Patterns of Lexical Collocation in Arabic

Patterns of Lexical Collocations in Arabic* Sattar Izwaini American University of Sharjah sizwaini@aus.edu Abstract Collocation is the habitual co-occurrence of words and a manifestation of the idiomatic usage of the language. Lexical collocations are the frequent combination of content words in comparison to the association with grammatical words. Arabic has a wealth of lexical collocations that merits attention and research. This paper investigates Arabic collocations and provides an account of their patterns. It proposes a typology of lexical collocations in Arabic, and discusses their types, structures and restrictions. Issues such as semantic and syntactic features of collocations as well as register will be touched upon. Grammatical collocation, i.e. the association with prepositions and particles, will be addressed only in relation to the main topic of lexical collocation. Corpora of Arabic were used to detect and verify occurrences of collocations. Key words: Arabic, lexical collocation, semantic prosody. 1. Introduction The term collocation, as understood today, was introduced by John R. Firth in the early nineteen-fifties in his theory of meaning and has ever since been associated with him. It has been further elaborated and refined by his followers such as HALLIDAY (1966), MITCHELL (1975), and SINCLAIR (1966). FIRTH introduced collocation as one mode of meaning in a paper with the same title published in 1951 (see FIRTH, 1957; PALMER, 6 . He referred to a level of analysis that is intermediate between the situational and the grammatical and suggested tackling that aspect of the meaning of lexemes which depends upon the tendency of words to combine together (LYONS, 1977: 612). Firth also introduced colligation to refer to a grammatical level of meaning, in contrast to collocation as a lexical level. Colligation is concerned with co-occurrence and interrelation of grammatical categories in syntactic structures (PALMER, 1968: 175ff). It refers to whether or not grammatical classes co-occur, whereas collocation refers to tendencies in lexical co-occurrence. Collocation is the habitual co-occurrence of words within their immediate environment. Lexical items associate with other lexical items in regular patterns (CRYSTAL and DAVY, 1969: 56). Collocational patterns are established in the language and constitute a vital part of the repertoire of the native speaker. According to SINCLAIR (1991: 170), collocation is the occurrence of two or more words within a short space of each other in a text . There is a special and often arbitrary bond between the lexical items that collocate with each other. Lexical items attract each other within different ranges, not according to rules but rather to tendencies. A collocation consists of a node and collocates. The node is the word that is being studied and the words that co-occur with it are collocates. In other words, the node is the lexical item whose collocational pattern is under investigation, and collocates are those items that appear in its environment. In terms of components, collocation can be of two types, lexical collocation and grammatical collocation. The former is the co-occurrence of content words (nouns, verbs etc.); the latter involves function words such as prepositions, e.g. istarsala fī ‫( س رسي في‬to dilate) and istarsala ilā ‫( س رسي لي‬to feel comfortable/relaxed with someone).1 More attention should be given to lexical collocations because grammatical collocation has received its fair share of emphasis in the work of grammarians and lexicographers ABU-SSAYDEH, 1991: 66). This article investigates collocation in Arabic and proposes a typology of lexical collocations in Arabic. It provides an account of their patterns, and discusses their types, structures, and restrictions. Other issues such as semantic and syntactic features as well as register will also be touched upon. Grammatical collocation will be addressed only in relation to the main discussion of lexical collocation. Examples have been collected from a variety of sources, but the main source to detect and verify them has been corpora of Arabic. The ArabiCorpus (173 million words) and Oxford Arabic Corpus (800 million words) were used. Collocations as well as individual words have been traced and their collocation patterns investigated using these two corpora. Dictionaries of Arabic such as lisān al-Carab (IBN MANẒŪR, 1999) and fiqh al-luġah (Al-ṮACĀLIBIY, 1996) were also referred to. 1 The case marker ( ‫ ) لحركي اعر بيي‬is not represented in the transliterated form of the majority of examples, especially individual words and at a pause position, except for adverbs and indefinite nouns in object position. -------------------------------------------------------------1 * This is the final pre-publication version of the paper published in Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik, 2015, 61, pp 72-100. © All rights reserved. 2. Collocation in Arabic Language use is subject to two principles, idiomatic principle and open use principle (SINCLAIR, 1987). The open choice principle suggests that texts are a result of a wide range of choices. Whenever a unit is completed … a large range of choice opens up, and the only restraint is grammaticalness (ibid: 319-320). According to the idiom principle, texts are not randomly constructed of words. A language user , Sinclair wrote, has available to him or her a large number of pre-constructed phrases that constitute single choices, even though they might appear to be analysable into segments ibid: . The way in which words in Arabic accompany each other ranges from idioms and fixed expressions, to free collocations. They are attached to each other along a continuum, with idioms at one end, and open variation at the other. It is probably beneficial to draw some lines between collocation on one hand, and idioms and fixed expressions on the other. The common feature of these is idiomaticity. All three categories (collocation, idioms and fixed expressions) fall within the idiom principle, but their structure, behaviour and use are different. At the same time the elements of these categories are in a relation of collocability with each other in a varying degree of rigidity and flexibility. Fixed expressions are those established and rooted formulations that are used in different ‫( تق ليا خيلل‬accept absolute contexts for a variety of purposes, for example taqabal” āliṣa al-taqdīr ‫ل قييرر‬ appreciation),2 fī al-ḥaqīqa wa al-wāqiC (in fact and reality), ‫ف ي لحقيق ي لا ق ي‬, and Calā sabīl al-miṯāl ‫عل ي س ي ي ل ييل‬. Idioms are expressions whose meaning cannot be inferred from the total sum of the meanings of the constituent elements, for example, tarak al-ḥabl Calā al-ġārib ‫( تير لح ي علي لغيلب‬to leave the cord at liberty), and d”nahu arṭ al-qatād ‫( ني خير لق يل‬impossibly attainable). Collocation, on the other hand, is the frequent association of words. Generally speaking, they tend to be of diverse and changeable constituents, for example having doubts can be expressed in Arabic by the collocation of the noun šuC”r ‫ شيواب‬and the verb rāwada ‫ ب‬where the noun can also associate with a different verb, e.g. intāba ‫ ن يل‬, tamallaka ‫ت لي‬, sāwara ‫سيل ب‬, ālağa ‫ خيلل‬and āmara ‫ خيلرر‬to denote the same meaning (See Collocational Meaning below). Collocation is a principle of organization in language, thought to be universal as a principle but language specific in its realization (AISENSTADT, 1979: 71). It has attracted the attention of scholars of Arabic in old and modern times. The phenomenon was identified and highlighted by linguists and rhetoricians as early as the 9th century. Scholars such as AL-JĀḤIẒ (775-868 AD), AL-JURJĀNIY (10101078 AD), and Al-SAKKĀKIY (1159-1229 AD) paid some attention to lexical collocation, but they did not elaborate further on it. Dictionaries of lexical collocations were also compiled by lexicographers such as Ibn Al-SIKKĪT (9th century), Al-HAMAḎĀNIY (10th century), Al-ṮACĀLIBIY (10th-11th century), and IBN SĪDAH (11th century). More recently, Al-YĀZIJIY (1904/1985) wrote a dictionary of phraseology, a large portion of which includes collocations. Modern collocation dictionaries have also been compiled, for example a monolingual dictionary of sounds (ḎYĀB, 1996), AL-ḤĀFIẒ Arabic-English collocation dictionary (ḤĀFIẒ, 2004), and the English-Arabic Dar El-Ilm s Dictionary of Collocations (GHAZALA, 2007). In modern times, collocation in Arabic has been examined and discussed, and more elaborate classifications have been presented (see AL-RAWI, 2001 and EL-GEMEI, 2006). Studies on collocation were conducted within lexicography (ABU-SSAYDDEH 1991, 1995; HOOGLAND, 1993), or translation studies (EMERY, 1987; AL-RAWI, 2001; BAHUMAID, 2006). EMERY (1991) followed COWEI s typology (1981) to include collocations along with idioms under composite unit . AL-RAWI (2001) provides a typology based on word class and syntactic configuration to be a basis for translation procedures. The typology, however, misses some types that are worth investigating such as a transitive verb with its object noun. H̱OJALIY (n.d.) discusses both Arabic and English collocations with reference to translation. GHAZALA (2004) provides a detailed categorization of Arabic lexical collocation within a stylistic framework along with translation procedures. The categories he proposes somehow overlap, and the examples provided include many idioms, sayings and fixed expressions that can hardly be considered collocations. GRIMM (2009) proposes Arabic-driven taxonomy of collocations by categorizing them into groups and subgroups depending on their constituent elements and semantic profile. Although it is the most up-to-date, her categorization, however, is not comprehensive and somewhat confusing due to overlapping of categories, the numbering system used, and some incorrect representation. For example, there is confusion between adverb of manner (ḥāl) and absolute adverb (mafC”l muṭlaq), as the latter is included within the former in one category and designated as such (see examples cited on pages 25, 30, and 33). 2 The translations provided throughout the paper are meant to be as literal as possible to reflect the original elements and structure. Some idiomatic and correct translations are abandoned here for this particular purpose. For the translation of Arabic collocations, see IZWAINI (in press). -------------------------------------------------------------2 * This is the final pre-publication version of the paper published in Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik, 2015, 61, pp 72-100. © All rights reserved. 2.1. Collocational Restrictions There are two kinds of restrictions that play a role in semantically well-formed utterances: selectional restrictions and collocational restrictions (see CRUSE, 1986: 278-279). The former deals with real world knowledge, i.e. the logical relations between lexemes. Selectional restrictions determine the semantic well-formedness or ill-formedness of a sentence like akala al-Caṣīr ‫( أكي َ لو يير‬to eat juice). Collocational restrictions are the lexical preferences that include or exclude the possibility of matching words in variable strings. They are arbitrary limitations on the scope of collocability due to different reasons, among which, for example, is the question of whether the subject is human. When the verb is tuwuffiya ‫( تياف‬to pass away), the collocate has to be a human being.3 Collocational restrictions can be described in terms of tendencies rather than rules (HAAS quoted in PALMER, 1981: 134). There is no rule that is followed in establishing collocations. The only rule, which is arbitrary in nature, is that there are constraints that allow or discourage a native speaker from using particular word combinations. CRUSE (1986: 279) defines collocational restrictions as arbitrary co-occurrence restrictions that are irrelevant to truth-conditions . One manifestation of applying collocational restrictions is that a lexical item sometimes cannot be selected in a lexical combination in which its synonym or near-synonym is normally used as a collocate, e.g. the verb amāṭa ‫ أريل‬collocates with liṯām ‫ل يل‬, but not with its synonym niqāb ‫ نقيل‬both roughly mean veil ). The noun niqāb, however, collocates with the verb kašafa ‫( كشف‬to uncover). Although both nouns are synonyms, they cannot be used interchangeably. It is collocational restrictions that determine the selection of collocates and lexical combinations, but they are not logically necessary for the makeup of an utterance. Differences in collocational restrictions account for differences in the distributions of completely synonymous words and are thus considered as a determining factor in positing two categories of total and complete synonymy (CRUSE, 1986: 292). There are two collocations in Arabic of the noun-noun category, namely ḥāris al-marmā ‫ حيلب ل رري‬and ḥāmiy al-hadaf ‫حيلر ل يي‬ (both mean goal keeper). They are similar in their distribution, but their constituents do not co-occur interchangeably, i.e. there are no combinations of ḥāmiy al-marmā or ḥāris al-hadaf as such in the Arabic corpora used for this study. 