most of the urban development projects are in new cities and on the periphery, which has produced pattern of sprawl urbanization, inefficient land use and low densities, with residents disconnected on the periphery. 1 Greater Cairo Urban Development Strategy repot, 2012 13,000 feddans annually between 1984 and 2007 3 ibid 2 24 5.2.2. Resources allocation utilizing existing assets One of the major challenges in urban development in GC is resources allocation and the most challenging resource here is the available land. Although the vacant lands inside the city are very limited, there is a need for using or reusing areas inside the city not outside, a need to rethink of neglected resources assets. Considering relocating/redeveloping industrial sites, military sites and using vacant spaces, beside Converting industrial land uses to other use. Which requires strategic approach for dealing with these sites. In addition, re-distributing population density in Figure 5.2 Spatial recommendations inside GC main urban mass ref. Cairo Vision report some areas to make the most of land values represents many opportunities for development Regarding changing in land use, Polluting Activities are considered to be relocated Outside of the Centre of the City. For example, The Ministry of Trade and Industry has identified 21 environmentally unfavorable industrial activities to be relocated out of the urban mass to improve the land use efficiency, and 'revitalize the living environment'1. 1 El Khateeb, S. M., & Elrahman, A. S. A. (2013) 25 From Strategic Plan of Greater Cairo both Cairo and Giza governorates have identified relevant objectives and targets for their existing and potential land assets see figure 5- 3). Cairo: Re-using the stock of land for public activities and land uses that can be relocated outside the urban mass of Cairo to meet the needs of Cairo Governorate for open and green spaces and services. Giza: Planning land uses to cope with the future economic development dynamics and considering the effect of the proposed arteries for roads and transportation. Figure 3-3 strategic plan of Cairo and Giza governorates. Ref; Cairo future Vision 2052 report In addition relooking at derelict assets, neglected potential and inappropriate uses that are located in or adjacent to deteriorated area. Abandoned resources that require reclamation/revitalization in location that could attracts investors and increase urban quality and people's livability. Brownfields represent potential asset that could be utilized as resource. 22 5.3. Brownfields inside Greater Cairo Greater Cairo cities are like many Egyptian cities which are old cities that had a long development history. They contain many vacant and abandoned properties, these properties were used in the beginning of the century or older than that and due to many circumstances, and they are closed and remained for years, as vacant or derelict properties within the city. Due to dynamic land market, during the urban sprawl process1; many uses have been moved to peripheral areas. Large-scale railway and harbor infrastructure facilities, in inner cities were subject to re-use pressure. The interest, use and ownership conflicts resulting from such a situation lead to large areas of derelict land in urban areas. 5.3.1. Definition of Brownfields in Egyptian context Although the term is commonly used in urban planner language, there is no specific or common definition for the term (Brownfields) in Egypt, It is not consider In the Egyptian laws2 or regulations, but relevant terms that could be used to refer to it are like "areas to be redeveloped", '' re-planning areas'' or "undervalued land" "unused assets" The "Brownfield" term had not been used before in any of the previous governmental studies or plans work except in the physical survey for (Cairo 2050), The Term "Brownfield" used to identify the sites that are not optimally used according the poor utilization of the land.3 Although the term "Brownfield" used in the survey of (Cairo 2050) project, yet, there was no common agreement on the criteria that can be used to define the relevant sites or buildings. However, it was known between the members of the survey as "ignored / unused lands or buildings", and the best use of it can be determined according the location specification.4 El Khateeb, S. M, identified Brownfield as; a vacant land or unused building inside the boundary of the city which properties might be known or not5. Based on the previous definitions and as mentioned before in ch.2-, Brownfields in Egypt can be defined as; 'any piece of previously used property that is abandoned or underused, and considered as a potential site for redevelopment.' Kovancı, P. )1332(. Urban Regeneration Issues and Policies as Complementary and Multi Aspect Planning Tools. Unpublished Master Thesis, Middle East Technical University, Ankara. 2 There is no specific legislation directly assigned to brownfield redevelopment in the Egyptian laws, Construction Law no. 119, the law identified areas to be renovated and developed through the strategic plan of the city. Article (64) identified re-planning areas that maximize the benefits to both city and region's population, and amendments contribute to carrying out the overall strategic plan and its outputs (MHUUD, 2008). 3 According to Ghada Farouk (The head of technical office) in General Organization for Physical Planning (GOPP) 4 According to Mohab El-Refaie' (The head of the Information Centre) in General Organization for Physical Planning (GOPP) 5 El Khateeb, S. M., & Elrahman, A. S., 2012, Brownfields in GCR: A Neglected Potential for Redevelopment the Old City. 1 23 5.3.2. Examples of brownfields inside Greater Cairo Inside the inner cities of G.C.R and along the Nile river waterfront exist many sites that could be considered brownfields figure (5-4). These devalued properties include warehouses and storage, small factories and light industrial workshops in many cases abandoned or neglected and occupying important sites (location) within the urban fabric. In many cases, brownfields are not ruined properties, but fully existed left derelict. They could be closed industrial areas, train station old warehouse, or abandoned residential buildings. Examples for these sites are; the railway warehouses and yards in Ramsis area, which occupied large areas in a central location inside G.C., besides warehouses, closed industry uses, and old ports like in ather el naby, imbaba and helwan that exist in the waterfront of the Nile River in G.C. as shown in figures (5-5) Figure 5-4 Samples of brownfields locations inside Greater Cairo Figure 5-5 example of brwonfields in Athar el Naby Area 22 5.3.3. Types and Scale of brownfield sites in G.C. Brownfields are not identified on a national scale; hence no statistical data represent the areas or numbers for brownfields.1 However, the (CAPMAS)2, survey3 about (buildings and establishments) presents numbers of unoccupied buildings and unused category that is defined as occupied buildings without activities practiced like military sites or derelict properties that contained old infrastructure buildings used in the past as.4 In 2009, a survey for all parts of Cairo made by GOPP and sponsored by UN-Habitat, where the “Brownfield” term was identified for the first time. Brownfields are Located in lands which are inside the city, have infrastructure and near to services. According to that survey the total areas of brownfields inside the region were about 2,484,305 meters squares.5 It could be argued that they are not large percentage of total urban areas, yet they are located in central and valuable locations. Considering the reuse, these areas can be classified by use and by property (owner and value). Original use Area (meter  According to original use square) The original uses of brownfields in G.C are varied Residential 273,620.70 between industrial areas, commercial areas .The larger Commercial 39,442.80 area is in the use of transportation (Ramses railway Industrial 588,843.00 storage and warehouses, Ather el naby and Imbaba Utilities 158,328.50 river port, etc.). then industrial uses like; old factories Educational 315,432.40 and warehouses comes in second large percentage of Transportation 982,044.50 brownfields areas Storage 125,457.00 Mixed Use 1,136.10 Total 2,484,305.00 Mixed Use 11% 0% 2% 5% Storage Transportation 24% Educational 39% Utilities 6% Industrial 13% Commercial Residential Figure 5-6 Classification of Brownfields according to original land use inside Greater Cairo Region (edited by author based on 1 2 El Khateeb, S. M., & Elrahman, A. S., 2012 Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics 3 In Cairo, 0.5 % of the total number of buildings are regular buildings made from stable structure (Steel – Concrete structure) occupied without activities done inside. while about 0.3 % are Permissibility buildings that made from temporarily structure. The percentage in urban locations of Giza is lower: (0.3, 0.2) % of regular and permissibility buildings, while the urban locations (Helwan, and Qaliobeya) have higher percentage for regular buildings. 