L2 Spanish intonation for Finnish speakers

JOURNAL OF SPANISH LANGUAGE TEACHING, 2016 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23247797.2016.1162023 RESEARCH ARTICLE L2 Spanish intonation for Finnish speakers José Antonio Jódar-Sánchez Downloaded by [José Antonio Jódar Sánchez] at 04:54 15 June 2016 Department of Linguistics, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, USA ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Spanish and Finnish have a similar, syllable-timed, rhythm but very different stress and intonation patterns. Based on the “Frequency Code,” whereby meanings of confidence and aggressiveness are associated with low pitch, and those of submission and smallness with high pitch, we establish a taxonomy of the functions and meanings of intonation with examples in Spanish and Finnish. These functions can be grammatical, attitudinal, pragmatic, and sociolinguistic. To teach intonation to Finnish L2 Spanish students of an advanced level, we raise their awareness through the comparison of the intonational patterns of the two languages and through inductive reasoning. Our proposal fosters a multimodal approach based on the imitation of native speech, on the visual representation of prosody through software like Praat, and on the use of gestures, all integrated into discourse-oriented activities. Due to its schematic and flexible nature, our proposal can be adapted by teachers to the necessities of their L2 Spanish students. Received 10 November 2014 Accepted 30 May 2015 RESUMEN PALABRAS CLAVE El castellano y el finés poseen un ritmo similar, de tipo silábico, mientras que su acento y entonación son distintos. A partir del “Frequency Code”, que establece que los significados de confianza y agresividad se asocian con un tono bajo y los de sumisión e insignificancia con uno alto, postulamos una clasificación de las funciones y significados de la entonación con ejemplos en castellano y finés. Las funciones pueden ser gramaticales, actitudinales, pragmáticas y sociolingüísticas. Para enseñar entonación a estudiantes finlandeses de ELE, se les puede hacer conscientes de lo que aprenden a partir de la comparación de los patrones entonativos de las dos lenguas y a través de un razonamiento inductivo. Nuestra propuesta promueve un acercamiento multimodal basado en la imitación del acento nativo, en la representación visual de la prosodia en software como Praat, y en el uso de gestos, todo ello integrado en actividades dirigidas a emular el discurso real. Por su naturaleza flexible y esquemática, los profesores pueden adaptar nuestra propuesta en función de las necesidades de sus estudiantes de español como L2. KEYWORDS L2 Spanish; intonation; Finnish speakers; integration of native input; softwarebased visual aid and gestures español como L2; entonación; hablantes de finés; integración del input nativo; representación visual y de gestos a través de software 1. Introduction Phonology and intonation, given their complexity and human specificity, are features found only in languages (Pinker and Jakendoff 2005, 210–212). All of them in fact have some kind of intonation. As such, detailed studies of the phenomenon are necessary to find out what role it plays in language and communication. Over the last four decades, a series of canonical publications has successfully demonstrated the important role intonation plays in language and communication through a CONTACT José Antonio Jódar-Sánchez jjodarsa@buffalo.edu © 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group Downloaded by [José Antonio Jódar Sánchez] at 04:54 15 June 2016 2 J.A. JÓDAR-SÁNCHEZ range of cross-linguistic data (cf. Crystal 1969; Gussenhoven 2004; Ladd 1996/2008). In this paper, we address the issue of teaching intonation to Finnish learners of L2 Spanish. First, we describe the universal codes regulating pitch and intonation, some of which can be overridden by contextual information. Then, we present a brief description of the suprasegmental features of Finnish and Spanish. We also describe the four main functions of intonation, namely the grammatical, attitudinal, pragmatic, and sociolinguistic ones, along with examples. Finally, in Section 3, we summarize prior studies on the teaching of Spanish and present our didactic proposal. Our aim is to advance certain guidelines in the teaching of L2 Spanish intonation to Finnish students based on a multimodal approach. Though recent, the Finnish population is becoming moderately interested in the study of Spanish as a foreign language. According to Official Statistics of Finland, 1.7% of Finnish students aged 13 to 16 study Spanish (OSF 2013). Despite the hegemony of English as a foreign language, the four main universities in Finland have a Spanish program. The rise in tourism to coastal warm-weather areas of Southern Europe has also contributed to the interest in learning the language of the country where people spend their holidays. In the labor market, dealings with the United States and Latin American countries are part of the overall motivation for the study of Spanish by Finns. In contrast to Sapir’s theories on the non-linguistic components of speech (1921, 47), research in the latter twentieth century demonstrates the importance of intonation, stress and tone in communication. Bolinger (1951, 1989) was the first to reveal a distinct status for intonation. Intonation is primarily composed of frequency, intensity and length, expressed through higher or lower pitch in speech. Ladd (1996/2008), in agreement with Crystal (1969), brings to the forefront the pragmatic dimension of intonation by stating that “it refers to the use of suprasegmental phonetic features to convey ‘post-lexical’ or sentence-level pragmatic meanings in a linguistically structured way” (1996, 6). Here Ladd makes it clear that suprasegmental material contributes to discursive meaning. Further, this meaning is structured and shaped linguistically. The segmental and the prosodic aspects create an interdependence that signals the layered structure of speech beyond the morphosyntactic and