2.2. Collocational Range Individual words have a number of collocates with which they usually co-occur. A collocational range consists of the collocates of a given word (node). This range can be so restricted as to consist of only one word, for example the verb ṭa ṭa a ‫ أ يأ‬which collocates with ra s ‫ بأ‬only as its object, or so broad, e.g. the adjective ḥasan ‫ح يـن‬. The collocational range depends on the different meanings and senses of a word; the more generic a word is, the greater its collocational range would be. A word of many senses will collocate more widely than one with a restricted sense (BEEKMAN and CALLOW, 1974: 164). However, it can be argued, by contrast, that it is the collocational range, i.e. the different combinations in which a word is incorporated, that determines the kind and number of senses a word has. The range of collocations can be determined by a conceptual factor. For example, the collocational range of the verb sāwara ‫ سيل ب‬shows that it usually associates with words from the semantic field of feelings. Its subject collocates are qalaq ‫قلي‬, šakk ‫شي‬, šuC”r ‫شيواب‬, awf ‫خيا‬, iḥsās ‫ ح يل‬, ẓann ‫ ين‬, awhām ‫أ هل‬, hāğis ‫هلجس‬,4 and raġba ‫بغ‬. Another issue in collocability is whether the noun is singular or plural. In noun-adjective collocations, the frequency of singular versus plural seems different. For example, amal Carīḍ ‫أري عيرر‬ occurs only 18 times whereas its plural form āmāl Carīḍah ‫ آريل عررضي‬occurs 159 times. However, furṣa sāniḥa ‫ فرصي سيلنح‬is found to be used 1710 times while its plural form furaṣ sāniḥa ‫ فير سيلنح‬occurs only 107 times. Also, when it comes to number category, the collocational range seems not to be the same. One aspect of noun-noun collocations of the additive construct (muḍāf wa muḍāf ilayhi) is that the second noun (with or without the definite article) is usually, but not always, a plural or a generic noun, for ‫ لو ي‬and qāḏifa qanābil ‫قلذفي ق لبي‬. Hence the first noun tends not to have the instance luCba aṭfāl ‫يل‬ singular form (of the second noun) as a member of its collocational range, e.g. ḥarb Ciṣābāt ‫حير ع يلبل‬, ḥarb šawāriC ‫حر شا ب‬, and ḥarb al-mudun ‫حر ل ي‬. 2.3. Collocation Span Collocation is the appearance of words accompanying each other in different distances in a text. The span is the distance in terms of number of words between the constituents of a collocation. According to JONES The concept of death in the verb tuwuffiya, in comparison with māta ‫( رل‬to die), is of an Islamic profile and is very much culture-specific. The latter has a much wider collocational range. 4 The word generally means feeling but being associated with words such as awf (fear), qalaq (worry) and the like, it has acquired some sense of apprehension (see Semantic Prosody below). 3 -------------------------------------------------------------3 * This is the final pre-publication version of the paper published in Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik, 2015, 61, pp 72-100. © All rights reserved. and SINCLAIR, the span is a standard number of orthographic words, disregarding the grammatical structures of which they form a part (1974: 21). SINCLAIR suggests four words on each side of the node as a standard measurement of a span (1991: 170). On the other hand, MARTIN ET AL. (1983: 84) suggest five words on either side of the node. Some scholars adopt both measurements, structural units and number of words, to specify the span (Haskel, 1971; Smadja, 1993). In investigating collocational patterns, it is important to specify the span adopted to identify word combinations. Although collocation is the co-occurrence of lexical items in the immediate environment, there are cases where there is a rather long distance between a node and its collocate, for example collocations in sentences with adjectival predicates. A large number of sentences contain adjectives that function predicatively (Emery, 1988: 108). Such instances should be taken into consideration while accounting for collocational patterns. Let us consider the collocation īmān rāsi ‫ ر يل ب سي‬in the following examples extracted from Arabic corpora: (1) ‫ا ر زعز‬ ‫ر لحين بإي ا راسخ هل‬ mutasaliḥīn bi- īmān rāsi wa hādif lā yatazaCzaC (2) ‫إي ا شو ل راسخ ا ر زعز‬ īmān šaCbinā rāsi lā yatazaCzaC (3) ‫ها إي ا قيرم فيكم راسخ ا ر زعز‬ huwa īmān qadīm fīkum wa rāsi lā yatazaCzaC In example 1, the span is one, as the two words are adjacent and the collocate (the adjective) ‫ ب س‬rāsi occurs right after of the node (the noun) īmān ‫ ر ل‬in the slot (+1). In example 2, the span is two as there is one word between them and the collocate is in slot (+ 2). In example 3, the span is four (+ 4) since there are three words intervening between the node and collocate.5 2.4. Collocational Meaning Collocation has two aspects: the habitual co-occurrence of words, i.e. lexical attraction, and the collocational meaning. Collocational meaning is what the combination of the constituent elements acquire, or the meaning that one element gains owing to the association, whether in a variable or unique way. This kind of meaning is important in shaping the semantic profile of a string. The notion of collocation is very much related to the meaning of lexical items when they combine with each other. Collocational meaning is generated and interpreted with the help of both the lexical meaning of the collocation elements (node and collocate) and the whole meaning resulting from combining those elements. It is derived from two sources, the constituent elements and the collocation as a syntagmatic string, e.g. ibtisāma ṣafrā ‫ ب لر ص ر ء‬which suggests fakeness and insincerity. Lexical items usually gain their meanings from the word combinations they are involved in. For example the verb ḍaraba ‫ ضير‬acquires its meaning based on the word with which it co-occurs. In ḍaraba َ ‫ضر بج‬, the verb refers to actual hitting, whereas in ḍaraba maṯalan ‫لا‬ َ ‫ ضير ري‬or ḍaraba al-nuq”d rağulan ‫لا‬ ‫ضر ل قا‬, it refers to the event of citing (an example) and issuing (currency) respectively. Two points are worth noting here. Within one language community, marked or unusual collocations have special meanings which