4 5 CAPMAS, 2006 El Khateeb, S. M., & Elrahman, A. S., 2012 23 • According to land price Properties varied in land prices from 1,000 to 40,000 Egyptian pounds per meter square. The total amount based on maximum price of each price category is 15,000,000,000 L.E. (based on 2009 market survey) 8000-10000 0% 10000- 20000 16% 20000-40000 1% 500 / 1000 8% land Price (L.E. / meter square) 6000-8000 Between 500 / 1000 1% 1000 -2000 4000-6000 Between 1000 -2000 38% 23% Between 2000- 4000 2000- 4000 Between 4000-6000 13% Between 6000-8000 Between 8000-10000 Between 1000020000 Between 20000-40000 Figure 5-7 Classification of Brownfields according to average land price (refrence: auther based on UNHabitat,2009) Area (meter square) 205,415.10 927,877.80 325,478.10 578,479.40 29,122.10 294.4 395,489.90 22,148.20  According to the ownership: Ownership varied between governmental bodies, private sector and associations. The governmental bodies represent the most percentage among other areas, as it represents more than 60% of the total areas of brownfields in GC. It may be one authority or different authorities that own the brownfield. In the last years, the government strategy was to enable the privatization strategy, which aims to transfer most of public ownership to private ownership, which cause in many cases that these building abandoned with no use1. Private 28% 33% Associations Local Governorate Ministerial 35% 4% Ownerships Ministerial Local Governorate Associations Private Figure 5-8 classification of Brownfields according to ownership inside Cairo, Edited by author (Source: author based on UNHabitat, 2009) 1 El Khateeb, S. M., & Elrahman, A. S. A. (2013) 30 Area (meter square) 702,897.90 872,071.00 96,857.40 812,478.70 5.3.4. The trend of dealing with brownfields Between Reuse and redevelopment or selling the property, the main trend of dealing with underutilized real estate assets is selling to achieve maximum profit1 , which is most probably affected by  The owner (usually controlled or owned by banks2)  The location  The size (area) of the asset (land)  the market (supply and demand) of properties in the neighboring areas However, there is an increased interest in re-use and redevelopment. Recently governmental initiated programs related to brownfield redevelopment at a national level. Council of Ministers Resolution No. 2589 of 2015regarding of underused state assets3 (Inventory of unused state assets and proposing plan to make the Maximum return) The obstacles challenges of brownfield redevelopment can be one or more of the following  properties Liability and ownership (complex pattern of ownership e.g. governmental owner ship, bank liability over property,  The requirement for large capital investment;  Absence of adequate and consistently accessible expertise within government agencies dedicated to the development of Brownfields;  Lack of a common vision, and a consistent system for development. Facing such Issues related to the re-use of abandoned industrial sites are mostly dealt with by local authorities. However, within these authorities competencies for dealing with brownfield-problems are not clearly structured. Due to the lack of general regulations, decisions are made on a case by case basis. 5.3.5. Brownfields in GC; A problem and a solution; A large number of GC problems are related to the inappropriate land uses, which become existed in different areas of the region, as there are many urban land-uses not matching with any proposed development approach for the region. Many planned urban land uses had been located at certain times outside the region’s urban space, such as several industrial and handicraft zones, airports, military barracks and cemeteries. Many of those urban land uses have become inconvenient – due to land use transformation processes – not only located inside the region’s urban space but also in many cases at the core of its cities. Specific brownfield problems, like the presence of contamination, infrastructure requirements and the specific underground conditions for construction purposes, are often inadequately considered. This can lead to significant difficulties, failure of strategies to deliver effective and sustainable regeneration and could be complete project failure. Less attractive ”brownfields” in peripheral locations with low property market values are often insufficiently used. Intermediate uses have become a serious problem for urban development in the areas concerned. 1 http://www.ecrami.com/Company.html access 3/2016 Banque Misr & National Bank of Egypt created (The Egyptian Company for real estate assets management, and investment 3 Official newspaper no. 40 oct.2015 2 31 5.4. Brownfields regeneration in G.C Although the concept of brownfields regeneration - as a major intervention dealing with existing urban areas - is not very common in the context of G.C., some brownfields sites were regenerated. Each one of them is incomparable example, but they all share one characteristic; they are all redeveloped brownfields. Most of these projects regenerations were independently treated through architectural competitions, master plans and investor planning. However, there is no strategic approaches for integrating brownfields regeneration on wider context related to strategic plan of GC nor sustainability. However not all brownfields in GC are suffering contamination problems, they present a very important asset, which is not wisely used. They are offering opportunities of available sites in GC to be regenerated. Some of these brownfields are on waterfront like Ather Elnaby, others are occupy a central location in the city like Imbaba airport land, or even a heritage site in the city like Azhar Park. The process of regeneration usually faces some common challenges like insufficient practical knowledge, indefinite policies, absence of a reliable regeneration framework, and absence of citywide database systems, especially for brownfields. 5.4.1. Projects and initiatives Many examples of projects and initiatives related brownfields regeneration were done. These examples varies in scale, goals, and initiative organization, or institution. some of brownfield sites went through the regeneration process and was implemented already like Azhar Park, and Imbaba airport land, and Nile city towers as shown in table (5-1) .In addition to some other in progress projects either under construction or inplanning process or just conceptualized ideas like Ramses railway project, Ather Elnaby, and Helwan waterfront mentioned in table (5-2). 35 Table 5-1 Examples of implemented projects Project Azhar park (2005) Nile city towers1 (1995) Imbaba airport land previous use Land infill Developed use  Park  Luxurious investment complex building  Office building tower and iron luxurious warehou 25-storey ses, Fairmont worksho Hotel p  commercial ( shopping mall, restaurants, movie theater, cafes)  residential district  public park  road Axis Extension  social services  investment zone Initiated developed by Aga khan trust for culture (NGO) private sector nile city tower, source http://www.nilecitytowers.com/ MHUUC The Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities , (Government ) 1 http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2012/08/27/ramlet-boulaq-the-battle-for-land/ & http://www.egyptindependent.com/opinion/tale-towers-and-shacks 33 Table 5-2 Examples of proposed projects (conceptualized, or planned) Project name Ramsis Square Ather el naby Helwan water front previous use Railway warehouses and depots Initiator developer Ramsis Square Competition Warehouses, abandoned factories Cairo governorate Unfitting uses (partially used military and industrial facilities) GOPP Two case studies were selected to analyzing the process and how sustainably they were regenerated , the selection criteria are:  Brownfield site  In the heart of the city  Implemented  Public use (benefit) considered  Model to be replicated 34 5.4.2. Al Azhar Park from waste land to park Al azhar park is one of the very initiative of brownfield regeneration, That included:  development of the park  restoration of Ayyubid wall  social and economic development for the community of al Darb al-Ahmar In 1984, the Aga Khan announced his decision to finance the creation of a park for the citizens of GC. The suitable site (location and size) was the derelict Darassa site, a 30-hectare (74-acre) hill of remains that had been a rubbish dump for 500 years. 