strictly phonetic level (see Nilsenová and Swerts 2012 for an overview). Being crucial for adult communication, this is by no means less important for babies. The recognition of prosodic patterns happens prior to the recognition of segmental patterns (cf. Soderstrom et al. 2008) and starts in the womb, although it is true that babies can hardly identify pragmatic meaning at such an early stage. The physiology with which we are born and which we develop throughout our lives influences considerably the way we speak, including our speech (cf. Kriegstein et al. 2006). Therefore, if intonation is so important conversationally for grown-ups and is an inborn feature of babies, what are the functions of speech in conversation? We follow here Ohala’s (1984) classic and informative contribution of the universal “Frequency Code” (also labeled “Size Code” in Gussenhoven (2002)) (FC hereafter). I have argued that uses of voice F0 in speech where the sound-meaning correlation shows cross-language consistency, e.g., in intonation, the communication of ‘affect’, and in sound symbolic vocabulary, can be explained by reference to the factors which have influenced the shape of the acoustic component of agonistic displays in virtually all vocalizing species. The sound-meaning correlations found in these cases adhere to the ‘frequency code’, which also governs the vocalization of other species, namely, where high F0 signifies (broadly) smallness, nonthreatening attitude, desirous of the goodwill of the receiver, etc. and low F0 conveys largeness, threat, self-confidence and self-sufficiency. (1984, 14) There is, according to Ohala, a direct correlation between our body and larynx size, and the pitch of our voice. Smaller bodies tend to produce a higher pitched voice, thus being associated with submission, vulnerability, tenderness, smallness and doubt (Uldall 1964). If a statement contains a final rise, the listener interprets that the speaker is doubtful or needs help to complete her contribution to the interaction (Brown, Currie, and Kenworthy 1980). Bigger bodies have the tendency to produce voices with a lower pitch, signaling empowerment, dominance, confidence, completeness, and aggressiveness. If a statement ends in a low rise, the meaning to be conveyed is that the speaker is sure of what she is saying, and she is winding up her turn. Two more biological codes, conditioning Downloaded by [José Antonio Jódar Sánchez] at 04:54 15 June 2016 JOURNAL OF SPANISH LANGUAGE TEACHING 3 the realization of intonational patterns both phonetically and linguistically are posited by Gussenhoven (2002). The “Effort Code” signals the amount of effort exerted by the speaker in speech production, resulting in a wider speech range and in clearer speech as the expenditure of articulatory effort increases. The “Production Code” signals the air exhalation and inhalation phases, whereby a higher pitch is associated with the beginning of an utterance and a lower one with its end. To show the context-dependent nature of all intonational meaning, Hirschberg (2002) formulates the three codes, the “Frequency,” “Effort,” and “Production” ones, in terms of Gricean conversational implicatures, as the “Maxim of Pitch,” “of Emphasis” and “of Range/Phrasing.” Whenever the intonational pattern of an utterance does not fulfill the predicted function it is assigned by the biological codes. The listener employs these maxims to infer the unspoken meaning. These three codes are universal tendencies based on the biology of the human body which, when linguistically coded and realized, ask for a pragmatic, context-bounded analysis. They can convey both affective clues, that is, about the speaker, and informational clues, that is, about the message. This proposed analysis must also distinguish between what Wichmann (2014) calls “expressive intonation” and “attitudinal intonation” (both referred in Gussenhoven (2002) as “affective” clues). The former are pure emotions such as feeling lonely, sad or tired. The latter are attitudes that are manifested in the speaker’s behavior towards others such as being condescending, polite or intimidating. For example out of the elements associated with a lower or higher pitch in the FC, completeness, and confidence are emotions that one can more or less individually feel, whereas submission, dominance, vulnerability, and aggressiveness are attitudes that we hold with respect and in relation to others. Our taxonomy of functions and meanings of intonational patterns (see Table 1) reflects the distinction between emotions and attitudes. 2. Intonation in Spanish and Finnish Despite our prior arguments for the universality of certain prosodic patterns, languages vary greatly with respect to their intonation. First of all, we must note that although the FC we use for assigning basic pitch-based functional meanings to utterances is a universal postulate, some languages seem divergent from this norm. As Gussenhoven (2004) notes, “the exploitation of the three biological codes will to some extent be conventionalized within speech communities” (2004, 92) as well as within languages. In Chinese and Japanese, for instance, there is no rising intonation in interrogatives. Finnish belongs to this less common group of languages which have no interrogative rising intonation, as opposed to the estimated 70% out of 250 languages examined by Bolinger (1978) that do have question-associated rising contours. In her chapter on Finnish intonation, Iivonen (1998) highlights the fixed role of stress and the lack of functional intonational patterns in that language, as opposed to others like English where intonation helps the listener identify interrogatives from declaratives, and statements of surprise from those of boredom. In a study of Finnish in read speech, Kallioinen (1968) notes that there is no marked interrogatory intonational pattern. However, Ogden and Routarinne (2005) show in their conversation analysis-oriented study of spontaneous speech that final rising tones of young girls may indicate continuity of the speaker’s talk and