are different from, and can be or more expressive than established ones. Marked collocations reflect the stylistic features of a text. In some cases, they are used in jest or to communicate irony, e.g. šukran laḏīḏan ‫شيكرَا لذريذَا‬. This can even give rise to misinterpretation. In analyzing collocations it is essential to consider the meanings of all their parts (COWIE, 1981: 229). The interpretation of a word is guided by its collocational environment no matter how many meanings it has in the dictionary (SINCLAIR quoted in KENNY, 1999: 80). Many collocations are in fact metaphors that are no longer perceived as being such. One or both constituents of a collocation can be metaphorical, for example nağāḥ bāhir ‫نجيل بيلهر‬. The adjective bāhir is originally a standard collocate of ḍaw ‫ ضياء‬meaning bright light , (literally to have a blinding effect on the eyes ). In nağāḥ bāhir, the lexical meaning of the adjective is transferred to modify the noun figuratively. This figurative use of collocation is no longer recognized by the native speaker. Other examples of collocations where one element is figurative include: lāḏa bil-ṣamt ‫اذ بلل ي‬, abwāb al- amal ‫أبيا أري‬, alḏahab al- aswad ‫ لذهبَ أسا‬mutawaqid al-ḏihn ‫ر اقي لذهن‬, and Cāṣifa mina al-taṣfīq ‫علص رن ل ي‬. 2.4.1. Semantic Prosody Individual lexical items have certain connotations based on their collocational patterns, which usually contribute to collocational meaning. This is what is sometimes called semantic prosody. Semantic prosody is the aura of meaning LOUW, 1993: 157) a lexical item has. It radiates in the collocation. This is 5 If the adjective is the node (the lexical item examined), the span of its collocation with the noun would be (- 1), (-2) or (- 3) as the noun occurs before it with 1, 2 or 3 words in between. -------------------------------------------------------------4 * This is the final pre-publication version of the paper published in Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik, 2015, 61, pp 72-100. © All rights reserved. actually based on the meaning gained by the co-occurrence of a particular lexical item in a certain collocational environment, i.e. other collocations, as in the adjective laḏīḏ ‫ لذرييذ‬in the example above. Semantic prosodies reveal the meaning intended by the speaker/writer. The reciprocal semantic effect of the lexical items within a collocation shapes the final meaning of the collocation. The meaning communicated by some collocations depends to great extent on the constituting collocates. For instance, there are two verbs collocating with the noun furṣah ‫ فرص‬to express the idea of seizing an opportunity: (4) iġtanama al-furṣah ‫غ م ل رص‬ (5) intahaza al-furṣah ‫ن ز ل رص‬ The verb in (4), iġtanama, has a positive connotation, whereas the verb in (5) is derived from, and is indirectly related to intihāz ‫ ن ييل‬and intihāziyyah ‫( ن ل ري‬opportunism), which both have a negative connotation. Furthermore, some collocations appear to be synonymous, but they have different significance due to the difference in the meaning of one element, usually the collocate not the node, e.g. abdā ihtimāman ‫أبيي ه لريَل ا‬, and awlā ihtimāman ‫أ لي ه لريَل ا‬. The latter suggests that the subject of the sentence has authority. Semantic prosodies are helpful in drawing a detailed picture of collocational patterns and thus providing pragmatic information of a text. For example, in wazīr muzmin ‫ رر رزرن‬, the adjective muzmin (chronic) has a negative prosody due to its collocation with the noun maraḍ ‫رر‬. Al-ṮACĀLIBIY (1996: 352) states that the verb hāğa ‫ هل‬is used for evil only since it collocates with words such as šarr ‫شر‬, ḥarb ‫حر‬, and fitna ‫ف‬.6 A comparison between the collocational patterns of the two adjectives ḍalīC ‫ ضلي‬and ḍāliC ‫ضلل‬ clearly shows that the former has a positive prosody and the latter is negative one. They are involved with nouns in collocations of the pattern adjective + prep + noun (where the preposition is fī ‫ )ف‬as illustrated in Table 1 below. Table 1: Collocational patterns of ḍalīC ‫ ضلي‬and ḍāliC ‫ضلل‬ Node Collocates ḍalīC ‫ضلي‬ amṯāl ‫أر ل‬, ğuġrāfyā ‫جغر فيل‬, al-luġah ‫ للغ‬, al-Cul”m ‫ لولا‬, al-Carbiyyah ‫ لوربي‬, al-iqtiṣād ‫ اق ل‬, Cilm al-falak ‫علم ل ل‬, al-qan”n al-dust”riy ‫ لقلنا ليس ابي‬. ḍāliC ‫ضلل‬ iġtiyyāl ‫ غ يل‬, fasād ‫ف ل‬, irhāb ‫ بهل‬, ğarā im ‫جر ئم‬, qatl ‫ق‬, mu āmara ‫ر رر‬, tahrīb ‫ت ررب‬, mu adirāt ‫ر يب‬, tafğīr ‫ت جير‬. As shown above, collocates of ḍāliC have negative connotations, and using ḍalīC in association with them may express approval and admiration, e.g. ḍalīC fī al-tahrīb ‫( ضلي ف ل ررب‬expert in smuggling). Similarly, using ḍāliC in associations with collocates of ḍalīC, which have positive connotations, may express disapproval and disdain. In the following example taken from AL-KHALEEJ DAILY (1 May 2013), the positive semantic prosody of the verb ytamataC ‫( ر‬to enjoy/to have a merit) causes a collocational clash with the noun Cudwāniyyah ‫عي ني‬: (6) .‫ك ر ر لَف َرورك ل قلء‬ ‫ل ا عل أس ل‬ ‫بللوي ني قل ب عل‬ ‫ت‬ ‫أصغر حج َل ا ل‬ ‫ب س جيري أ أس ل‬ ‫أ ر‬ aẓharat dirāsa ğadīda anna al- asmāk al- aṣġar ḥağman allaty tatamataC bil-Cudwāniyya qādira Calā al-tafawuq Calā asmākin akbara minhā fī maCraka al-baqā 3. Patterns of Collocations This section will discuss the different patterns of Arabic lexical collocations in terms of types, structures, register, and relation to culture and foreign sources. 3.1 Collocation Types Here a typology of Arabic collocation is proposed. I will attempt to provide a detailed account of the collocational patterns. First, a general categorization of open, restricted and bound collocations is provided following AISENSTADT (1979) and COWIE (1978, 1981), then types of collocation will be given according to the word class of the nodes and collocates. Open collocations are lexical clusters whose constituent elements combine with a large number of other elements and collocate unrestrictedly with other lexical items, for example šay ğayid ‫شي ء جييي‬. Both words can co-occur with a wide range of words. Elements of open collocations are freely recombinable and each element is used in a common literal sense (COWIE ET AL., 1983: xiii). To demonstrate the idea 6 This is a semantically complex word. Here the translation attempts to give the original meaning. It has also acquired a second sense of seduction, charm, or enchantment. -------------------------------------------------------------5 * This is the final pre-publication version of the paper published in Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik, 2015, 61, pp 72-100. © All rights reserved. of free re-combination, below are examples of the collocational patterns of both elements of the verb-noun collocation ağrā itiṣālan ‫اا‬ َ ‫ جير ت يل‬. First, noun object collocates of the verb ağrā are given, and then verb collocates of the noun itiSāl, whether it functions as the subject or the object of the verb collocate. (7) ağrā ‫جر‬ (8) itiṣāl ‫ت ل‬ muḥadaṯāt ‫رحل ثل‬, itiṣālāt ‫ ت لا‬, ḥadīṯ ‫حيرث‬, Camaliya ‫ع لي‬, mufāwaḍāt ‫ر ل ضل‬, mušāwarāt ‫رشل ب‬, tafāwuḍ ‫ ت ل‬, taḥqīq ‫ تحقي‬, taCdīlat ‫تويرل‬, istiftā ‫ س لء‬, dirāsa ‫ ب س‬, mubaḥṯāt ‫ر لح ل‬, tağruba ‫تجرب‬, munāwarāt ‫ر ل ب‬, muqārana ‫رقلبن‬, ḥiwār ‫حا ب‬, taḥlīl ‫تحلي‬, istiṭlāC ‫ س ل‬, musābaqa ‫ر لبق‬. talaqqā ‫تلق‬, hāwala ‫حل‬, qaṭaCa ‫ق‬, inqaṭaCa ‫ نق‬, faqada ‫فقي‬, bada a ‫بيأ‬, Cāwada ‫عل‬, bādara ‫بل ب‬, amkana ‫أركن‬, ammana ‫أ ّرن‬, manaCa ‫ر‬, arāda ‫أب‬, aCāda ‫أعل‬, sahhala ‫س ّـ‬, taCaḏḏara ‫توذب‬, atāḥa ‫ تل‬, tasanā ‫ت‬. Restricted collocations are those word combinations whose constituents are restricted in their collocatibility. According to AISENSTADT (1979: 71), they follow certain structural patterns, and restricted in their commutability not only by grammatical and semantic valency … but also by usage . Below are two examples of restricted collocations. (9) (10) kaṯṯ ‫كث‬ urṣa (opportunity) ‫فرص‬ šaCr ‫شور‬, liḥya ‫لحي‬, šārib ‫شلب‬, hāğib ‫حلجب‬ manḥ ‫( ر ح‬granting), itāḥa ‫( تلح‬allowing), iġtinām ‫غ ل‬ (seizing), intihāz ‫( ن ل‬taking advantage), iqtināṣ ‫ق ل‬ (hunting), taḥyun ‫( تـحين‬waiting for), istiġlāl ‫( س غل‬exploiting), ḍayā ‫( ضيل‬loss), iḍā a ‫( ضلع‬losing), tafwīt ‫( ت ار‬making it missed) A bound collocation is the one where there is only one word to collocate with. No possibility for another lexical item to take the place of the collocate exists, no matter how close in meaning, for example masqaṭ ra s ‫ر ييق بأ‬, where ra s ‫ بأ‬is collocationally significant for masqaṭ ‫ ر ييق‬which has a very narrow collocational range in comparison with ra s. It is much more significant, then, for masqaṭ to collocate with ra s than it is for ra s to collocate with masqaṭ, because of the significant difference in their collocational ranges. Bound collocation is considered by COWIE as a bridge category between collocations and idioms (1981: 228). This is because the range of one component is limited to one word. This kind has a fixed word combination and maintains a middle position between idioms and those collocations of variable collocates. BENSON ET AL. refer to it as obligatory collocations, where the range is restricted to one collocate only (1986: 258). They call it transitional combinations since they are transitional between idioms and collocations, more frozen than ordinary collocations, i.e. less variable (ibid.: 254). BARNWELL calls this type special collocations (1974: 57). Collocations in Arabic can also be categorized according to their word class and syntactic arrangements, i.e. within a framework of colligation (See Introduction above). Below is a categorization of Arabic lexical collocations. Further discussion will follow. For easier reference, categories are named according to the first element although it can be the second element that is collocationally more significant. Type N (nouns) N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 n + n: Additive construct where the second noun functions as a modifier of the first noun, baladiya al-madīna ‫بلير ل ير‬, maktab al-barīd ‫رك ب ل رري‬, qamīṣ ḥarīr ‫ق ي حررر‬, ṭabīb asnān ‫ يب س ل‬, hadīl al-ḥamām ‫هير لح ل‬, sirb ṭuy”r ‫سر ياب‬, sadād al-ra y ‫سي لرأي‬. n + prep + n: ṣirāC Calā al-nuf”ḏ ‫صر عل ل اذ‬, kawkaba mina al-fursān ‫كاك رن ل رسل‬. This type can also be a version of N1: sirb mina al-ṭuy”r ‫سر رن ل ياب‬. n + adj: sabab wağīh ‫س ب جي‬, ṯaman bāhiẓ ‫ث ن بلهظ‬, rāya afāqa ‫ب ر خ لق‬, šakk murīb ‫ش رررب‬, yawm rabīCiy ‫را ببيو‬, tadfi a markaziyya ‫تيف رركزر‬. n + v: layālin alawna ‫ليل َ خلا‬. The verb can be a negated active or passive present tense, īmān lā yatazaCzaC ‫ ر ل ا ر زعز‬siḥr lā yuqawam ‫سحر ا رَـقل‬, waḍC lā yuṭāq ‫ ض ا رَ ل‬. n + adv (adverb of place): al-qafz fawqa ‫ لق ز فا‬, ağwā fawqa ‫أجا ء فا‬, al-w”q”f amāma ‫ لاقا أرل‬, taḥadiyyāt amāma ‫تحيرل رل‬. n + prep + adv (adverb of place): Cināya min ladun ‫ع لر رن لي‬, tašğīC min ladun ‫تشجي رن لي‬.7 Type V (verbs) 7 The adverb of place ladun is also an adverb of time, but corpus evidence shows that it is used nowadays as an adverb of place only. -------------------------------------------------------------6 * This is the final pre-publication version of the paper published in Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik, 2015, 61, pp 72-100. © All rights reserved. V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 v + n: intransitive verb and the noun is its subject. inḥasart al-miyāh ‫ نح ر ل يل‬, haṭala al-maṭar ‫ل ر‬ ‫ه‬, taqayaḥa al-ğurḥ ‫تقيحَ لجر‬, nabaḥa al-kalb ‫ن ح لكلب‬, ārat qiwāh ‫خلب قا‬, intābahu šuC”r ‫ ن لب شواب‬. v + n: transitive verb and the noun is its object. r aba al-ṣadC ‫بأ َ ل ي‬, tawa ā al-ḥaḏar ‫تاخ لحذب‬, amḍā al-waqt ‫أرض لاق‬, iğtaraḥa muCğiza ‫ ج ر روجز‬. v + n/pronoun + n: The verb is transitive, the first noun is object 1, and the second noun is object 2 (indirect object), ḥammalahu mas ”liyyah ‫ح ّ ل ر لي‬, ita aḏahu maqarran ‫ ت ذ رقر‬, istamāḥahu Cuḏran ‫ س لح عذبَا‬. v + prep + n: ašāḥa bi-wağhihi ‫أشل باج‬. This is a version of V2 in terms of lexical association. , a aḏa yabḥaṯ ‫أخذ ر حث‬. The first verb is in the v + v: ğaCala yaq”l ‫جو رقا‬, ṭafaq yata amal ‫ر أر‬ past tense whereas the second verb is in the present tense. v + adv 1. v + absolute object (cognate accusative or mafC”l muṭlaq): the adverb is a verbal noun (maSadar) in the accusative functioning as an adverb as in faṣilahu tafṣīlan َ‫ف ل َت يلا‬. It can also involve an adjective: fariḥa faraḥan aẓīman ‫فر فرحَل ا ع ي َلا‬. The adverb can be a preposition-noun as in Cāmalahu bi-luṭf ‫( علرل بل ف‬see the discussion in 3.1.1 below). 2. v + adverb of differentiation (tamyīz): taḍawara ğ”Can ‫تضابَجاعَل ا‬, ṭāra faraḥan ‫ لب فرحَل ا‬, naẓara ilayhi šazran ‫ن ر لي شزبَا‬.8 3. v + adverb of manner (ḥāl): adjective functioning as an adverb, bāta ğā iCan ‫بل َجلئوَلا‬, wallā hāriban ‫ ل هلببَلا‬. 4. v + adverb of place: qafaza fawqa ‫ق ز فا‬, maṯula amāma ‫رَ ــَ أرل‬, intaḥā bihi ğāniban ‫ ن ح ب جلن َلا‬. 