1 Al-Azhar Park (was opened officialy in 2005), undertaken by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, has since proven to be both a popular open space for the people of Cairo and a powerful catalyst for urban renewal in the neighboring district of Darb al-Ahmar , which was revitalized, within the regeneration project to be catalyst for social and economic development. The Park project was therefore intended to be a case study for a variety of development challenges, ranging from environmental rehabilitation to cultural restoration. The objective was to create models of development that could be replicated in many other settings, similar to Cairo2. Figure 5-9 Azhar park source: http://www.sasaki.com/blog/view/42/ - Process of turning land infill to park: in the early 1980s, the concept was still new and untested. the local authorities approved the choice of the site and the first plans were drawn up. The work was delayed by the integration into the Park site of three large fresh water reservoirs, each 80 metres in diameter and 14 metres deep. But in 1990 a protocol was signed between the Aga Khan Trust for Culture and the Governorate of Cairo that led to new plans taking into account the water tanks. In 1992, the Aga Khan Trust for Culture established its Historic Cities Support Program, to implement urban rehabilitation projects in different parts of the Islamic world. Cairo became its most demanding project, encompassing not only the construction of the Park but also the restoration of the 1.5-kilometer section of the Ayyubid wall 1 2 Al-Azhar park, Cairo and the revitalisation of darb al–ahmar report,2005 ibid 35 revealed by the removal of the accumulated rubble. It also included the socioeconomic rehabilitation of the neighboring Historic City, which required launching of numerous restoration and community-initiated development projects. The larger area development project became a testing ground, and a case study, for finding solutions to challenges ranging from the technical demands of physical restoration to the equally challenging issues of socioeconomic development. Figure 5-10 5 Masterplan of Al Azhar park regeneration project ref. Al Azhar park report - Challenges and results The project faced technical, social and financial challenges in regeneration the area. One issue was the integration of three large fresh water reservoirs into the park site. Which required redesign the project.in addition to excavation, grading and replacement with appropriate fill. The protocol was signed between the Aga Khan Trust for Culture and the Governorate of Cairo led to new plans taking into account the water tanks.1 The project hired most of its staff members from the Darb al-Ahmar neighboring community. The project staff were trained to be technically and administratively able to carry out the activities and direct the project. The project was designed to be financially self sustaining after the initial costs. Investments are recuperated during the second phase. The Park was expected to have financial shortage for the first two to three years of operation. Aga Khan Trust for Culture covered this shortfall. 1 ibid 32 - Results and achievements This project is considered as application for the concept of sustainable brownfield regeneration. It presents many lessons, good practices and concepts that could be learned as following:  The project recovered negative brownfield to positive beneficial use from landfill to Park for Greater Cairo.  The response for existing problems which is low percentage of green open spaces in Greater Cairo  Comprehensive and integrated strategically on city level, and connected with the surrounding social issues within particular context ; A Park for Greater Cairo, besides restoration of the Ayyubid Wall and revitalization of Darb-Al-Ahmar  Long term & lasting development; Development was effective and lasting by addressing the broader issues in a comprehensive way. The physical rehabilitation was successful and sustainable, as it was coordinated with social programs.  Improve responsive aspects & achieve balanced objectives - Economic: Providing jobs and training for neighboring community - Social and culture: providing open space for community - Environmental: cleaning up land fill site and prong a green park - Institutional: linking and bridging differences between local communities and government authorities on issues that are important to residents - Physical: improving the urban environment conditions in the park and in DarbAl-Ahmar, besides restoration of Ayyubid Wall  Socially accepted while linking “top-down” approach with "bottom up" in redevelopment process - the community was involved as real stakeholder, not just considering the needs and priorities - Most of the development ideas come from the residents themselves. - The role of the NGO institution was to help residents identify their own needs and provide some of the means and expertise to create development solutions. In conclusion, the project presented a successful example –for people to realize what is possible especially for neighborhoods where decline is often accepted as inevitable. Table 5-3 Al Azhar park case analysis Recovery to beneficial use )From negative to positive( Satisfaction of human needs and solving existing problems Long term and lasting development for present and future generations Comprehensive and integrated )strategic vision Factors/ examples The project recovered negative brownfield to positive beneficial use from landfill to Park for Greater Cairo. Solving part of green areas problem The response for existing problems which is low percentage of green open spaces in Greater Cairo Development was effective and lasting by addressing the broader issues in a comprehensive way. The physical rehabilitation was successful and sustainable, as it was coordinated with social programs. Comprehensive and integrated strategically on city level, and connected with the surrounding social issues within 33 in city level( within particular context particular context ; A Park for Greater Cairo, besides restoration of the Ayyubid Wall and revitalization of DarbAl-Ahmar Socially accepted project -the community was involved as real stakeholder, not just considering the needs and priorities stakeholders involvement -Most of the development ideas come from the residents )Linking top down & themselves. bottom up( -The role of the NGO institution was to help residents identify their own needs and provide some of the means and expertise to create development solutions Improve responsive aspects & achieve balanced objectives Economic Economic: Providing jobs and training for neighboring community Social and providing open space for community culture Improve aspects / achieve cleaning up land fill site and creating a green Environmental objectives )balanced park & responsive( linking and bridging differences between local Institutional communities and government authorities on issues that are important to residents improving the urban environment conditions Physical in the park and in Darb-Al-Ahmar, besides restoration of Ayyubid Wall Governance Political and social support and approval factor driving factors expected N/A benefits Technical and technical, social and financial challenges (three governance large fresh water reservoirs The project was designed to be financially self Challenges sustaining The Park was expected to have Financial financial shortage for the first two to three years Barriers of operation & Aga Khan Trust for Culture covered this shortfall. successful example –for people to realize what is Results possible 32 5.4.3. Imbaba airport land project. The Imbaba Airport Land Development Project on an area of 204 feddans (154 airport land + 50 aviation academy land) represents an important step towards the upgrading of North Giza1 sector. Airport land (154 Aviation academy land (50 Figure 5-11 Imbaba airport land project MHUUC (The Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities) was assigned to select the best suitable use for Imbaba airport land. The consulting team proposed solutions that would improve the whole northen sector of Giza Governorate2, taking into consideration that the third metro line will serve this area, the matter, which will support the upgrading process. This strategy is based on three principles: ‫ إ‬Providing and supporting all basic services, especially the educational service through benefitting from the vacant pieces of land in the whole sector, ‫ إ‬Opening suitable traffic corridors and rarefaction of the deteriorated and unplanned areas, ‫ إ‬Connecting the area with the Ring Road and the metro network. 