Fungus Among Us: An exploration of fungi in the Anamalai hills

An exploration of fungi in the Anamalai hills Fungus Among Us Ranjini MuRali P jeganathan t R shankaR RaMan divya MudaPPa An exploration of fungi in the Anamalai hills Fungus Among Us Ranjini MuRali P jeganathan t R shankaR RaMan divya MudaPPa Suggested citation Murali, R., Jeganathan, P., Raman, T. R. S., and Mudappa, D. 2012. Fungus among us: An exploration of fungi in the Anamalai hills. Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore. This text of this document is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0. Copyright for images remain with the respective photographers. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Kalyan Varma and Pavithra Sankaran for helping design this book and for their valuable suggestions. We are extremely grateful to Dr. N. Parthasarathy, Dr. Vadivelu Kumaresan, Dr. Gunasekaran Senthil Arasu, Dr. James Lindsey, Ms. Tanya Balcar, Mr. Robert Stewart, and the members of the mushroom expert forum for help with identiication of the various genera. We would especially like to thank Dr. Tom May from Royal Botanic Gardens Melbourne for taking the time and trouble to give us detailed comments that helped improve this booklet. We thank Atul Joshi for bringing the bioluminescent fungi to our attention. We also thank all the photographers for their generous contributions. [The authors accept the responsibility for any errors that remain and would appreciate comments, corrections, and suggestions to be sent to: divya@ncf-india.org] Financial support M. M. Muthiah Research Foundation, Chennai Nature Conservation Foundation, Mysore Design Kalyan Varma and Pavithra Sankaran Cover photos (Kalyan Varma) Front: Calocera; Back: Underside of Filoboletus COntents About Fungi 1 Anatomy 2 Universal veil 3 Reproduction 4 Dispersal of spores 5 Interesting facts 6 Field identiication 7 Cap and stem fungi 8 Jelly fungi 24 Coral and club fungi 30 Shelf and bracket fungi 34 Other fungi 46 References 55 Index 56 Photo credits 56 abOut fungi Mushrooms and clubs, yeasts and moulds, morels and trules–despite their great diferences in colour, size, structure, shape, texture, and smells–are all diferent kinds of fungus. Fungi are distributed all over the world and range from single-celled to multi-celled organisms. They are found everywhere–in the soil, in the oceans, in the food we eat, and even in the air we breathe. Biologists believe that there are at least 100,000 to 250,000 species classiied within the Kingdom Fungi. In India alone, over 27,000 species of fungi have been reported so far, although many species surely await discovery. Fungi grow well under moist and warm conditions, in the presence of suitable nutrients. Fungi lack chlorophyll (the green pigment that helps plants manufacture their own food) and hence have to depend on external sources for their energy requirements. Most of them are saprotrophic, that is, they obtain their nutrients by growing on dead animal and plant remains. Some fungi are parasitic and depend on other living organisms for their food at the expense of the latter. Many fungi are symbiotic, locked in a mutually-beneicial relationship with other living organisms as in the lichens that are associations of algae and fungi. Bioluminescence, the emission of visible light by living organisms, is also observed in fungi. Excess light energy is released due to an oxygen-dependent reaction causing the fungus to glow. It has been reported in about ifty species of fungi, two thirds of which belong to the genus Mycena. The portion of a fungus usually visible to us, such as a mushroom emerging from the soil or a bracket attached to a tree trunk, is the fruiting body. The fruiting body is designed to spread the single-celled reproductive spores of the fungus. The more obvious larger fungi are usually seen on the forest loor, on dead tree stumps, on living trees, in grasslands, and sometimes even on insects or other organisms. importance of fungi Fungi break down plant and animal matter and recycle important elements like carbon and nitrogen back into the natural environment. There are innumerable fungi that are beneicial and many that are harmful to man. They are used in the synthesis of antibiotics like penicillin, in the fermentation of bread, alcohol, and various foodstufs, and they can be a good source of nutrition. At the same time, fungi are also responsible for diseases of various crops, for the spoilage of food, and for various infections in humans and animals. in this booklet The rainforests of the Anamalai hills in the Western Ghats provide ideal conditions for the occurence of a wide diversity of remarkable fungi. This booklet presents a brief introduction to the rich diversity of fungi in the Anamalai