acknowledgement of the listener’s role. Kallioinen (ibid.) similarly detects final rises in questions in youth speech. Toivanen (2001) concludes that, although most of the utterances have a final low intonational pattern, some particular structures do have a rising one at their end. This author lists politeness formulas (e.g. when the customer says Kiitos “Thank you,” and when the server’s reply is Kahvia? “Coffee?”), backchannel expressions with a phatic function (e.g. Finnish niin, joo and English yeah), incomplete utterances and echo questions, as containing a final rising intonational pattern (2001, 169–171). With regards to rhythm, languages can be classified as stress-timed or syllable-timed. In the former, like English and Danish, the duration between every stressed syllable is approximate. In the latter, like Finnish and Spanish, the duration of all syllables is very similar.1 4 J.A. JÓDAR-SÁNCHEZ Downloaded by [José Antonio Jódar Sánchez] at 04:54 15 June 2016 Table 1. Function and meaning of intonational patterns in Spanish and Finnish. Function of Intonation Grammatical Meaning of Intonation Declarative Spanish El gato cazó y mató al ratón (neutral intonation) El gato cazó al ratón y ¿ves? (rising intonation) Finnish Kissa ajoi hiirtä takaa ja tappoi sen. (neutral intonation) Huomaatko, kissa ajoi hiirtä takaa? (neutral intonation) Yes/no questions ¿Cazó el gato al ratón? (rising intonation) Ajoiko kissa hiirtä takaa? (neutral intonation) Open questions ¿Qué le hizo el gato al ratón? (falling intonation) Mitä kissa teki hiirelle? (neutral intonation) Así que, ¿se porta bien el gato? (ironic question, rising intonation) No, käyttäytyykö tämä kissa hyvin? (ironic question, neutral intonation) ¡Coge el gato! (falling intonation) Ota kissa! (neutral/ falling intonation) ¡Coge el gato! (emphatically repeated order, rising intonation) Ota kissa! (emphatically repeated order, neutral intonation) ¿Cuántas veces te he dicho que encierres el gato antes de irte? (threat and reprimand, rising intonation) Kuinka monta kertaa minun pitää muistuttaa sinua, että kytket kissan ennen lähtöäsi? (threat and reprimand, neutral/ falling intonation) Emotive (lonely, sad, tired, etc.) ¡Qué mono, el gato! (rising intonation) Kuinka söpö kissa! (neutral intonation) Attitudinal (condescending, polite, intimidating, etc.) ¡Este gato no para de molestarme! (falling intonation) Tämä kissa on niin ärsyttävä! (falling intonation) ¡Este gato no para de molestarme! (rising intonation) Tämä kissa on niin ärsyttävä! (rising intonation) Interrogative Volitional Expressive Type (Continued ) Pragmatic/ Discourse-based Meaning of Intonation (Non)Finality Type Spanish Finnish El gato cazó y mató al ratón (neutral/falling intonation for finality of speaker’s discourse) Kissa ajoi hiirtä takaa ja tappoi sen. (neutral/falling intonation for finality of speaker’s discourse) El gato cazó y mató al ratón (rising intonation for continuation of speaker’s discourse) Kissa ajoi hiirtä takaa ja tappoi sen. (neutral intonation for continuation of speaker’s discourse) Interrupting for clarification ¿Perdona? (rising intonation) Anteeksi? (neutral intonation) Shared knowledge El gato se ha comido un ratón otra vez (neutral intonation, interlocutor(s) know which cat it is) Kissa on syönyt taas hiiren. (neutral intonation, interlocutor(s) know which cat it is) Gender-based El gato cazó y mató al ratón (neutral intonation but lower pitch and intonation in male speech and higher ones in female speech) Kissa ajoi hiirtä takaa ja tappoi sen. (neutral intonation but lower pitch and intonation in male speech and higher ones in female speech) Age-based El gato cazó y mató al ratón (higher pitch in youth speech) Kissa ajoi hiirtä takaa ja tappoi sen. (higher pitch in youth speech) Origin-based El gato cazó y mató al ratón (lower pitch in Castilian speakers, and higher pitch in Catalan and Andalucian speakers) Kissa ajoi hiirtä takaa ja tappoi sen. (fewer rises and falls in the intonation of speakers of Finnish standard variety, and more rises and falls in Northern speakers) Sociolinguistic JOURNAL OF SPANISH LANGUAGE TEACHING Downloaded by [José Antonio Jódar Sánchez] at 04:54 15 June 2016 Table 1. Continued. Function of Intonation 5 Downloaded by [José Antonio Jódar Sánchez] at 04:54 15 June 2016 6 J.A. JÓDAR-SÁNCHEZ Intonation in Spanish is much more varied (Hidalgo-Navarro 2006) than in Finnish. A transcription system for regionally diverse Spanish intonation is proposed in Prieto and Roseano (2010), and has been enhanced ever since. Statements usually have a neutral, falling intonation. Open questions also present a falling intonation, whereas yes/no questions present a rising one. In exclamations that express orders and commands, a falling pattern is usually noticeable. Emotive and attitudinal utterances have, however, variegated intonation patterns which correlate, but not always, with the predictions of the FC. For instance, Hidalgo-Navarro (ibid.) states that exclamations with a rising intonation convey feelings of surprise but also of argumentative responses. We would expect this latter to be associated with a lower pitch indicating dominance and aggressiveness in the reply. Exclamations with a falling intonation convey, according to Hidalgo-Navarro, feelings of disgust, disappointment, and compassion, all typical of a lower pitch. Thus the pragmatic and situational illocutionary meaning can sometimes override the FC to convey, among others, an argumentative response with a higher pitch. A peculiar feature of Finnish prosody is that it has the stress always on the first syllable (Iivonen and Harnud 2005). Spanish, as opposed to Finnish, has variable stress (Alcoba et al. 1998; Hualde 2005; Sosa 1999). Words can be oxytone, with the stress on the last syllable, as in celebración “celebration”; paroxytone, with the stress on the penultimate syllable, as in árbol “tree”; or proparoxytone, with the stress on the antepenultimate syllable, as in sílaba “syllable.” What Finnish and Spanish have in common is the fact that they are generally considered