1 North Giza area has grown due to infringement on agricultural lands; this area has high density of population and lacks infrastructure and public services for population 2 MHUUD Imbaba airport land report, 2007 33 Imbaba Airport Land Development Project: Imbaba Airport Land Development is part of a comprehensive strategy to solve the problems of the current situation North Giza sector figure (5- ). The plan aims at providing integrated services, (schools, institute for higher education, public hospital, medical centers, a sports city, five open playgrounds, three public parks and a set of green areas) According to the plan, new residential units will be provided, new traffic corridors will be opened and the metro network will be extended. the development plan proposed five projects include;  a mix use housing neighborhood,  Imbaba park,  the corridor of Ahmed Orabi which links the district (imbaba &Mohandsen) to the ring road,  transformation of the existing aviation academy into a services center ( hospital, school and a district building)  waterfront pedestrian walkway, which will offer Imbaba residents the opportunity to enjoy the Nile, improving accessibility and provision of open space for the whole neighborhood. Figure 5-12 North Giza sector development plan, source: MHUUC 100 - Process of regeneration The project began with proposing the best use of the land of the former Imbaba Airport, an old out-of-service infrastructure that lied inside the urban mass of Giza. The project was developed by the GOPP (General Organization for Physical Planning) affiliated to the Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities, with the Giza Governorate in 2006 as a preliminary concept, that developed in 2008 as a final master plan. Initial Proposals for reusing the airport land1  Schools compound to serve north giza sector - major traffic and security problems and overcrowding students and schools - inability to service sector as a result of long-distance traffic  Public park - It will not solve the problem of lack of public services and education - lack of funding for the establishment of (about one million pounds per acre) - misuse of land from the economic point of view Figure5-13 initial proposal for reusing airport land The previous proposals didn't provide a comprehensive vision for the study of the problems of Urban deterioration and informal areas of north Giza sector and neighboring areas. Accordingly, a relook for Imbaba airport land as part of the comprehensive framework of northern sector of Giza was needed. The goal was developing an integrated vision for the development of this sector (the largest informal areas in Greater Cairo) and the exploitation of all its components, including the airport. Therefore, the approved (implemented) proposal, aimed to upgrade for the whole area through five sub-urban regeneration projects coordinated through a master plan2 as shown in figure (5-14). 1 2 MHUUD Imbaba airport land report, 2007 Sahar attia, unhabitat 2015 101 The approved master plan includes five projects (1) A residential district (52.4 feddans) composed of 178 buildings containing 3500 residential units to accommodate almost 14,000 people (2) A public park on an area of 38 feddans of open green spaces providing various entertainment activities with a maximum capacity of 10,000 visitors (3) Ahmed Orabi Axis extension project: 11 feddans will be allocated to support and duplicate Ahmed Orabi Corridor, which will help smooth the traffic flow in the area 4) Investment services area 69 feddans 5) Main services center 26.6 feddans Figure 5-14 3 masterplan for Imbaba Airport land regeneration The Imbaba project was launched in 2006 and its implementation started in 2009. The first stage of the Development Project started with the implementation of three projects1. Development of the project depends on the following thought; Gradual replacement within the boundaries of the land surrounding the airport as an approach to redevelopment and the reduction of the population density and improve movement within the region to be moved residents to the land of the new airport residential area. - Challenges Government was the owner of the land and the initiator of redevelopment, consequently it was viewed as an autocratic visions that do not benefit the surrounding areas. The challenges2 could be as follow • There is Lack of trust between the public (residents of neighboring area) and government. Although construction of residential area is completed, no one yet declared who can buy or rent these residential units. • Many agriculture land owner speculated their land or built informally to be demolished and relocated in the new looking nice project.  Residential area supposed to be for those who will be relocated due to road expansions and providing services as planned, still the targeted residents not surveyed nor registered due to administrative and institutional challenges 1 ibid The challenges were conducted based on author observation, personal interviews with residents and project consultant 2 105  The park was officially opened in 2014 under the name 30th June, afterward it was closed due to administrative and operational issues.  Many plans were proposed for Investment area; however, none of them were approved or declared as the official plan for biding or implementation. Most of the challenges faces this project is administrative and executive ones. They could be easily tackled via incorporating local NGOs and private sectors developers. - Results and achievements The Project of Imbaba airport regeneration is considered an excellent example of brownfield regeneration. It has a comprehensive and integrated regeneration approach. Through reusing the land of the airport to achieve compact development that enhance existing cores and transport corridors, revitalize existing urban structures while creating a more integrated urban area. The project has improved the connectivity of the Greater Cairo region through road network and the metro line (under construction). It has also upgraded unplanned sites, created green spaces and provided facilities for the neighborhood. The project has successfully transformed vacant underused plots and derelict site into educational and health facilities, public spaces, public buildings and cultural centers. It could be stated as Brownfield regeneration that achieved 'Inclusion and Connectivity' 1 . The main achievement of this urban regeneration project is addressing the concerns of sustainable urban development through brownfield regeneration intervention. 1 Sahar attia, unhabitat 2015 103 5.5. Proposed actions for G.C. The proposed Actions and decisions for brownfields in G.C. should be considered on many scales and levels. Starting from the policies and regulations, visions and stratigies, to the specific projects level. One of the crtical actions is to integrate brownfields in stratgic planning activities see figure 5-15 . Strategic planning is mainly a management activity that is used to set priorities, focus energy and resources, strengthen operations, ensure that employees and stakeholders are working toward common goals, establish agreement around intended outcomes/results, and assess and adjust the organization's direction in response to a changing environment1. Effective strategic planning articulates not only the directions and the actions needed to make progress, but also assessing how much it is successful2. Wh ? Vision strategy What? Business model Value proposition How? E actl How? Brownfield Regeneration project Figure 5-15 brownfields integrated regeneration model 1 2 https://balancedscorecard.org/Resources/Strategic-Planning-Basics Access 2-2016 ibid 104 Following a detailed proposed procedure for integrating brownfields regeneration into strategic planning, see figure 5- 16. • Identify and recognize