hills, which we hope will encourage naturalists to observe this fascinating group in the ield. The fungi are identiied only to the Genus level and are grouped according to their macroscopic features with each group having a diferent colour code. In this booklet, we deal only with macrofungi (large fungi with visible fruiting bodies. ) Facing page: Bioluminescence as observed in Mycena (Photograph from Kodagu, Western Ghats) 1 a n at O M y A typical macrofungus is made up of the fungal body and the fruiting body. The fungal body is present year-round in the substrate (such as soil or wood) and produces fruiting bodies when conditions are favourable for their growth. the fungal body the fruiting body This is called the thallus and is either single celled or forms thread-like structures. The thread-like structures are called hyphae and are present in the substrate. They come together to form mycelia that produce fruiting bodies on the surface of the substrate. This fruiting body (or sporocarp) is made up of hyphal tissue. It supports the sporeproducing tissue, the hymenium. A fruiting body typically has a stipe (stalk) and a pileus (cap). The hymenium is usually conined to the underside of the cap. It may be in the form of lamellae (gills), pores, spines, or even enclosed in the fruiting body. Sometimes the fruiting body is directly attached to the substrate without a stem. Top: Anatomy of a fungus fruiting body Bottom: Close-up of the hymenium bearing spores 2 univeRsal veils Veils are cobweb-like or membranous protective tissues that cover diferent parts of the fruiting bodies of many fungi (particularly mushrooms) early in their development. The universal veil covers the whole fruiting body. With maturity, the universal veil ruptures, leaving patches or warts on the cap and a cup-like structure at the base of the stem, called the volva. The partial veil covers the developing gills, joining the stipe to the edge of the cap. When the partial veil ruptures at maturity, it leaves an annulus (or ring) on the stem. Top left: The partial veil left on the stem as a ring; Top right and bottom: Warts left on the cap from rupture on universal veil 3 RePROduCtiOn Fungi reproduce both asexually and sexually. Asexual reproduction may occur by the fragmentation of hyphae, budding of vegetative cells or by formation of various kinds of asexual spores. Some of these spores are thick-walled and enable the fungus to tide over unfavourable conditions, forming hyphae only when the environmental conditions favour the survival of the fungus. Sexual reprodution introduces the possibility of variation into the population. It takes place after the fusion of two compatible hyphae of diferent mating type (e.g. + and -). These form a dikaryon which eventually produces a new fruiting body. Sexual spores are produced by the fruiting body. Fruiting body releases spores from gills Spores of + and – mating type Hyphae from compatible spores fuse to form dikaryon, with fruiting body primordium Spores germinate to form hyphae Diagram depicting sexual reproduction with spore formation in basidiomycete fungi 4 disPeRsal Of sPORes The main function of the fruiting body is to disperse the spores and this is done in a variety of ways using nature's elements to their advantage. Most of the spores are spread with the help of the wind. The gills of the ink caps (Coprinus sp.) slowly dissolve projecting their spores into the air. Other fungi such as the bird's nest fungus (Cyathus sp.) use water. As the name suggests, the fruiting body of this fungus looks remarkably like a bird's nest. It is made up of a small cup inside which nestles a few egg-like peridioles. These egg-like peridioles are actually small capsules with spring-like threads attaching them to the cup. If a raindrop falls into the cup, the droplets are delected such that the capsule is detached from the cap and projected up to two metres in the air. With the help of their threads, the capsules attach themselves to a leaf or a twig and release the spores when the conditions are right. Puballs produce a powdery mass of spores inside a ball-shaped structure. At irst the interior is solid but at maturity it is illed with the powdery spore mass. When raindrops fall on the puball, the pressure on the surface pushes spores through the stoma (a small apical opening). Insects are also used by some fungi for dispersal of spores. The fungi produce an odour that attracts various insects, thus efectively using them to disperse their spores, in a manner similar to lowers that use insects for carrying pollen. Top right: Bracket fungi release spores that are dispersed by wind currents; Middle right: Bird's nest fungus; Bottom right: Flies, probably spore dispersers, on a fungus 5 i n t e R e s t i n g fa C t s interactions