syllable-timed, as stated above. The distinctive functions of intonation are not only conditioned by the type of speech act— such as declarative, interrogative or exclamatory—but is also conditioned by the dialect of the language. Chun refers to the ability of “hearers to identify speakers as members of different sociolinguistic groups” (2002, 78) as the sociolinguistic function of intonation. With regards to this social dimension of prosody, Gili-Gaya (1975) states that peninsular Spanish has a lower and deeper intonation than the dialects of the Americas. Among dialects in the Iberian Peninsula, the author notes that there is a range from higher to lower pitch as follows: the Andalusian dialect, the Galician and Catalan dialects, and the lower dialect of Castilla. In comparison with dialects of Latin America, there is great coincidence in the regional intonational patterns of declaratory statements but not on those of yes/no questions (Sosa 1999). Despite this variety, the dialect of the teacher and her intonation will most likely be the one taught in the foreign language classroom (Bartolí-Rigol 2005). In the context of teaching Spanish to Finnish learners, both the dialect of Spanish taught and the variety of Finnish of the student will affect the correct learning of intonation. Speakers from Northern Finland tend to produce more utterances with a final intonational rise (Toivanen 2001) than speakers from other parts, where the intonation has fewer rises and falls. Consequently, Northerners may be less likely to make mistakes when making questions in Spanish, for instance, than speakers of other regions. These sociolinguistic issues and others are reflected as well in our classification (see Table 1). For our pedagogical purposes, we use a taxonomy of the functions of intonation that takes the FC of speech as default. It can, however, be overridden by other factors as noted above. This taxonomy is partly based on Chun’s (2002, 77–78) summary of the grammatical, attitudinal, discourserelated and sociolinguistic roles for intonation. Chun’s rationale, which we share, for this classification is that it parallels the functions attributed to language in modern curricula. The grammatical functions (referred by Hidalgo-Navarro (2006) as “función modal primaria” or “distintiva”) include statements, questions and commands, and affect grammatical structure by distinguishing between sentence types. Questions are further divided into yes/no and open ones. The expressive functions of intonation (referred by Hidalgo-Navarro (ibid.) as “función modal secundaria” or “expresiva”) include emotions like loneliness, sadness tiredness and attitude meanings, like condescending, polite and intimidating. Within the communicative approach we take, we add and exemplify some pragmatic factors, such as (non)finality of utterances, interruption for clarification, and knowledge shared by speakers, and sociolinguistic ones, such as gender, age and region of origin, that bring different meanings to intonational patterns and their utterances. JOURNAL OF SPANISH LANGUAGE TEACHING 7 The functions of intonation overlap to a large extent. For example, open questions that exemplify a request for information, such as ¿Qué le hizo el gato al ratón?, have a falling intonation. But when open questions, such as Así que, ¿se porta bien el gato? are formulated ironically, adding an attitudinal meaning, they use a rising intonation. The irony of the second question thus overrides the normally falling intonation of its nature as an open question. Needless to say, pragmatic and sociolinguistic factors add complexity to this picture as well. For instance, Rao (2013) shows that complaints to people higher in the social scale have a different intonation from complaints made to equals. Downloaded by [José Antonio Jódar Sánchez] at 04:54 15 June 2016 3. Practice of intonation in the L2 Spanish class Intonation is one of the linguistic elements that has received the least attention by researchers, linguists and teachers of foreign languages (Bartolí-Rigol 2005; Cortés-Moreno 2002; Molina-Vidal 2014). Despite that, it plays a decisive role in marking the difference between a question requesting information and one with an ironic tone. In successfully communicating with native speakers, students resort not only to sentences that follow the syntactic patterns stored in the language’s constructicon, but also to the prosodic features that make speech natural and fluid (Wennerstrom 2000). The abundance of materials to study other dimensions of language, such as grammar, phonetics and syntax, has made the scarcity of resources for the practice of suprasegmentals more evident. There is currently an increasing interest in materials focused on intonation (cf. Bartolí-Rigol 2005; Hidalgo-Navarro 2015; Lahoz-Bengoechea, 2007; Molina-Vidal 2014; Nilsenová and Swerts 2012). Spanish has been, in this sense, somehow neglected, with the exception of a few publications (cf. Alcoba et al. 1998; Canellada and Kuhlmann 1987; Carcedo-González 1998; Cortés-Moreno 2002; García-Riverón 1998; HidalgoNavarro 2006; Navarro-Tomás 1974; Quilis 1981; Sosa 1991, 1999; Padilla-García 2015). In other languages, however, there are specific manuals aimed at the student’s phonetic and intonational practice in the foreign language. In English, we even find some theoretical studies on how and what should be taught in the field of suprasegmentals (Chun 2002). The scarcity of manuals for L2 Spanish intonation is one of the main reasons that pushed us to delineate certain guidelines for the teaching of pronunciation, specially targeted at Finnish learners of Spanish. Evidence from intonation teaching practice with Finnish and Spanish students is provided by Carcedo-González (1994, 1998). This author notes that Finnish students of Spanish tend to use fewer rises and falls in the intonation of their questions because they transfer their L1 patterns into their L2 production (cf. Mennen 1998 for transference in Dutch learners of Greek). Carcedo-González shows how in a sentence-reading task “el