Brownfields is the first step to start with. Subsequently investigate the Site for Assessments, remediation, preparation to check the readiness for regeneration. • Recognize the benefits and challenges of regeneration on local level. • Link to strategic development Goals (consider Vision for Site, neighboring area, and Region, as suitable as scale of the project) • Needs assessment for Society, Private sector (investor, developer, etc.), Government institutions, and Other stakeholders groups • engage key stakeholders while respect their interests and roles • Consider the economic, social, environmental, institutional needs /objectives • Use the opportunities to drive regeneration, and override the obstacles. • Set Goals and Make Plans that achieve the goals while considering the situation of area plans, zoning, regulations that may require additional Adjustment and Revisions for the plans. • Identifying partners, funding sources and cooperation model are of the critical steps. That needs to thought-of carefully The balanced sustainable objectives while Continuing Public and stakeholders Engagement and Input are the main elements of achieving the sustainable brownfield regeneration. Sustainable brownfield Regeneration is the management of the whole procedure for a successful results that responsively satisfy people and stakeholders needs 105 Figure 5-16 Brownfield regeneration strategic integrated detailed model source; Author, adopted from Wells, D. L. (1998). Strategic Management for Senior Leaders 102 5.6. Conclusion G.C. faces many challenges due to high densities of activities and residential areas, in addition to the limited available vacant land. Besides, many brownfields are still neglected in their central location in G.C. without intervention from the government or local authorities. . However, brownfields inside G.C. can be part of many strategies solutions and solutions of urban development. Through the investigation of the current activities regarding the underutilized areas (brownfields); The institutional set up, the government's policies, and the market force are the major influences of the current issues found in the brownfields in Egypt. That require direct intervention (from government, or NGO) and regulations to ensure they are included in the market. Brownfields regeneration is essential topic yet it has many challenges. The constraints of brownfield regeneration in Egypt could be also the keys to solve many problems. The conflict in the property ownership issues could be solved by involving the key stakeholders and sharing the costs and benefits, although the governmental institutions own most of them. The requirement for financial investment could be linked to property market value and regeneration benefits. Moreover framing a common vision, and reliable system within government agencies dedicated to the regeneration of brownfield. It has to be comprehensively integrated into strategic development not just governmentally owned brownfields but also privately owned. The analyzed two case studies, showed that the concept of sustainable brownfield regeneration is applicable in the context of G.C. and could generalized to be more applicable in wider context. Although both cases faced some challenges. The application of the concept is project based that could be supported with frameworks and regulations for more replication. As a final point, Brownfields regeneration has to be under strategic developing plans of the G.C. which require changes in many fields to make planners capable to merge them in the planning process. In addition, to consider sustainable balanced objectives approaches rather than one economic objective. I 103 Chapter 6 : Conclusion and recommendation 6.1. Introduction This chapter concludes all theoretical and analytical findings, in addition to research recommendations and futuristic researches. Theoretical conclusion of sustainable brownfields regeneration concepts, complexity of the systemic process, conceptual models and frameworks .Analytical study conclusion includes international case studies and local implementation trails. After that the recommendation will be on three different levels, strategies and regulations, process and implementation, and final part regarding Greater Cairo integrated strategies. 6.2. Research conclusion The research tried to propose an updated approach of brownfield sustainable regeneration as key to revitalize and regenerate the city. It integrates and synthesizes the various issues in the field of urban regeneration internationally and on local level. Moreover, it has investigated the concepts of brownfields regeneration, sustainable development, urban regeneration and the ways of applying these concepts. 6.2.1. Theoretical conclusion Brownfields as a concept arose with deindustrialization and suburbanization. It can be defined as previously used property that is currently abandoned or underused, and considered as a potential site for redevelopment. Brownfields could be classified according to the previous use, vacancy, size of the site, ownership situation, and contamination. Although brownfields have few negative impacts, they present numerous potential benefits considering appropriate regeneration. The main positive point to be taken in consideration when dealing with brownfields is they are potentials for sustainable urban development. While main threat appears in actual or perceived contaminated post-industrial sites that negatively affect human health and the environment. Brownfields are preferable not to be treated as a problem, but as a condition, that requires intervention. Additionally, increasing urbanization challenges and increasing calls for sustainable development, require more innovative and untraditional solutions like brownfields regeneration. Urban regeneration as a concept has evolved a lot from just physical improvements into more deep and comprehensive besides its objectives became more complex and critical. Urban regeneration is conceptualized as a major intervention dealing with existing urban areas. It is considered as comprehensive and integrated vision and action to solve urban problems while developing the economic, physical, social and environmental situation of an area. The concept has evolved from a simple form of 102 renovation or rehabilitation of a building, to the integrated, comprehensive, responsive sustainable urban regeneration. The sustainable urban regeneration of Brownfield lands plays a significant role in urban development. It is considered as a tool that could achieve the balanced development of economy, culture, society and ecology. The recovery of brownfields sites may provide the city with many opportunities to reconstruct economic structure, and recreate healthier environment, more over to achieve social, cultural, economic sustainability. Main points have been concluded from compiling different concepts of brownfields, sustainability, and urban regeneration. These points are the key principles of sustainable brownfield regeneration that could be used to guide and evaluate brownfields regeneration projects. • Recovery to beneficial use (From negative to positive) • Solution for existing problems while satisfying of human needs • Long term & lasting development for present & future generations • Improve aspects / achieve balanced objectives ) Economic, Social and culture, Environmental, Institutional, and Physical) • Linking top down & bottom up approaches • Comprehensive and integrated strategically within particular regional context Brownfields regeneration could be conceptually sustainable; however, its process is affected by the dynamics and complexity of the urban systems, which make the process more challenging and complex. Starting with the dynamics of creation and regeneration of brownfields sites, different stakeholders' perspectives, challenges, moreover driving forces of the regeneration process. Brownfield regeneration can be very effective on wider urban development scale. The dynamics of the brownfields regeneration/creation is a shift from linear to circular process. There will always be a flow of brownfields in and out of the land use cycle, as sites change in use and are regenerated. As possible, there should be a steady flow in equal volumes. Regeneration of brownfield should consider soft reuse and temporary uses as well as the hard reuse as built constructions or infrastructure development. Brownfield regeneration should be part of a comprehensible strategic land management approach. Land management and brownfields are highly relevant cross cutting topic for urban development. So integrated approaches and comprehensive strategies are necessary. The regeneration of brownfields is a challenging issue that require the involvement of the entire range of stakeholders. Many studies, projects and organizations have recognized the importance of stakeholder involvement and have promoted public participation. Stakeholders’ perspectives proved to be different according to their interests, and roles in the regeneration process. Due to the complex nature of brownfields, several issues need to be addressed. Such issues could be physical, economic, social, environmental and technical aspects; for example Contamination and remediation strategies and options, site investigation, and risk assessment, Project planning and financing. However, the economic, social, environmental and political benefits represent driving motivation for regenerating brownfields. 