with other organisms Almost all organisms on earth interact with fungi in one way or another. Some are beneicial only to the fungus, some beneit both the organisms, and some are detrimental to the fungus. Mutualistic relationships between fungi and ants have been well documented. The leafcutter ants of South America–belonging to two genera Atta and Acromyrmex–are well known as ants that farm fungi. They actively cultivate fungi by feeding it plant material and keeping it free of pests and other moulds. In return, the fungi provide the ant larvae with nutrition. Diferent species of ants cultivate diferent species of fungi all belonging to the Family Lepiotaceae. Symbiotic relationships between fungi and the roots of trees are called mycorrhizal associations. These occur in most plant species and it greatly improves the absorption capacity of the roots; in return, the fungi gain access to carbohydrates. fairy ring A naturally occuring ring of mushrooms which can be up to ten metres in diameter is a fairy ring. It can be found in the forest loor or in grasslands. The ring-like shape is a result of even growth of fungi hyphae in the soil outwards from initial germination of a spore There are several myths surrounding fairy rings. In western Europe, it was popularly believed that fairy rings were caused by elves and fairies dancing, and tragedies would befall any person who entered this ring. Top: Leafcutter ants carrying leaves to cultivate their fungus; Middle: Lepiotaceae, commonly cultivated by ants; Bottom: Mushrooms forming a fairy ring 6 f i e l d i d e n t i f i C at i O n The study of fungi is called mycology. Field identiication of macrofungi is based on the fruiting body. Although fungi are around at all seasons, the monsoon is the best time to look for fungi. Careful observation of fruiting body, the form of the under surface, the gill attachment and the spore deposit colour are essential for ield identiication, at least to the level of the genus. The fruiting bodies can be of diferent colours, shapes, and sizes. It is important to note the size, the colour, the texture, and the smell of the fruiting body. The under surface of the cap can have gills, spines, or pores. It is important to note the spacing of the gills or the size and shape of the pores. The colour of the under surface must also be noted. Note that the attachment of the gills to the stem can be of various kinds such as extending on to the stem, attached to a collar, or separated from the stem. Photos highlighting various features to take note of while identifying fungi 7 CaP and steM fungi Commonly called mushrooms, these fungi have soft, leshy caps with more-or-less central stems. The fruiting body appears only for a short period of time while the fungal body lives within the substrate permanently. The spores are produced on the underside of the cap on gills, spines, or pores. Amanita This genus contains more than 900 species and includes some of the most toxic mushrooms known, as they contain alpha-amanitin, a highly potent toxin. Amanita species are recognised by their pale gills that are usually free from the stem. A universal veil is present, which is a tissue enclosing the button mushroom, protecting the immature mushroom. As the mushroom matures, this veil ruptures and is left on the mushroom cap as warts or or on the base of the stem as a cup-shaped volva. A partial veil may also be present, leaving a ring on the stem. Some Amanita species develop a reddish or brownish discolouration as they age or if they are injured. The cap margin may be lined with prominent striations. Facing page: Proile of Amanita; Top: Upper surface of Amanita 9 Agaricus These mushrooms are terrestrial saprotrophes and have caps which are not brightly coloured. At maturity the gills are free or almost free from the stem and are varying shades of brown. The Agaricus have a partial veil that forms a ring on the stem. Many commonly cultivated mushrooms belong to this genus. They have pure white or whitish lesh that can stain red or yellow on bruising. The cap and stem is mostly white. Agaricus is found growing on the ground, on wood chips or other organic debris. This is an extremely large and complex genus. Right: Agaricus with the annulus on the stem Left: Cap of Agaricus 10 Panaeolina These are saprotrophes and decompose grass litter, forest litter, or dung. Species of this genus are identiied by their small size and conical or bell-shaped caps that are greyish, brownish, or blackish in colour. They have thin fragile stems. The cap is egg-shaped on young specimens. As the mushroom matures, the gills range from grey to black and are often mottled when mature. They are commonly found growing in elephant dung, especially after some rains. Top: Panaeolina growing from