alumno finlandés trasvasa la melodía de su propia lengua; ésta no necesita del elemento entonativo para indicar a su interlocutor que realiza una pregunta” (1994, 265). The “sentence melody,” or intonation, of the Finnish speaker in the foreign language has much less variation than that of the Spanish speaker. In addition to that, Finns usually get confused and wrongly identify stress in Spanish due to the differences between Spanish and Finnish stress. Carcedo-González (1998) cites examples such as *tránvia, *arból, and *tenís as errors that the participants in his study made. These students tend to give additional prominence to the first syllable in Spanish, even if it is unstressed, due to their L1 stress patterns. Carcedo-González attributes this kind of mistake to the interference of the L1 in producing the target language. Finnish students of Spanish should find no difficulty in transferring rhythmic patterns from their L1 to the L2. Nonetheless, Finns sometimes make the stressed syllable longer, as Carcedo-González (1998) points out, showing a confusion between the feature of quantity or length so typical of Finnish vowels and consonants, and the feature of stress. This extra stress may disrupt the syllable-timed stress of Spanish by not uttering syllables as “weighting” similarly in speech. Overall, Carcedo-González supports the study of intonation together with the other linguistic levels (morphology, syntax and lexis) with which it interacts, but does not emphasize its pragmatic and communicative dimensions. We enhance that lack by using Chun’s taxonomy (2002) that 8 J.A. JÓDAR-SÁNCHEZ considers, not only grammatical and expressive functions of intonation, but also pragmatic and sociolinguistic ones. From the discussion above, we predict that those areas where transference from Finnish to Spanish is most likely to occur due to the discrepancies in the prosodic features of those languages are intonation and stress. They should be, in practice, be paid more attention by L2 Spanish teachers. Downloaded by [José Antonio Jódar Sánchez] at 04:54 15 June 2016 3.1. Combined theoretical and practical proposals In teaching intonation and pronunciation some methodologies have been more successful than others. Conductive approaches in the early twentieth century include the Direct Method, Audiolingualism, and the Oral Approach and Situated Language Learning. They are based on the repetition and modeling of native speakers, on memorization of language patterns, and on the formation of linguistic habits. Correction and feedback to the learner is a key stage in the learning process from the point of view of these theories. With the rise in awareness of the benefits of studying foreign languages, the communicative approach focused on making speech production and perception intelligible, emerged in the field of language teaching as the ultimate methodology. A classroom based on the communicative approach to language has proven, however, unsuccessful in the area of prosody learning (Foote et al. 2013), where it is debated whether pronunciation practice fits well. Within the still prevailing communicative spectrum, varied proposals, with less empirical support but solid theoretical grounding, have been put forth in the last decades. The task-based, and Content and Language Integrated Learning approaches have changed the conception of learning foreign languages into that of learning content through foreign languages. It is not uncommon among linguists theorizing in the teaching of prosody to stress the importance of learning suprasegmental elements before those of grammar and morphosyntax (cf. Lahoz-Bengoechea, 2007; Travalia 2007). This approach resembles more closely the process of earlier acquisition of prosodic information by babies (Prieto and Vanrell 2009). Other approaches utilize the integration of gestures, grammar, prosody and social context in an attempt to get students to model the inherent multimodal nature of communication (cf. Lahoz-Bengoechea, 2007; Molina-Vidal 2014). What is common among these latter approaches is the contextualization of linguistic material as a boost for the student’s natural learning of the target language. Many of these proposals, however, await additional empirical support from classroom research. The closest to the actual teaching of Spanish intonation can be found in didactic proposals online and in the few sections in L2 textbooks devoted to prosody. Journals specializing in L2 Spanish, including MarcoELE, RutaELE, this journal, and the materials that can be found at the library at the Centro Virtual Cervantes, host a number of them. 3.2. Our own proposal The structure of the teaching proposal that we follow here is a reformulation of the schema for the development of intonational practice proposed in Cortés-Moreno (2002). We follow some of the principles of the approach of cognitive linguistics to language teaching (cf. Cadierno and Hijazo-Gascón 2013 for an overview), including constructions and encyclopedic meaning. Our proposal consists of four stages as presented below. Stage 1: Presentation, including an ice-breaking activity, the introduction of the topic through a test, inductive explanations, contextualization, and exemplification. Stage 2: Practice, including contrastive exercises for the intonation of Finnish and Spanish, and the use of software and visual aid. Stage 3: Consolidation, including speechless prosody, imitation of native-like accent, discourse-integrated practice, role playing, and a language club. JOURNAL OF SPANISH LANGUAGE TEACHING 9 Downloaded by [José Antonio Jódar Sánchez] at 04:54 15 June 2016 Stage 4: Supervision, including maximal exposure to native-like accents, and occasional, non-disruptive feedback. Our innovation is in the consolidation phase, whereby the students reinforce their command of intonation by active and passive learning from native speakers and authentic materials. This step must be completed with the aid of contextualized language from native sources, and with a more encompassing view of the communicative act. The activities proposed are aimed at a group of Finnish advanced students of L2 Spanish, equivalent to a B2 or C1 level of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe 2001) (CEFR hereafter). We believe that adults learn the L2 differently from babies and thus follow different mechanisms in producing foreign speech. An important feature is the intensive nature of the course where these activities should be taught. By practicing more and more intensely, without interspersing the teaching of other major constructions, the students can enhance their language skills and command of the intonational patterns of the target language (see Goldberg and Casenhiser 2008 for results in teaching syntactic and lexical constructions). As well as this construction-focused learning, a layout of varied activities for the learner avoids undesirable monotony in the classroom setting. 