5. v + adverb of time: makaṯa šahran ‫ركث ش رَا‬. Type ADJ (adjectives) Adj1 Adj Adj Adj Adj5 adj + n: (additive construct), ḥilw al-maCšar ‫حلا ل وشر‬, wārifa al-ẓilāl ‫ بف ل ل‬, sarīC al-ištiCāl ‫سرر اش ول‬, Carīḍ al-mankabayn ‫عرر ل ك ين‬. Members of this category are compound adjectives (see discussion in 3.1.1. below). adj + n: additive construct with the elements are indefinite, Caẓīm taqdīr ‫ع يم تقيرر‬, kabīr wazn ‫ك ير‬. adj + adv: an absolute object, mafC”l muṭlaq (a verbal noun, maṣdar, modified by an adjective) ğamīl ğamālan hādi an ‫اا هل ئَلا‬ َ ‫ج ي ج ل‬. adj + adj: salīm muCāfā ‫سليم رولف‬, muḍḥik mubkiy ‫رضح ر ك‬. adj + v: ḥay yurzaq ‫ح رَر‬. The verb is in the present passive. The adjective has the verb phrase as a modifier. Type ADV (adverbs) adv + n: fawqa ra sih ‫فا بأس‬, fawqa al-saṭḥ ‫فا ل ح‬, amāma al-qaḍā ‫أرل لقضلء‬, amama al-mağlis ‫أرل ل جلس‬. ‫ ئ َلا‬and Cašiya wa ḍuḥāhā ‫عشي ضحلهل‬, ṣabāḥa masā Adv2 adv + adv: dā iman (wa) abadan َ‫أبيا‬ Adv1 ‫ص ل ر لء‬. 3.1.1. Discussion While types are categorized here according to the first element in the collocation, it has to be stressed that in terms of node-collocate relationship, the first element is not necessarily the node. The second element can be more significant in the collocation, as it is the one that determines the collocability and recalls the first element into association, as in V1, V2 and Adj1. Collocations usually have corresponding versions of verb and noun collocations, e.g. tawa ā/tawa iy al-ḥaḏar ‫تاخ لحذب‬/ ‫تاخ‬, and ṭalaCa/ṭul”C al-nahār ‫ لا ل لب‬/ ‫ ل‬. Such pattern can also be found in noun-adjective collocations, e.g., sadād al-ra y ‫سي لرأي‬/sadīd al-ra y ‫سيري لرأي‬/ra y sadīd ‫بأي سيري‬, and sāḥirat/siḥr al-Caynayn ‫سحر لوي ين‬/ ‫سلحر‬. Some categories such as (N2, N6) and (V3, V4) are in fact subtypes of those collocations with the same parts of speech, (N1, N5) and (V2) respectively, but with a preposition involved. They are put in separate categories to have a more delicate taxonomy. The types that contain prepositions are basically collocations of the content words. In lexical collocations that include prepositions only one element is collocating with the grammatical element, e.g. tanāfus Calā al-manṣib ‫ ت لفس عل ل ب‬where tanāfus ‫ت لفس‬ collocates with Calā ‫عل‬. This is a grammatical collocation embedded in collocations with any other lexical 8 According to traditional grammar, this is called deputy absolute object ‫)نلئب عن ل وا ل ل‬. I would analyze it as an adverb of differentiation (‫ )ت ييز‬as it describes why or how the action is done. -------------------------------------------------------------7 * This is the final pre-publication version of the paper published in Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik, 2015, 61, pp 72-100. © All rights reserved. item that is a member of collocational range of the noun tanāfus, which can basically be any word denoting something subject to competition, such as ka s ‫كأ‬, sulṭa ‫سل‬, laqab ‫لقب‬, ğā iza ‫جلئز‬, and nuf”ḏ ‫ن اذ‬. Prepositions are elements of grammatical collocations in association with only one component of the lexical collocation. Whereas the word that is involved in the grammatical collocation cannot be replaced in this particular relation, the slot of the other component can be filled by other content words that co-occur with the content word in the grammatical collocation. For example, the grammatical collocations of the verb tanāfasa ‫ ت لفس‬involve the prepositions Calā ‫عل‬, maCa ‫ر‬, and fī ‫ف‬. However, the nouns that collocate with this verb, although different for each grammatical collocation, are the members of the collocational range of the verb: (11) Calā (12) (13) maCa fī ğā iza ‫جلئز‬, manṣib ‫ر ب‬, maqCad ‫رقوي‬, maqāCid ‫رقلعي‬, laqab ‫لقب‬, ṣafqa ‫ص ق‬, Cuḍwiyya ‫عضار‬. ġarīm ‫غررم‬, munāfis ‫ر لفس‬, ṭaraf ‫ ر‬, murššaḥ ‫ررشح‬. musābaqa ‫ر لبق‬, ğawla ‫جال‬, sibāq ‫س ل‬, inti abat ‫ ن لبل‬. While the prepositional phrase in the type V3 (v-p-n), for example biḥinka in taCāmala biḥinka ‫تولر بح ك‬, involves a noun, and may lend itself to the analysis of a verb-noun collocation, the prepositional phrase, however, functions as an adverb of manner signifying how the action is carried out. Two texts with different collocational setup can illustrate this point: (14) (15) maCa annahu yataḥadaṯ bi-stifāḍa ‫ر أن َر حي َبلس لض‬.. yuḥadiṯukum fī kitabihi…ḥadīṯan mustafīḍan ‫ حير َلاَر يضَلا‬...َ ‫رحيثكمَف َك لب‬ The two adverbs, bi-stifāḍa and ḥadīṯan mustafīḍan can be used interchangeably. The collocation in (14) has the same meaning of the one with the absolute object in (15). The prepositional phrase functions as an adverb when collocating with the same verb. Hence, there can be an overlap between the two types (v-adv) and (v-n). Type N3 (noun-adjective) can be involved in a different syntactic configuration of a cognate accusative (absolute object or mafC”l muṭlaq) where it modifies a verb by having the noun element of the same root of the verb, as in sāra sayran baṭī an ‫ سييلب سيييرَا ب ي ييَل ا‬and drasahu dirasatan mustafīḍah ‫ بسي ب سي ر يضي‬. Hence, it is part of the type V6 (v-adv). The same type of N3 (n-adj) can also be incorporated in the type Adj (adj-adv) where it also functions as an absolute object as in ğamīl ğamālan hādi an. Characteristic of Arabic are collocations that are comprised of a special structure of compound adjectives. These are two words (adjective and noun) combined with each other to modify another noun. Type Adj1 is usually an additive construct (muḍāf wa muḍāf ilayhi), where an adjective is added to a noun. The adjective modifies and describes the noun, but has the gender and number of another noun that the construct (the compound adjective) as a whole modifies: (16) (17) (18) Carīḍ al- aktāf ‫اك ل‬ ‫عرر‬ ( rağul ḏ” aktāf Carīḍah ‫) بج ذ أك ل عررض‬ sāḥira al-Caynayn ‫سلحر لوي ين‬ ( imra ah ḏāta Caynayn sāḥiratayn ‫عي ين سلحرتين‬ fāḥiš” al-ṯarā ‫فلحشاَ ل ر ء‬ ‫) أش ل‬ ( aš āṣ ṯaw” ṯarā fāḥiš ‫ذ ثر ء فلحش‬ ‫ررأ ذ‬ In similar constructions (of compound adjective), the corresponding noun-adjective structure with ḏ” ‫ذ‬, as well as its feminine and plural forms, while theoretically plausible, is not found to be used. For example, corpus evidence shows that the compound adjective version of the collocation ḥāfiyya al-qadamayn ‫ حلف لقيرين‬is much higher in frequency than the corresponding noun-adjective construction. While the