elephant dung Bottom: Colour variations of Panaeolina 11 Coprinus These are saprotrophes, decomposing wood, dung, and forest litter. Their spores, when dissolved, form a black, inky substance that can be used as writing ink. Hence, their common name–ink cap fungus. The gills start dissolving from the margin inwards and the spores are shot into the air just before the dissolving process reaches the point in the gills where the spores are produced. The gills are usually very crowded and are attached to a ‘wheel’ before being attached to the stem. The more-or-less oval caps of young mushrooms start to latten as they grow older. A ring is present on the stem. The genus Leucocoprinus looks very similar to Coprinus, but has white gills that do not become inky. Top left: Coprinus growing in a cluster; Bottom left: spores forming inky substance on underside; Top right: Upper surface of Leucocoprinus; Bottom right: Under surface of Leucocoprinus 12 Gymnopilus This mushroom is typically orange to rusty brown, often with a well-developed veil. They produce a large amount of orange to rustybrown spores. The cap is convex when young and as it matures, it slowly becomes plane, and inally depressed at the centre. They are commonly found growing on wood. Top right: Upper surface of Gymnopilus; Top left: Close-up of the cap Bottom: Lower surface of Gymnopilus with gills 13 Macrolepiota The fruiting bodies of this species are big and leshy with squamules (minute scales) present on the cap. White- to cream-coloured gills with white spores are present on the lower surface. A prominent ring is present on the stem which is often movable. Sometimes, a cup-like volva is present at the base of the fruiting body. Macrolepiota, with squamules on the cap, growing on the forest loor 14 Galerina The species of this genus are often seen growing in clusters on wood. The cap may be coloured orange to rusty brown, which may fade with age. The cap margin is more-or-less wavy. They have a slender and brittle stem with a distinct ring on the stem below which the stem is ibrous. Top left: Galerina growing on dead wood; Top right: Close-up of Galerina cap; Bottom: Lower surface with the gills directly attached to the stem 15 Stropharia Stropharia are commonly seen in the tropics during the rainy season growing out of dung piles. They are known to occur in forests and grasslands, growing in the leaf litter. Certain Stropharia species have cells with inger-like projections called acanthocytes that have the capacity to kill free-moving nematodes. Once the nematode is killed, the fungus then feeds on it. Stropharia growing on elephant dung in a grassland 16 Filoboletus Filoboletus is a common saprotrophic mushroom with pores present on the underside. It is commonly found growing in the tropics. The caps are small and smooth with a tough rubbery texture. The caps appear regularly patterned with small circles due to the pores being visible through the cap tissue. Often seen growing in clusters, some species are bioluminescent. Top left: Upper surface of Filoboletus ; Top right: Lower surface of Filoboletus with pores Bottom left and right: Colour variations of Filoboletus 17 Boletus Boletes are leshy pore fungi that look like typical mushrooms but have pores instead of gills on the lower surface. Boletus is one of the common genera of boletes. Their caps have soft, irm lesh and solid stems. The lesh of some boletes changes colour to blue or red when exposed to the air such as when the fruiting body is cut in half. The veil may be present on the stem as a ring in the adult Boletus. All boletes form mutually beneicial associations with trees. Boletus with a leshy cap, growing on the forest loor 18 Omphalotus There are nine species known in this genus, which are fairly easy to identify. Most of them grow in clusters on wood. The cap is strongly depressed and funnel-like. The gills extend onto the stem. Omphalotus species are bioluminescent, producing a greenish light that is suicient to read with at night. Omphalotus is poisonous and care should be taken to distinguish it from the similar-looking Pleurotus. Top: White Omphalotus growing on a fallen log and view of underside (inset) Bottom: Orange Omphalotus growing on a log and view of underside (inset) 19 Microporus This is one of the most common fungi found in the Asian, African, and Australian tropics. The fruiting body is circular with a centrally- or laterally-located stalk. The stalk often has an expanded foot at the base. The cap is rounded and depressed or lat with characteristic zones. Very small, white- to cream-coloured, rounded pores (5 – 10 per mm) are present on the under surface. The surface of the fruiting body is very tough. They are adapted to resist drought as they have modiied spores that withstand