3.2.1. Presentation As an ice-breaking activity, we can explain to our students that meaning is not only conveyed through words and sentences. Though sign language is most commonly associated with the deaf and hearing-impaired, that does not preclude the frequent use of signs and gestures by the nondeaf. To illustrate this, students were instructed to describe their bedroom or another familiar subject to their partners and then walk around the class pointing out the gestures that accompany their speech. Thus, the learners will notice the importance of non-segmental and non-linguistic elements in everyday communication. For the introduction of the topic, we have designed a test, parallel to pre-task intervention in taskbased learning, to find out what students know about intonation, pitch and their functions (Willis 1996). What follows is a sample of that test (Figure 1). The aim of the next exercise is to make the Finnish learners aware of the suprasegmental features of their own language. We will focus on two simple aspects, namely the pervasive stress on the first syllable and the less prominent intonational patterns in statements and questions in Finnish. The teacher should first display a series of Finnish sentences on the board. Then, the teacher will ask volunteers to read them one by one, and contrast them with the Spanish translation that the teacher can say out loud. Towards the middle or the end of the activity, the teacher should check, in a classroom discussion for example, whether they noticed some variation in the intonation of both languages. If Figure 1. Test on intonation. Downloaded by [José Antonio Jódar Sánchez] at 04:54 15 June 2016 10 J.A. JÓDAR-SÁNCHEZ necessary, there should be some repetition of examples to clarify that Spanish has notable rises and falls whereas Finnish does not usually have them. However, sentences where there is a combination of two or more of the meanings of intonation specified in Table 1, for example contrasting an ironic question from a South American speaker of Spanish with an ironic question from a Finnish speaker of the standard variety, should now be used at this stage. An optional follow-up could be to share common mistakes that they think speakers of other languages make when speaking Spanish. They can then make reference to those features of Finnish prosody that make their accent particular (Santamaría-Busto 2008). Since we do not want to introduce our explanations about prosody in an explicit manner, the best option is to create opportunities for inductive reasoning (DeKeyser 1995). We advise playing an audio with a series of sentences exemplifying all types of utterances in Table 1, with combined meanings, in both Spanish and Finnish. The first listening activity will be to choose whether the intonation of the utterances is rising, neutral or falling from a multiple-choice formatted test. Multiple-choice questionnaires are usually easier and require less effort than full-answer ones. Their use prompts the student to start distinguishing rising, neutral and falling intonations without compromising their knowledge or threatening their role as learners. The second exercise would be to listen to the recording again, but this time students draw an arrow showing whether the intonation is rising (thus upwards), neutral (thus straight) or falling (thus downwards). In order to relate the prosodic features with other factors in the speech act, the students could pronounce the utterance with the appropriate intonation and signaling the movement of the pattern with their hands. Figure 2 shows an example of the hand gesturing the pattern for rising, neutral and falling intonation. The teacher can model these gestures with the utterances from the exercise proposed in Figure 3 as an example for the students. This exercise will be strengthened with visual aid in a later activity. A third activity for contextualization would be to replay some of the utterances in the exercise for distinguishing intonational patterns. The learners would have to invent, preferably in pairs, a situation in which the sentence could be meaningfully uttered, taking into account the sociolinguistic information of the interlocutors and the speech situation. Finally, further exemplification could be given by playing short dialogues instead of isolated utterances, and making the students guess the intonational pattern of one of the utterances. They would have to be alerted to the type of utterance being utilized. If some students find this exercise easy, we can add a layer of complexity by asking them to signal (e.g. by underlining) the stressed words in the sentence, key for interpreting the meaning of the utterance. Similarly, they could guess through a multiple-choice test, as done previously, or by just speaking out loud in the class. One of these short dialogues is provided below for illustration (Figure 4). Figure 2. Exercise for distinguishing intonational patterns. JOURNAL OF SPANISH LANGUAGE TEACHING 11 Figure 3. Hand gestures signaling rising, neutral, or falling intonation. Downloaded by [José Antonio Jódar Sánchez] at 04:54 15 June 2016 In this example, the students must identify ¡qué fuerte! with an emotive