103 From the decision-making point of view, the context of policies and actions of government, market and society could be either a driver or obstacle for brownfields regeneration, as well the economic viability of individual sites. According to the cost of regeneration, the value of the site, and the revenue, brownfield site could classified as A, B, or C site which assist in regeneration opportunity valuation, and investigating intervention options and regeneration strategies. Sustainability assessment could be used in support of decision making for brownfield regeneration projects. The increasing recognizing of potential benefits of brownfield regeneration to sustainable development resulted in a need for assessing how sustainable is the regeneration of a brownfield project. However there is no standard perception or method for assessing sustainability of brownfield regeneration, general principles have been identified for the regeneration context. Stakeholder involvement and balanced objectives are also important parts of sustainability assessment. Sustainability assessment usually provides a framework for evaluating the overall outcomes in a holistic way. However, regarding the financial investments required for brownfield regeneration, sustainability evaluation should be combined with cost–benefit analysis as a base for investment decision making. As a final point, Sustainable Brownfield sustainable regeneration is a balanced participatory approach that incorporates environmental, socio cultural, technical, and economic aspects “to meet the present needs without compromising the needs of the future”. 6.2.2. Analytical conclusion The concept of Sustainable urban regeneration of brownfields is very important and widely recognized internationally. Countries and governments have recognized the complexity of brownfields. Their reaction to Brownfields have been affected mainly by the scale and number of brownfields sites, and land availability for development, related population density. The different conditions have led towards different strategies and programs to support brownfields regeneration. Although several benefits of brownfields, property market forces were not enough to tackle the challenges of regeneration. Accordingly, governmental intervention was needed. Reactively they have taken many steps to promote brownfield regeneration. They have outlined a definition for brownfields or derelict sites; then, inventory list and describe brownfields. Many governments have developed integrated strategies and supported applied research projects. They have developed a system of gradual treatment and provided financial efforts to reduce risks. Activities of Initiatives, policies, institutional research programs have considered constraints and challenges, for instance; time scales required for property acquisition, property valuation difficulties, legal issues, the technical and economic risks, as well as, priorities for individual projects and objectives. Many reactions formed their models about how to reduce the risks and maximize benefits of brownfields in countries like: • EPA’s Brownfields and Land Revitalization Programs in United States of America, which provides funds and technical assistance to communities, states and others to assess, remediate and sustainably regenerate brownfields. • (CABERNET) which is a multidisciplinary network expert stakeholder groups that facilitates and enhances practical solutions by providing frameworks and 110 • tools for brownfields regeneration according to the context of sustainable development of European cities. United Kingdom's National Planning Policy Framework, which set 60%. Of housing projects to in be brownfield regeneration. International experience of brownfield regeneration in relation to policy and programs showed that most integrated land management policies addressing brownfield regeneration focused on both direct/indirect incentives and enabling public interventions. These policies were mainly designed to address the challenges facing brownfields regeneration using legal, financial tools, moreover regulations incentives to encourage brownfield regeneration. There is no one tool or method that is guaranteed for success, but a combination and sensitive selection of tools based on each case. Generally; policies and programs for brownfields regeneration are mainly responsible for taking into consideration strategic visions and goals of the city. Worldwide, there are different approaches and projects experiences in application of brownfields sustainable regeneration concept. The regenerated brownfields could serve as residential, commercial, recreational, or cultural facility, moreover, a development catalyst for neighboring communities or even for the whole city. If brownfields regeneration were targeted on city level, they could act as urban acupuncture; some planning strategies are suggested for regeneration process; like the example of Abandoibarra in Bilbao, Hammarby sjöstad in Stockholm and Seine rive gauche in Paris. Identifying vital actions would include all possible stakeholders, property ownership, public authorities involved in regeneration, and identifying their objectives and constraints. Moreover specifying participant involvement for each stage of the projectchain, identifying groups to be involved, and specifying the type of involvement for each group involvement. Furthermore, initial costs and benefits should be analysed of regeneration for particular project, and for each stakeholder. Selecting suitable development model to cooperate between Private development, Public development, or PPP (public private partnership); In order to develop terms of reference for contracting and implementation. However these experiences are numerous and varied, there will be always a need for further experimentation and implementation of urban planning approaches that link environmental with economic improvements, preserve and enhance resources, engage with affected community and transform Brown to Green Regarding brownfields in G.C. and Egyptian context One important goal in this research was to identify if sustainable Urban Regeneration of Brownfields is applicable in Egypt with a focus on greater Cairo. It is a metropolitan currently suffers from urban, social and economic challenges and problems. Brownfields are main part of land and properties market in urban mass of GC. Which could play a key role in urban development. Brownfields present great potential, what make them real asset for development strategy. Through investigation of Egyptian present conditions; by reviewing governing conditions of brownfields, it was found that main constrains are ownership, lack of common vision, or a consistent system for development. The property issues is considered as one of the major constraints in regenerating Brownfields in Egypt due to 111 the lack of instruments in dealing with ownership of these lands. Specially, for those owned by the governmental bodies and neglected mostly, without maintenance or considering future developing plans. Integrating Brownfields regeneration with planned intervention from the government and local authorities could lead to comprehensive solution with many social, economic and environmental benefits. Including these assets in the strategic development plans could be a key solution, as they represent valuable resource of the land which can attract investors and developers with their prime locations especially The study has found how brownfields regeneration has very beneficial effect on sustainable urban development, particularly in two examples studied nationally of Al Azhar Park and Imbaba Airport land, which verify the applicability of sustainable urban regeneration of brownfields in Egyptian context. Finally, regenerating Brownfields needs to be under umbrella of national developing plans of the G.C., to make planners capable to merge them in the planning process. This should be done in different disciplines and scales. Starting from changing in the legislation itself. Urban planning laws and regulations need to include definition for what is meant by unused or underdeveloped assets (brownfields), and their classifications according to conditions of Egyptian context. 