desiccation. They are commonly found growing on dead wood. Top right: Upper surface of Microporus with zones; Top left: Microporus with a stem that is funnelshaped at the base; Bottom: Microscopic pores of Microporus 20 Marasmius These mushrooms have a tough, leathery texture, with a characteristically long, thin stem. The cap is radially wrinkled and variously coloured with broadly-spaced gills. In most species, the gills are attached to a ‘wheel’ or collar rather than the top of the stem. The cap has distinct radial grooves sometimes with a dark navel present in the centre. They are commonly found growing on the leaf litter and on tree trunks. Left: Marasmius with thin, long stems (picture from Australia); Top and Bottom right: Marasmius growing on a fallen log 21 Hygrocybe These fungi have convex to conical, slimy or dry, brightly-coloured caps. The caps may be reddish, yellow, or greenish in colour and shiny. The caps maybe waxy and translucent and this feature is particularly evident in the gills which are relatively thick and widely spaced. In most, the stems are also brightly coloured. Top: Hygrocybe growing on the forest loor Bottom: Waxy caps of a possible Hygrocybe; Facing page: Omphalotus 22 The three major ways of making a living in our world are well represented by plants (production), fungi (reduction), and animals (consumption). ~ Stephen Jay Gould, Ever Since Darwin j e l ly f u n g i The fruiting bodies of this group have a consistency of jelly, hence their common name. The fruiting bodies become shriveled when dried but when rehydrated, they regain their former consistency. They have no stem, gills, pores, or spines. They belong to three orders: Tremellales, Auriculariales, and Dacrymycetales. Auricularia Commonly called jelly ear, Auricularia are saprotrophes that grow on dead and decaying wood. The fruiting body is usually reddish brown in colour with a gelatinous texture. It is wavy and irregular with velvety, ine hairs on the upper surface of the cap. Top left and right: Upper surface of fruiting body; Mid left: Under surface; Bottom left: Auricularia on dead wood; Bottom right: The lower surface of Auricularia with irregular projections 25 Tremella All Tremella are parasitic on other fungi, particularly on fungi that grow on wood. The fruiting body is gelatinous. It may be small and cushion-shaped or large and variously lobed. Brain-like Tremella with variously-lobed fruiting body, growing on wood 26 Calocera This fungus has brightly coloured, jelly-like, conical to club-shaped fruiting bodies. They maybe be erect or branched and attached to a common base. They are commonly found on damp, decaying wood. Jelly-like fruiting bodies of Calocera growing on damp wood 27 Dacrymyces The gelatinous-textured fruiting body is brightly coloured, ranging from yellow to orange. It is a saprophyte usually growing on wet and decaying wood. Dacrymyces photographed on moist surfaces Facing page: Bird's nest fungus 28 If you can approach the world’s complexities, both its glories and its horrors, with an attitude of humble curiosity, acknowledging that however deeply you have seen, you have only scratched the surface, you will ind worlds within worlds, beauties you could not heretofore imagine, and your own mundane preoccupations will shrink to proper size, not all that important in the greater scheme of things. ~ Daniel C. Dennett Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon CO R a l a n d C lu b f u n g i This group of fungi have either single, club-shaped or branched fruiting bodies that make them look like underwater corals. They lack gills, pores, or spines, and bear their spores on the sides of the club. 30 Xylaria The club fungi of this genus are saprotrophes that grow on fallen logs. The fruiting body is clubshaped and black in colour. However, when young it is pale, with a whitish tip. These are commonly called dead man's ingers. Top: Xylaria on wood; Bottom left to right: Young Xylaria with white tips, close-up of club-shaped Xylaria, thinner and longer Xylaria; Facing page: Clavaroid fungus 31 Clavaroid fungi The fruiting bodies of these fungi are club-shaped or extensively branched, resembling underwater corals. Spores are present on the sides of the clubs. They are found growing on the ground or on decaying wood. One of the larger genera of coral fungi is Calvaria, and hence this group is also called clavarioid fungi. Other genera are Clavulina and Ramaria, which also has numerous species. The spore deposit (seen when fruiting bodies are placed on paper and left overnight) is whitish in Clavaria and Clavulina, but ochre brown in Ramaria. Some of the clavaroid fungi are brilliantly coloured, like Clavaria zollingeri that is a beautiful purple. Top: Clavaroid fungi with few branches Bottom: Extensively-branched clavaroid fungi 32 Clavaroid fungi Top: Clavaroid fungi of diferent colours and types of branching Bottom: Supericially like a clavaroid but this is possibly a Cordyceps 33 shelf and bRaCket fungi These grow on dead or living wood. Some may have a rudimentary stem, but all are attached to the wood from one side of the fruiting body. These fungi may grow singly or in tiers. Shelf fungi are very thin, whereas brackets are thicker. The underside may be smooth, or have gills or pores The fruiting body is perennial with a new layer of spores forming on the old layer. 