noun-adjective collocation qadamān ḥāfiyyatān ‫( قيرل حلفي ل‬and the corresponding accusative and genitive form qadamayn ḥāfiyyatayn ‫ )قيرين حلفي ين‬is much less frequent with only 31 occurrences (10.6%) than the compound adjective ḥāfiyya al-qadamayn with 262 occurrences (89.4%), it is not used with ḏ” ‫ ذ‬or ḏy ‫ذي‬, nor with all other versions of differing numbers and genders. Although the components in Adj4 (adj-adj) are irreversible, which may lead to their consideration as frozen binominals, they are, however, free re-combinable with other lexemes. For example, in salīm muCāfā ‫سليم رولف‬, muCāfā has a range of collocates in a similar structure where it occurs second in sequence, as in ṣaḥīḥ muCāfā ‫صحيح رولف‬, karīm muCāfā ‫كررمَرولف‬, ṭayib muCāfā ‫ يبَرولف‬, and sālim muCāfā ‫سللمَرولف‬. This also applies to salīm ‫سليم‬: salīm naqiy ‫سليمَنق‬, salīm matīn ‫سليمَر ين‬, and salīm sāfin َ ‫سليمَصل‬. -------------------------------------------------------------8 * This is the final pre-publication version of the paper published in Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik, 2015, 61, pp 72-100. © All rights reserved. Some bound collocations are mostly comprised of two words of similar phonology and structure, what is called itbāC ‫( ت ل‬roughly means to follow). For the lack of a better term, I would call it rhymed collocation. Examples include arāb yabāb ‫( خر ر ل‬devastated and desolate) of the type N1 (n-n), and ḍā iC sā iC ‫( ضلئ سلئ‬lost and disoriented) of the type Adj3 (adj-adj). They can also be lexical items from the same root, as in ẓil ẓalīl ‫لي‬ (deep/leafy shade) which is of the type N3 (n-adj). A similar type of collocation are coordinated lexical items characteristic of idiomatic Arabic style with the purpose of emphasis. Their constituents are either synonyms/semi-synonyms, antonyms, or have some complementary semantic relation (see also ALI, 2004; GHAZALA, 2004: 3-4; EL-HASSAN quoted in EL-GEMEI, 2006: 435). The first type can be nouns, as in al-ğ”d wa al-karam ‫ لجيا لكير‬, al-šakk wa al-rība ‫ لشي لرر ي‬, or verbs, e.g. naša a wa traCraC ‫نشيأ ترعير‬. Examples of the antonymous type are al-šakk wa al-yaqīn ‫( لش ي ليقييين‬n-n) and ğumlatan wa tafṣīlan ‫( ج لي ت يييل‬adv-adv), and of the complementary relations is al- ubz wa al-milḥ ‫( ل ز ل لح‬n-n).9 GRIMM (2009: 26) contends that such expressions do not qualify as collocations as they do not have the hypotactic relation and semantic effect in that one element is not subordinated by the other, and thus they are excluded from her taxonomy. However, as they are recurrent co-occurrences and there is a special lexical bond between the two components in that they appear together and their meanings are enhanced by the association, they can be safely included within the area of collocation. A special pattern of verb collocations is when the two elements of the collocation are derived from the same root (collocation type is given between brackets): (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) qāla qā il ‫( قل قلئ‬V1) ra ā ra yan ‫( بأ بأرَل ا‬V2) qaṣṣa qiṣatan ‫( ق ق‬V2) ḏahaba maḏhaban ‫( ذهب رذه َلا‬V2) ğayaša al- ğuy”š ‫( جيـّش لجيا‬V2) ẓanna (bihi) al-ẓun”n ‫( ن ب ل ا‬V4) ğanna ğun”nāh ‫( جن ج ان‬V2) balaġa mablaġ (al-riğāl) ‫( بلغ ر لغ لرجل‬V2) The last example ( 6) is a special configuration, as the object is a noun construct (additive compound), which makes it a subtype of V2. Another sub-type of verb-noun collocations includes what is usually a negated verb phrase functioning as a modifier of a noun, e.g. siḥr lā yuqawam ‫سيحر ا ريـقل‬. Some nouns collocate with both an adjective and a synonymous negated verb: Table 2: adjective and negated verb collocations of īmān ‫ ر ل‬and fawā idَ‫َفا ئي‬ Noun + adjective īmān rāsi ‫ر ل ب س‬ fawā id ğammah ‫فا ئي ج‬ Noun + negated verb phrase īmān lā yatazaCzaC ‫ر ل ا ر زعز‬ fawā id lā tuḥṣā ‫فا ئي ا تح‬ Both collocates of the same node above can also co-occur with the noun in the same string where the adjective comes first and the verb phrase comes second: (27) (28) īmān rāsi lā yatazaCzaC ‫ر ل ب س ا ر زعز‬ fawā id ğamma lā tuḥṣā ‫فا ئي ج ا تح‬ Many collocations in present time Arabic are created by extension. These are usually of groups or sounds of new items introduced to the culture. For example, the collocation denoting a squadron of airplanes, sirb ṭā irāt ‫لئر‬ ‫سر‬, incorporates a word that is originally used for a group of birds, as in sirb ṭuy”r ‫سر ياب‬. The word hadīr ‫ هيرر‬which collocates with al-muḥarik ‫ ل حر‬to denote its noise, is extended from the sound of sea waves, hadīr al-baḥr ‫هيرر ل حر‬, or the camel, hadīr al-baCīr ‫هيرر ل وير‬. Another example is the extension of wābil ‫ ب‬which collocates with maṭar ‫( ر ر‬meaning pouring rain) to denote the amount and intensity of firing bullets when collocating with raṣāṣ ‫بصل‬. Finally, there is an interesting category of collocations of titles and addressing expressions that is worth highlighting: (29) (30) (31) Cardinal/Bishop: niyāfa al-kardināl/al- asquf/al-miṭrān ‫ ل ر‬/‫ أسقف‬/ ‫نيلف لكلب ر ل‬ Judge: faḍīla al-qāḍiy ‫فضيل لقلض‬ King/Sultan: ğalala al-malik/al-sulṭān/al-Cāhil ‫ لوله‬/ ‫ ل ل ل‬/ ‫جلل ل ل‬ COWIE (1978: 134-135) cites fish and chips and salt and pepper as examples of open collocation. -------------------------------------------------------------9 * This is the final pre-publication version of the paper published in Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik, 2015, 61, pp 72-100. © All rights reserved. 9 (32) (33) (34) (35) (36) (37) (38) Minister: saCādat/maCāliy al-wazīr ‫رولل لا رر‬/ ‫سول‬ Muslim clergyman: samāha al-muftiy/al-sayid/al-šay ‫ لشي‬/‫ ل يي‬/ ‫س لح ل‬ ‫غ‬ Patriarch/Cardinal: ġibṭa al-baṭriyyark/al-kardināl ‫ لكلب ر ل‬/ ‫ل ررر‬ Pope: qadāsa al-bābā ‫قي س ل لبل‬ President: fa āma ra īs al-ğumh”riyyah ‫ف لر بئيس لج ابر‬ Prime Minister: siyyāda /dawla ra īs al-wuzarā ‫ ل بئيس لا ب ء‬/ ‫سيل‬ Prince/Sheik: sumw al- amīr/al-šei ‫ لشي‬/‫س ا أرير‬.10 While some of these combinations fall under the area of bound collocation, some others are recombinable. For example, siyyāda can also collocate with wazīr and ra īs al-ğumh”riyyah. 