6.3. Recommendations: Recommendations of research could be introduced on three different levels. They could be introduced to different stake holders on national level, the level of city strategies, moreover projects. On Egyptian national level Recommendations may be in terms of laws, policies and regulations;  Egypt should have a national urban local agenda for sustainable brownfields regeneration and properties reuse  Proposing regulations that allow the full and effective use of public and private properties abandoned, and unused, underused, or unoccupied.  To Establish, Incentivize policies that ensure the sustainable brownfields regeneration. Such policies should be integrated, not piecemeal ones. Using flexible, adaptive policies, not rigid ones, that allow management and planning for sustainable urban development.  Consider contextual actions on the level of the city, with guidelines and effective instruments. On city level, process and implementation, and application for Greater Cairo.  Creating channels of interaction between policy makers and stakeholders in regenerating brownfield process.  Considering the economic perspective in parallel with social and environmental perspectives.  On the level of legislations and regulations, alternatives and options should be proposed to private landowners in order to keep owners’ rights and work on strategic development plans,  Anticipating and preparing proposals for futuristic possible brownfields in a comprehensive balanced regeneration strategy. 115 In order to merge brownfield into urban land markets and planning strategies of the G.C.R. the following points should be achieved; • Establishing of a strong database for under developed and unused assets. In addition to updated detailed survey on Brownfields land in greater Cairo. • Facilitate the cooperation between planning authorities and local authorities through establishing organizational body, which offers a one-stop service for regeneration. • Brownfields regeneration objectives should be evaluated to fulfil strategic development goals of Greater Cairo • Encouraging developers and investors to develop projects in Brownfield sites in G.C. while Involving public participation with the government in planning strategies of Brownfields. • Linking brownfields regeneration as an approach for upgrading neighboring informal areas. For particular projects:  Outline specific guidelines for assuring the quality of development  Beautification of the public realm have to be of the main objectives as it positively affects the identity, value, and desirability of a project.  brownfield regeneration projects should provide infrastructure development like; improving accessibility and developing public facility. As they add extra value and economic development level of the community and the city.  Cooperation and partnership between public and private sectors has to be considered in brownfield regeneration. 6.4. Further research There are many direction and areas for future and related research topics for more developed application;  Retrofitting existing underused building for better productive performance.  The comparison between temporary soft reusing of brownfields and hard mega infrastructure development projects.  Investigating responsive urban land management models that can; produce better environment, attract investment, increase livability, and be more resilient. 113 References Abolina, K Urban Sustainability indicators development criteria. (2005.) Adair, A., Berry, J., Haran, M., Hutchison, N., & McGreal, S. (2009). Urban regeneration: Opportunities for property investment. Investment Property Forum. Alker, S., Joy, V., Roberts, P., & Smith, N. (2000). The definition of brownfield. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 43(1), 49-69. Banister, D., Watson, S., & Wood, C. (1997). Sustainable cities: transport, energy, and urban form. 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Websites http://cielap.org/brownfields access Jan. 2016 http://www.eoearth.org/view/article/150793 access Feb. 2014 https://www.epa.gov/brownfields Apr. 2016 https://www.epa.gov/land-revitalization Apr. 2016 Trends in Urbanisation and Urban Policies in OECD Countries: What Lessons for China?, 2010 www.oecd.org/urban/roundtable/45159707.pdf http://www.ecrami.com/Company.html access 3/2016 http://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2012/08/27/ramlet-boulaq-the-battle-for-land/ http://www.egyptindependent.com/opinion/tale-towers-and-shacks https://balancedscorecard.org/Resources/Strategic-Planning-Basics Access Feb. 2016 113 [1] https://www.asla.org/2013awards/524.html 6-2016 http://www.sustainablecitiescollective.com/dirt/23753/cities-use-brownfields-gosolar 10-2015 http://urbanshapers.info/2011/09/08/transforming-brownfields-to-brightfields-theinventive-national-initiative/ access 5/2016 http://web.mit.edu/cron/class/nature/archive/student_projects/lrc/about_bright.htm www.newmoa.org/.../LoriRibeiro-BrownfieldstoBrightfields-NEWMOA2008.pdf http://www.thecitiesproject.com/2008/09/bilbao-1.html access 5/2016 http://designobserver.com/feature/does-bilbao-need-another-guggenheim/25978/ access 6/2015 http://www.bilbaoria2000.org/ria2000/ing/bilbaoRia/bilbaoRia.aspx?primeraVez= 0 access 5/2016 http://www.bm30.es/plan/pri_uk.html#5 access 6/2016 http://www.bilbaoria2000.org/ access 6/2016 pcparch.com/pcpa_assets/2015/12/abandoibarra_mp.pdf http://stephanekirkland.com/seine-rive-gauche/ access 4-2016 https://www.itdp.org/our-cities-ourselves-principles-for-transport-in-urban-life/ access 1-2016 http://goo.gl/2xHJiV access 4/2016 http://en.semapa.fr/Urban-development/Operations-in-progress/Paris-Rive-Gauche access 1-2016 112 Appendix Governance and Urban Management Structures Strategies and institutional framework, laws Ministries Central ministries are powerful actors in relation to land and urban planning An important factor that exacerbates this situation is the competition of power among ministries. This has resulted in a complex and often contradictory system of urban planning and land management. The Ministry of Housing has a particularly strong role in urban governance, yet rarely coordinates with the other ministries that prepare urban and regional development studies and plans. The Ministry of Planning and Local Development prepares regional development plans and studies and the Ministry of Tourism prepares coastal zone management plans. All plans, whether at the national, regional or local level, must be reviewed and approved by the Ministry of Defense and Military Production. The Ministries of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, Awqaf and Culture (through the Egyptian Authority for Antiquities) also directly affect the decision making in urban planning in Egypt (World Bank, 2007). General Organization for Physical Planning (GOPP) The GOPP is one of the most significant actors responsible for urban planning and governance in Cairo. It is responsible for preparing urban master plans for major cities. The GOPP was created by Republican decision 1093/1973 which dictates the creation of a general association for urban planning. In the framework of the new law 119/2008, they are given the responsibility of ..drawing strategic plans for the Governorates in ways that are suitable to their possibilities and resources. Currently the GOPP is involved in organizing the planning process on all levels (regional, urban, and detailed) and preparing planning guidelines, urban development programs and coordination of the planning processes allover Egypt. GOPP has produced dozens of strategic plans for Egyptian Governorates, cities, small cities, and urban cordons for villages and hamlets.1 The Military The military is one of the most powerful Egyptian institutions in relation to land and urban development. their influence can