34 Laetiporus These bracket fungi are bright yellow when fresh and form tiered clusters of fan-shaped fruiting bodies. There are pores on the underside of the cap. Commonly called chicken of the woods, they are found growing on living as well as dead trees. Facing page: A bracket fungus releasing spores at night; Top: Chicken of the woods growing on a tree 35 Bjerkandera Often found spreading over fallen logs, Bjerkandera species produce small, irregular brackets with blunt, rounded margins. The upper surface is brown with concentric zones, and the underside has pores. Bjerkandera is similar to Trametes, but has gray pores. Diferent species of Bjerkandera growing on fallen logs 36 Trametes Commonly called turkey tail, the species of this genus are the most common wood-rotting fungi. The fan-shaped, semi-circular brackets are fused with their neighbours to form long stripes or shelves. The upper surface is concentrically zoned in shades of black, brown, grey, purplish, or yellow. The underside is pale cream with ine pores. Top right: White lower surface of Trametes; Top left: Upper surface of Trametes Bottom: Trametes growing at the base of a tree 37 Pycnoporus These bracket fungi are easily recognised by the bright reddish-orange colour of their fruiting bodies. They have a leathery texture that becomes corky when dried. The upper surface of the young fruiting body is covered in ine hairs, but these fall of as it matures and the surface becomes slightly wrinkled. They have circular or angular pores (approximately 2 – 3 per mm) on the under surface. They are found growing on dead wood. Pycnoporus is used medicinally by a number of Australian Aborigines. There have been two antibiotic compounds isolated from Pycnoporus coccineus. Right: Red brackets of Pycnoporus seen growing on a log; Top left: Orange-red upper surface of Pycnoporus; Bottom left: The lower surface with tiny pores 38 Hexagonia This genus contains 16 species and has a widespread distribution in the tropics. The basidiocarps are sessile and annual to perennial. They have a corky to woody texture. The upper surface is smooth, sometimes with dense long hairs. The lower surface has characteristically angular and large pores. Top and bottom right: Upper surface of Hexagonia Top and bottom left: Under surface of Hexagonia with angular and large pores 39 Stereum These species are like thin bracket fungi. The upper surfaces are elongated, irregular thin brackets that are brown in colour. The underside is smooth and yellow to orange in colour. Top right and left: Upper surface of Stereum; Middle right: Stereum seen growing in groups on wood Bottom left and bottom right: Under surface with microscopic pores 40 Fomitopsis These bracket fungi have hard, tough caps that are whitish to bright coloured. Some of the older specimens may be hoof shaped. They are found growing on living and dead trees and cause a brown cubical wood rot. Top left: Upper surface of Fomitopsis; Top right: Lower surface of Fomitopsis Bottom: Close-up of Fomitopsis 41 Pleurotus Commonly called oyster mushrooms, species of this genus grow on wood. They have gills present on their lower surface and typically form semi-circular caps. They are either attached directly to the wood or with a rudimentary lateral stem. Pleurotus species growing on a tree trunk 42 Pleurocybella Commonly called angel’s wings, these fungi are saprotrophes found growing solitarily or as overlapping clusters on decaying wood. The fruiting body is 5 – 10 cm in diameter, convex, and shaped like a shell, petal, or fan. It is white and the margin is rolled inward at irst. The white or cream gills radiate outward from the stub-like point of attachment. They are long, narrow, and crowded. This species is very similar to Pleurotus, but Pleurotus has thicker lesh. Top: Upper surface of Pleurocybella Bottom: Lower surface of the Pleurocybella showing gills 43 Schizophyllum Schizophyllum is a bracket fungi with prominent gills, and not pores. There are several species in this genus. They commonly occur as a weak parasite or as a saprophyte on wood. The gills of Schizophyllum are made up of two lat plates that curl away from each other, which is diferent from the