expression with rising intonation, and so on. 3.2.2. Practice To make Finnish learners aware of their own intonational patterns, the most suitable option is to contrast equivalent utterances in Finnish and Spanish (Lado 1957). The contrastive approach to language learning is supported by Carcedo-González (1998), and implemented with his Finnish students. This exercise is similar to the last exercises of the presentation stage, but this time the sentences are uttered in two languages. Another further exercise to promote the production of Spanish utterances with the appropriate intonation is recording a subset of them with the help of Praat software. Then the students can, in pairs or groups of three, make the others guess what the intonation is. Ideally the teacher would walk around the class providing feedback and modeling some of the utterances for students if necessary. The advantages of using computers and software like Praat, Wavesufer and Anvil to be able to visualize speech and match it with the auditory input has been recognized by many researchers (cf. Anderson-Hsieh 1992; Levis and Pickering 2004; Mennen 1998). The move is thus from an utterance-based teaching of phonology, mostly of phonemes and syllables, to a discourse-based, context-bounded teaching with communicative purposes. This trend is succeeding in “moving the language disciplines away from an isolationist, autonomous linguistics and towards a situated, contextual linguistics” (Chun, Hardison, and Pennington 2008, 342). The last proposed exercise is an example of integrated practice, by which we mean that phonetic, visual and gestural components are combined to boost the learning of the intonational patterns. The associations that will emerge from this exercise are a conspicuous proof of the benefits of a multimodal approach to prosody learning (Chun, Hardison, and Pennington 2008). In addition to placing students in the very familiar medium of the digital world, software that allows the manipulation of voice and speech promotes their autonomy in class. An example of what the visual representation of the utterance ¿Qué cuánto cuesta el libro? ¡80 euros! would look like in Praat is given below (Figure 5). The blue lines on the left and the pink ones on the right represent the rising intonation corresponding to the utterance of surprise about how expensive the book is. The student can obtain these representations by clicking on the “Extract visible pitch contour” option in the “Pitch” tab of the recorded sound in Praat. At this stage, the students may notice that pitch contours and Figure 4. Short text for identification of intonation. Downloaded by [José Antonio Jódar Sánchez] at 04:54 15 June 2016 12 J.A. JÓDAR-SÁNCHEZ Figure 5. Visual representation of speech with rising intonation in Praat. intonational patterns in Spanish are sometimes raising-falling and falling-raising, instead of following simply one of the three tendencies stated above. They can contrast a question requesting information in Finnish, with its usually neutral patterns, with one in Spanish, where the pattern may be rising-falling. What was categorized earlier as only rising in the Spanish interrogative may now be further analyzed as prominently rising and finally falling. For more advanced students, this can be an added challenge to their multimodal experience. 3.2.3. Consolidation This stage comprises the reinforcement of what has been previously learned.2 Goldberg (1995) proposes the useful notion of “construction,” that is, the pairing of a form and a function, that is, a phonological and a semantic component, mostly learned from experience. One of the key ideas in her proposal is the levels of specificity of the constructions in a language. For a start, the teacher could explain to the learners the notion of “construction.” Then she can play some recordings of a native speaker without the voice and make the whole class guess what the person might be saying. You can make teams and present it in a contest-like format, and reveal, at the end, the utterances with both the segmental and suprasegmental material. Recapture the idea of “construction” again, and state that this time the recordings include segmental and suprasegmental material, being thus more specific than the previous ones. A continuation of this metalinguistic practice on Spanish intonation could be that of modeling the native speech of the teacher or the language assistant(s). As Goldberg shows in her studies, early learning is item-based and comes from the exposure of babies and adults to tokens of the target language. This author provides evidence that working from specific instances to build mental grammatical patterns does happen and can thus be implemented in pedagogical settings. A more true-to-life exercise is proposed as a wrap up for the consolidation stage. A text with many of the sentences previously used should be composed by the teacher and provided to the learners in digital format. The students will do the same as in the last exercises of the practice stage (see Section 3.2.2), namely an integrated practice with a phonetic, a visual and a gestural component. The difference lies this time in the length of the text provided. The step from practice of intonation in isolated utterances in the presentation stage to its practice in discourse in the consolidation stage follows the “gradations of complexity” of the Universal Design for Learning (Morgan 2010). At this stage we aim at practicing “discourse intonation, i.e., with a focus on how intonation serves pragmatic or social functions in discourse” (Chun, Hardison, and Pennington 2008, 325; also Chun 2002; Wichmann 2014), and therefore, the material for practice is much longer, constituting a meaningful unit by itself. The functions to be illustrated by the text should be varied, including but not limited to, the ones listed in Table 1. Retrieving the intonation and associated meaning should be easier at this stage if we Downloaded by [José Antonio Jódar Sánchez] at 04:54 15 June 2016 JOURNAL OF SPANISH LANGUAGE TEACHING 13 understand