be seen permeating the legal system and land market. They have leveraged their power to influence major infrastructure projects as well. The Egyptian military plays a particular role in the legal system with respect to land. Governorates and Governors Since 1979, Governorates have had authority over urban planning, housing, land development and infrastructure. However, planning in Greater Cairo is especially difficult because the city is split into three distinct administrative units, the Governorates of Cairo, Giza and Qalyubia. As a result, there is no one administrative body overseeing growth and development in the metropolis (Sims, 2003). Besides these structural 1 http://gopp.gov.eg/ 9-2015 113 difficulties, there is no clear agreement on a common urban policy to be implemented in Greater Cairo. Furthermore, decisions concerning urban development within Governorates have been made based on the personal vision of each Governor (World Bank, 2007). Governors have the rank of minister, are appointed directly by the president and are seen as his direct representatives holding great power. Governorates depend on the central government for eighty percent of their budget. The remainder is aggregated from fees, a very small portion of which can be used at the Governorate’s discretion )Sims, 5010(. As a result of these limitations, Governors often use whatever influence they have as direct representatives of the president to, for example, initiate land development projects in partnership with private sector financiers. Legal system According to the Prime Minister's decision No. 467 of 2005, the restructuring of the management board of the National Center for State land-use planning, the Council includes representatives from the following ministries (ministries concerned as the territory of the State): 1. Ministry of Defense and Military Production 2. Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities 3. The Ministry of Endowments (Awqaf) 4. Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation 5. Ministry of the Interior affairs 6. Ministry of Petroleum 7. Ministry of Electricity and Energy 8. Ministry of Civil Aviation 9. Ministry of Local Development 10. Ministry of Agriculture and land reclamation 11. Ministry of Tourism 12. Ministry of Investment 13. The Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs 14. Ministry of Transportation 15. Ministry of Communications and Information Technology 16. Ministry of Culture The main State bodies concerned are: 1. National Center for planning State lands-usage 2. The Supreme Council for Planning and Urban Development 3. General Organization For Physical Planning 4. New Urban Communities Authority 5. General Authority for Rehabilitation Projects and Agricultural Development 6. General Authority for Tourism Development 7. General Authority for Industrial Development 8. General Authority for Fish Resources Development 9. Military Survey Department 10. General Authority for Investment and Free Zones 11. General Authority for mines and quarries 12. General Authority for Government Services 13. General Authority of Survey 150 14. General Authority for Antiquities 15. General Authority for Roads and Bridges In addition to these bodies, in accordance with Presidential Decree No. 221 for the year 2010, the governors have the right to sell or privatize or lease the right to use the land in their territory, and also the Prime Minister has the same right. the multiplicity of laws and regulations, governing the use of the territory of the State The most important laws governing the use land planning and development: Unified building Law no. 119 of 2008 regarding urban planning and urban harmony and Organization of construction work and the preservation of real estate wealth. Law 100 of 1964 concerning the regulation of state-owned private ownership and disposition of real estate rental. Presidential Decree No. 549 of 1971 issued a license for the governor to sell state property within the villages and towns boundaries. Law 43 of 1979 of the local administration system. Law 143 of 1981 regarding the desert land. Presidential Decree 531 of 1981 regarding the rules of disposition the land and real estate owned by the state which evacuated by the armed forces.. 984 regarding some special rules for the disposal of state property. conditions for the management and usage of the disposition of land allocated to urban communities authority. conditions for the management and usage of the disposition of land allocated to the reconstruction and development of agricultural. conditions for the management and usage of the disposition of land allocated the General Authority for Tourism Development. les to dispose desert land free. military importance areas of desert land and their own rules. e lands until 2017. owned land usufructuary right system. . Council of Ministers Resolution No. 1999 of 2009 regarding the disposition of certain real estate assets of public entities. The set of laws and regulations which may- by different levels- affect on the urban regeneration processes approach in GCR. The most significant laws and regulations which should be considered during the land-use reutilization management are: ‫إ‬Law of Building No. 119 of 2008 and its regulations, especially its first part of urban planning and its articles related to planning and urban development at different levels (national – regional – local), founding of Supreme Council for Planning and Urban Development, preparing the strategic master plan and detailed master plan, dealing with unplanned areas and re-planning areas. 151 ‫إ‬Law of local administration system no. 43 of 1979; in respect of organizational structure of local administration entities, its units, duties, financial resources and budget. ‫إ‬Law of expropriation of property for public interest no. 10 of 1990; in respect of identifying public interest projects, compensation estimates and procedures during land use reutilization projects. ‫إ‬Law of the protection of monuments no. 117 of 1983; especially regarding identification of historic buildings, dealing with them, and protection/ maintenance procedures. The fundamental law for land acquisition and resettlement is the Law No. 10/1990 concerning the Expropriation of Real Estates for Public Interest. The law defines the public interests and the procedure of land acquisition and resettlement regarding public interests. According to the law, The public interests according to the law:  The construction of roads, streets, squares expansion or modification, extension or create new neighborhoods.  Water and sanitation projects.  Irrigation and drainage projects.  Energy projects.  Create bridges and surface go around (level crossing) and lower passages or modification  Transportation and mobility projects.  The purposes of urban planning and the improvement of public facilities.  Whatever is of public interest in the work of any other law 155 ‫الملخص‬ ‫لعق ي ل ت ث في ا ضي غير ل ستغ ‪.‬‬ ‫ي قش ل حث ه يه لتع مل مع اص‬ ‫ت ف لرس ل ل ‪:‬‬ ‫ن ر استر تي ي ي ن تط يق ل تع مل مع ع ي ع لتط ير إحي ء‬ ‫ قتر‬‫أ ضي في لسي ل ر خ ص في م لق هر ل ر ب ف لربط بين‬ ‫لأص‬ ‫مشر ع احي ء لح ر ل ست لأص لعق ي بين ت يه ق يم لق هر ل ر من‬ ‫ن ر تط يقي‪ ,‬مع لتركيز ع ستر تي ي تح يل ا ضي غير ل ستغ لي‬ ‫خا‬ ‫ل تع ق ب أف‬ ‫يس هم في عم ل ي ل ي ‪ .‬ب إض ف لي مح ل ف م لتعقي‬ ‫م‬ ‫م ني ت ي ه ‪ .‬يعت ر ه ل حث مح ل لإض ف است من ل ر لع ل ي‬ ‫استر تي ي إحي ء لع ر ني‪ ,‬تحقيق م ئ ستر تي ي لت طيط لع ر ني ل ست ‪.‬‬ ‫لرئيسي ل حث كي ي عت حي ء مثل ه أص ك ج ئيسي لتحقيق لت ي‬ ‫لتس‬ ‫يت‬ ‫لع ر ني ل ست ‪.‬‬ ‫لع ي لتط يق ه‬ ‫س تح ي ي ل ت‬ ‫ي قسم ل حث ل قس ين ئيسيين‪ ,‬س ن ري‬ ‫ل هيم في ج يع أنح ء لع لم في لسي ل ر ‪ .‬ل زء ل ر لأ ر ح ( ل ل لث ني‬ ‫لث لث) يق ستعر ض ن ري ي قش ل هيم ل ت لأص غير ل ستغ أث ه ل حت‬ ‫لع مل ل ثر لق ي‬ ‫س تعقي‬ ‫إحي ء لع ر ني ل ست ‪ .‬ب إض ف ل ستعر‬ ‫ل فع لتي ي ن أ ت ثر ع‬ ‫لق‬ ‫ل م لع ر ني ل عق ‪ ,‬لتح ي‬ ‫في‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ع ي حي ء مثل ه أص ‪.‬‬ ‫خ ر كثير من‬ ‫ل زء لع ي ( ل ل لر بع ل مس) أمث م ت من ت‬ ‫يستعر‬ ‫ل في انت من ه أص ‪ ,‬م ج لتح ي في ع ي احي ء لتط ير‪ ,‬ك لك‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ع من ل ش يع لتي تم تط يق ك مث ن جح ي ن است م ‪ .‬يقتر ل حث ن ج ن ري‬ ‫حي ء ه أص مت مل م مج من ل حي استر تي ي في تحقيق‬ ‫ي ضح كيف ي ن أ ت‬ ‫ت صي ح كيف ي ن إحي ء مثل‬ ‫أه ف لت ي لع ر ني ‪ .‬ي ت ي ل حث بتق يم ست ت ج‬ ‫ه أص غير ل ستغ أ ت ثل فرص مش يع مست م ‪ ,‬م ي لتعزيز ت شيط ت ي ل‬ ‫ل ري ع ر ني ‪.‬‬ ‫الكلما الدال ‪ :‬ع‬ ‫ل ر ‪.‬‬ ‫حي ء‪/‬تط ير‪ ,‬اص‬ ‫لع ر ني ‪ ,‬لت ي ل ست م ‪,‬‬ ‫أ ضي‪ ,‬لق هر‬