gills of all other fungi. The fruiting body is greyish, lat, and fan-shaped. Top: The upper surface of Schizophyllum with minute hairs; Bottom: Lower surface showing gills; Facing page: A species of Schizophyllum growing on dead wood 44 ...mycelium is the neurological network of nature. Interlacing mosaics of mycelium infuse habitats with information-sharing membranes. These membranes are aware, react to change, and collectively have the long-term health of the host environment in mind. The mycelium stays in constant molecular communication with its environment, devising diverse enzymatic and chemical responses to complex challenges. ~ Paul Stamets, Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World OtheR fungi Among the other fungi are included a huge variety of fruiting bodies of various shapes— ranging from cup-like or trumpet-shaped to ball-shaped. Nearly all of them lack gills, pores, or spines. Their colours, sizes, methods of survival and spore dispersal, are all very varied. Phallus Commonly called stinkhorns, these fungi are known for their particularly foul odour. The odour attracts many insects that help in dispersing the spores. It is interesting that mosquitoes feeding on this fungus die, suggesting the fungus has compounds that can be used as bio-control agents. Some species of Phallus have a prominent orange or white veil. It is saprophytic and seen growing alone or in small clusters. Facing page: Calyptella, downward-facing, trumpet-shaped fungi growing on dead wood; Top: Phallus multicolor, commonly called ‘veil on a penis’ 47 Phillipsia These fungi have brightly coloured, cup-shaped fruiting bodies. These are saprotrophic, commonly found growing on wood and in the forest litter. They are much larger than most other cup fungi. Top left: Upper surface of Phillipsia; Top right: Lower surface of Phillipsia Bottom: Phillipsia growing on wood 48 Puballs Puballs are fungi which produce spores in a powdery mass inside a spherical or tuberoid fruiting body. When the fungus matures, spores are released through an apical opening, or the whole fruiting body splits open. Spores are dispersed when water drops fall on the puball, causing pufs of spores to be released. Common genera of puballs include Calvatia and Lycoperdon. The size of the puball is variable, from less than a centimetre up to 50 cm. They are found growing in the leaf litter, on decaying wood, and on the ground. Top: Puball releasing it’s spores through an apical opening (photographed in Arunachal Pradesh) Bottom left: Puball growing on a tree; Bottom right: Puball growing in leaf litter 49 Peziza Peziza species are cup fungi that grow on wood or leaf litter and sometimes on dung. The fruiting body is cup-shaped and usually coloured grey, violet or brown. Peziza growing on dung 50 Cookeina Species of this genus commonly grow on fallen branches or on fruits in tropical and sub-tropical regions. They have cup-shaped to funnel shaped fruiting bodies that are bright yellow to red due to carotenoid pigments. Hairs may be present on the outer surface of the fruiting body. The spore-producing tissue lines the cups. Cookeina on a fallen tree trunk 51 Calyptella This genus, with twenty known species has a widespread distribution. They are small, white to yellow, bell-shaped fungi that have a smooth outer surface. They are found growing on herbs and wood, especially at the base of thick stems. Top: Fruiting body of Calyptella Bottom: A cluster of Calyptella growing on a log 52 Cordyceps These fungi are club-shaped with long stems. They are parasites infecting the body of insects and other arthropods. They are capable of penetrating the brain and altering the the behaviour of the host animal they parasitise, making the animal act in a way that is favourable to the propagation of the fungi. Cordyceps growing out of an insect; Overleaf: Omphalotus, a species of luminous, cap and stem fungi 53 I see mycelium as the Earth’s natural Internet, a consciousness with which we might be able to communicate. Through cross-species interfacing, we may one day exchange information with these sentient cellular networks. Because these externalized neurological nets sense any impression upon them, from footsteps to falling tree branches, they could relay enormous amounts of data regarding the movements of all organisms through the landscape. ~ Paul Stamets, Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World RefeRenCes Books Butler EJ, and Bisby RG (1931) The Fungi of India. Scientiic Monograph 1. The Imperial Council of Agricultural Research i-xviii, 1-237. <http://www.cybertrule.org.uk/cyberliber/60984/index.htm> Evans S, and Kibby G (2004) Fungi. Dorling Kindersley Limited, London. Koon TT (1990) A Guide to Tropical Fungi. Singapore Science Centre, Singapore. Læssøe T (1998) Mushrooms. Dorling Kindersley Limited, London. Largent DL (1977) How to identify mushrooms to Genus I: Macroscopic Features. Mad River Press, Eureka California. Mueller GM, Bills GF, and Foster MS (2004). Biodiversity of fungi: Inventory and Monitoring Methods. Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam. Natarajan K and Raman N (1983) South Indian Agaricales. Strauss and Cramer GmbH, Germany. Stamets P (2005) Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Save the World. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, California. Articles Buyck B, Læssøe T, Meyer M, and Hofstetter V (2010) Collecting the forgotten kingdom: Guidelines for the ield mycologist with emphasis on the larger fungi. In Eymann J. et al. (editors) Manual on Field Recording Techniques and Protocols for All Taxa Biodiversity Inventories. ABC Taxa Volume 8: 308 – 330. Hughes DP, Andersen SB, Hywel-Jones NL, Himaman W, Billen J, and Boomsma JJ (2011) Behavioral mechanisms and morphological symptoms of zombie ants dying from fungal infection. BMC Ecology 11:13 Luo H, Li X, Pan YB, Li GH, and Zhang KQ (2006) Acanthocytes of Stropharia rugosoannulata function as a nematode-attacking device. Applied Environmental Biology 72: 2982 – 2987. Manoharachary C, Sridhar K, Singh R, Adholeya A, Suryanarayanan TS, Rawat S, and Johri BN (2005) Fungal biodiversity: Distribution, conservation and prospecting of fungi from India. Current Science 89: 58 – 71. Natarajan K, Narayanan K, Ravindran C, and Kumaresan V (2005) Biodiversity of agarics from Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Western Ghats, India. Current Science 88: 1890 – 1893. Sawant P (2000) The hidden world of mushrooms. Hornbill April – June: 4 – 8. Swapna S, Abrar S, and Krishnappa M (2008) Diversity of macrofungi in semi-evergreen and moist deciduous forest of Shimoga District-Karnataka, India. Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology 38: 21 – 26. Websites Australian National Botanic Gardens <http://www.anbg.gov.au/fungi/aboriginal.html> Cornell Mushroom Blog <http://blog.mycology.cornell.edu/> Michael Kuo’s Mushroom Expert <http://www.mushroomexpert.com> Mushroom: the journal of wild mushrooming <http://www.mushroomthejournal.com> MycoBank <http://www.mycobank.com> MycoKey <http://www.mycokey.com> Roger’s Mushrooms <http://www.rogersmushrooms.com> The Mushroom Observer <http://www.mushroomobserver.org> Tom Volk’s Fungi <http://www.botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/ > Tree of Life Web Project, Fungi < http://tolweb.org/Fungi/2377 > 55 index 10 Agaricus 9 Amanita 50 Ascobolus 25 Auricularia Bird’s nest fungi 5,29 36 Bjerkandera 18 Boletus 27 Calocera 46,52 Calyptella Clavaroid fungi 30,32-3 12 Coprinus 51 Cookeina 33,53 Cordyceps 28 Dacrymyces Filoboletus Fomitopsis Galerina Gymnopilus Hexagonia Hygrocybe Laetiporus Leucocoprinus Macrolepiota Marasmius Microporus Mycena Omphalotus Panaeolina 17 41 15 13 39 22 35 12 14 21 20 1 19,23,53 11 Peziza Phallus Phillipsia Pleurocybella Pleurotus Puf balls Pycnoporus Schizophyllum Stereum Stropharia Trametes Tremella Xylaria 50 47 48 43 19,42-3 49 38 44 40 16 36-7 26 31 Photo Credits Chengappa S. K.: facing page 1; Dilan Mandanna: 52t Divya Mudappa: 16t; 16b; 19b; 19b (inset); 23; 25tl; 25tr; 25ml; 28tl; 33tr; 35; 38tl; 38bl; 38bl (inset); 38r; 39tr; 39tl; 42; 44t; 44b; 45; 48tl; 49br;51; 53; 54 Hari Krishnan: 3tr; 8; 9; 12bl; 14; 21tr; 21br; 24; 27t; 27b; 49bl Kalyan Varma: front cover; 5tr; 25br; 34; 47; 49t; back cover Nisarg Prakash: 22b; 12tr P. Jeganathan: 3tl; 5br; 10r; 10l; 11t; 11r-l; 12tl; 12br; 13tr; 13b; 13tl; 15tr; 15tl; 15b; 17tl; 17tr; 17bl; 17br; 18; 20tl; 20tr; 20b; 22tl; 25bl; 26; 28b; 28tr; 30; 31t; 31bm; 32t; 32b; 33b; 36tl; 36tr; 36b; 37tl; 37tr; 37b; 39br; 39bl; 40tl; 40bl; 40tr; 40mr; 40br; 41tl; 41tr; 43t; 43bl; 43br; 46; 48tr; 48b; 52b Ranjini Murali: 33tl; 41b Robin Abraham: 5mr; 29 Sajid Ansari: 22tr; 50 Saleem Hameed:19t; 19t (inset) Swati Sidhu: 3b; 31bl; 31br Wikimedia under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0: Debivort, January 2006: 2b; Bandwagonman, January 2008: 6tr; Ervinpospisil, November, 2006: 6mr; Aviddoghug: 6br; Steve Axford: 21bl; Walter Siegmund: 28tr; Modiied from M.violante, 24 May 2006: 2tl, 4 Page 7(l-r): Row 1: P. Jeganathan; H. Krishnan; D. Mudappa; D. Mandanna; Row 2: P. Jeganathan; P. Jeganathan; S. Ansari; K. Varma; P. Jeganathan; Row 3: P. Jeganathan; D. Mudappa; D. Mudappa; P. Jeganathan; Row 4: D. Mudappa; P. Jeganathan; P. Jeganathan; H. Krishnan t—top; tr—top right; tl—top left; m—middle; mr—middle right; ml—middle left; b— bottom; br—bottom right; bl—bottom left; r—right; l—left 56 nature conservation foundation 3076/5, iv cross, gokulam park, mysore 570002, india +91 821 2515601 www.conservation.in