that words, utterances and constructions in general activate a broad sample of knowledge in the learner’s mind. For example, when they hear a rising intonation they may identify it with a yes/no question and infer that a request for information is being made. Processing is, in default cases, thus highly facilitated by encyclopedic and contextual information. However, if the context outruns that interpretation, the learner may interpret that the question is ironical and a critical comment on an issue is being made. As an optional activity, learners may organize a role-playing activity, once they have thoroughly practiced the texts together with their intonational patterns. This last activity mimics the so-called interactional function of intonation (Couper-Kuhlen and Selting 1996), that is, its role in language as a meaningful reflection of speakers’ online choices in context. By simulating a real situation, the learners will be more ready to face a similar situation, surely challenging, with native speakers. Finally, a quite successful activity, at least from our experience, is that of organizing a Spanish café or club, if possible in a separate environment from the school. Informal conversation with students may not only help them with intonation but with other aspects of oral skills. The pressure of the classroom setting disappears and the learners are much more comfortable talking to their teachers or language assistants. Both the club and role-play are crucial activities in the meaningful entrenchment of prosodic patterns due to their emulation of real-life, contextualized situations: Si nuestro objetivo es que los alumnos sean capaces de vehicular con adecuación mensajes pertinentes entre un emisor y un receptor que mantienen una relación determinada y que se hallan en una situación concreta, es esencial que practiquen la acentuación y entonación en el seno del discurso, en una comunicación real espontánea. (CortésMoreno 2002, 95) 3.2.4. Supervision Although babies seem to acquire suprasegmental information earlier than segmental information (Prieto and Vanrell 2009), we believe that an ordered simulation of this acquisition process is not possible in teenagers and adults. The conditions under which the language learning process takes place are different. Unlike babies, adults already have a definite and solid command of their native language, which inevitably interferes with the target language (Ellis and Cadierno 2009). This interference has been argued as one of the main reasons for not achieving a native-like accent (Carcedo-González 1998). The interlanguage that Finnish students of Spanish develop is therefore in need of some corrective feedback so as to channel it in the right direction. Basically we favor fluency over grammatical accuracy, and will thus only correct students when mistakes are too serious and glaring to go unnoticed. As stated earlier, exposure to native-like accents for reception and production, as well as occasional feedback from a native speaker are favored in our approach. 4. Conclusion In accordance with the Common European Framework of Reference (Council of Europe 2001), a more communicative approach to foreign language learning must be adopted. Strengthening the oral skills of our students should include practicing intonation patterns and other suprasegmental features of the target language. A movement towards more real-life oriented conversations, in very diverse situations, and based on native-like speech patterns, favors the linguistic development of our students. Our teaching proposal enhances the teaching of intonation of L2 Spanish, taking into account not only the grammatical features of Finnish but also the emotions and attitudes intended by speakers, their sociolinguistic background and pragmatic factors that affect online discourse and real-life spontaneous interaction. From what we presented above, it is clear that the functions of intonational patterns, and their overlapping, are key in learning the target language. The FC represents a strong basis from which to study these functions, especially when they are overridden by pragmatic principles. In our case, Finnish students of Spanish will find prosodic information, and more specifically intonation, more Downloaded by [José Antonio Jódar Sánchez] at 04:54 15 June 2016 14 J.A. JÓDAR-SÁNCHEZ challenging to model than aspects like the vocalic and consonantal systems of the target language (Carcedo-González 1998). The difference in prosodic features between the L1 and the L2 may create interference and thus facilitate to a greater or lesser degree the learning of the foreign language. To lessen the difficulty of bridging these gaps in their learning process, we propose a teaching plan divided in four stages. The presentation phase familiarizes students with the targeted intonational patterns via inductive explanations. The practice and consolidation stages are prominently based on Finnish-Spanish contrastive exercises, and on multimodal practice through speech production, software-based visual aids, and gesturing. This practice, together with the role-playing activities proposed and the focus on pragmatic and sociolinguistic variables, is discourse-integrated in that it mimics real-life situations. To sum up, we showed that teaching intonation in the Spanish L2 class can be challenging but not impossible. From the initial awareness of learners attained through Finno-Spanish comparative exercises to the emulation of real contexts in role-playing activities in latter stages, our teaching proposal aims to provide teachers and learners with an intonation-focused schematic structure adaptable to multiple classroom contexts. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author. Notes 1. See Toledo (1988) for an argument against characterizing Spanish as a syllable-timed language. 2. For a series of additional and very well designed activities to practice intonation, we refer the reader to CortésMoreno’s (2002) manual. References Alcoba, S., and J. 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