3.2. Compound Collocations This type involves two or more collocations incorporated into one combination where the elements are engaged in a network of association with each other. A compound collocation is when one collocation is at the same time a collocate of the node or a part of another collocation, for example ağrā dirāsa mustafīḍa ‫ أجر ب س ر يض‬where the verb ağrā ‫ أجر‬collocates with the noun dirāsa ‫ ب س‬, and the latter collocates with the adjective mustafīḍa ‫ر يض‬. GRIMM (2009: 28) calls this type chained collocation. However, as the relation between the components is far more than a sequence of words associating with other words in a chain , it is best termed compound collocation. Table 3 below provides an analysis of the compound nature of these collocations. Table 3: examples of compound collocations (CC) Example itta aḏa ṭābiCan siyāsīyan ‫ت ذ لبوَل ا سيلسيل‬ ġaṭṭa fī nawm Camīq ‫غ َف َنا َع ي‬ šarikāt al-qiṭāC al- āṣ ‫لق ل ل ل‬ ‫شركل‬ ġāz musīl li-ldum”C ‫غل ر ي لليرا‬ iğrā āt amniyya mušaddada ‫جر ء َأر ي َرشي‬ iḍā a ğamīla ğamālan hādi an ‫ضلء ج يل ج لااَ هل ئلَا‬ Type and comment CC [v + collocation (n + adj)] The n-adj collocation as a whole collocates further with the verb. There is no collocation of this verb with the noun only. CC [v + collocation (n + adj)] While the noun nawm collocates with the adjective Camīq, the verb ġaṭṭa does not collocate with one element of this collocation, but with the collocation as a whole. If it does, then the noun nawm must be definite as in ġaṭṭa fī al-nawm ‫غ ف ل ا‬, or attached to a pronoun, e.g. ġaṭṭa fī nawmihi ‫غ ف نار‬. CC [n + collocation (n + adj)] There is no such collocation of n + n only as in šarikāt al-qiṭāC. CC [n + collocation (adj + p + n)] The collocation musīl lil-dum”C collocates with the noun ġāz. There is no such collocation of n + adj only as in ġāz musīl. CC [collocation (n + adj) + adj) The adjective (mušaddadah) modifies the n-adj collocation as a whole. It can also be analyzed as of the pattern n-adj-adj which is produced from 2 collocations: iğrā āt amniyya (n + adj) and iğrā āt mušaddada (n + adj). CC [collocation 1 (n + adj) + collocation 2 (n. + adj.)] Collocation 2 functions as an adverb (absolute object). Consider the following example of multiple compound collocations: (39) ‫ت لفس بين شركل لق ل ل ل ف اس لب بلل يل‬ tanāfus bayna šarikāt al-qiṭāc al- āṣ fy al-istiṯmār bil-miyāh The word tanāfus ‫ ت لفس‬co-occurs with the whole collocation of šarikāt al-qiṭāC al- āṣ ‫شركل لق ل ل ل‬ which is a compound collocation itself (see Table 3 above). Also, tanāfus collocates with al-istiṯmār bilmiyāh ‫ اس لب بلل يل‬which is another collocation itself of istiṯmār and miyāh. 3.3. Culture-specific collocations Another type of collocational pattern concerns the relationship between collocation and culture. Collocations are embedded in a specific culture. Word combinations are constructed according to the 10 The transliteration of the word ‫ شي‬in 5 and 10 is deliberately given in two forms since these are two different titles. -------------------------------------------------------------10 * This is the final pre-publication version of the paper published in Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik, 2015, 61, pp 72-100. © All rights reserved. cultural profile of the language and the values and belief systems of its culture. For instance, in a hot and dry climate, as is the case in most regions of the Arab world, being thirsty is a commonplace feeling, thus the collocation mutaCaṭṭiš lil-sulṭah ‫ري و ش لل يل‬.11 Moreover, Arabic is intertwined with Islamic culture, and collocations of cultural profile are abundant, whether general such as aqāma al-ṣala ‫أقيل ل يل‬, ātā al-zakā ‫آتي لزكيل‬, or specific such as those of the verb addā as in addā zakā al-fiṭr ‫كيل ل ير‬ ‫ أ‬and addā ṣalā al-Cīd ‫أ صل لويي‬. Other culture-specific collocations include: mahr mu ağğal ‫ر يرَر جي‬, al- ayām al-bīḍ ‫ أرل ل ي‬, birr al-wālidayn ‫بر لا ليرن‬, and hağğ al-bayt ‫ح ل ي‬. 3.4. Loan collocations Many collocations are calque translations of foreign ones, and now established in Arabic. These have been introduced in response to new concepts that had to be transferred into Arabic culture: (40) (41) (42) (43) (44) (45) aḥtafaẓa bil-ḥaq ‫( ح ظ بللح‬V4: v-prep-n) aṭlaqa ḥamla ‫( ل َح ل‬V2: v-n) mākina baḥṯ ‫( رلك بحث‬N1: n-n) ġasl al- amwāl ‫( غ أرا‬N1: n-n) naql mubāšir ‫( نق ر لشر‬N3: n-adj) Calāqāt ṯunā iyyah ‫( علقل ث لئي‬N3: n-adj) to reserve the right to launch a campaign search engine money laundry live transmission bilateral relations 3.5. Specialized Collocations Style can be identified by its special use of collocations, whether it is defined as technical or idiosyncratic. Word combinations are either typical of the language in general or of a specific sublanguage. In terms of subject field, collocations can be said to have two general classifications: common collocations that are used in everyday language and register-specific collocations which are used in a specialized area. SMADJA contends that collocations are domain-dependent . EMERY states that there are two categories in classifying collocations: general category, i.e. the common core and stylistically restricted collocations, including technical collocations (1988: 16). Different fields of science and technology as well as special fields of medicine, economics, agriculture, education, linguistics, etc. have their own patterns. Many collocations of those areas are, however, a direct product of translation into Arabic. Their coinage and structuring are highly determined by the translation process, reflecting a new aspect in the Arabic lexicon. Examples of special collocations are listed in Table 4 below with collocation type between brackets. Table 4: Examples of specialized collocations in Arabic Field Example ğayyara al-ṣak (al-šīk) ‫لشي‬ ‫( جيّر ل‬to endorse a check) (V2, v + n) Banking taḥallul ḍaw iy ‫( تحلُ ضائ‬photolysis) (N3, adj + n) Biology mazağa al-maḥl”l ‫( رز َ ل حلا‬to mix a solution) (V2, v + n) Chemistry uṣ”l ṯābita ‫( أصا ثلب‬fixed assets) (N3, adj + n) Economics ṯunā iy al- aliyya ‫( ث لئ ل لي‬bi-cellular) (Adj1, adj + n) Electronics ṯulāṯiy al- abCād ‫( ثلث أبول‬three-dimensional) (Adj1, adj + n) Geometry al- ādim al-iftrāḍiy ‫( ل ل َ اف ر ض‬default server) (N3, adj + n) IT ta ğmīd al- amwāl ‫( تج يي أرا‬freezing of assets) (N1, n + n) Law ğumla šarṭiyya ‫( ج ل شر ي‬conditional clause) (N3, adj + n) Linguistics ğaḏr takCibiy ‫( جذب تكوي‬cube root) (N3, adj + n) Mathematics ta ṭīṭ qalb ‫( ت ي قلب‬cardiography) (N1, n + n) Medicine ṭalCa ğawiyya ‫( لو َجار‬sortie) (N3, adj + n) Military 3.6. Semantic Categories From a semantic point of view, collocations in Arabic can be categorized in different areas, signifying the relationship between their elements: 1. Agent: mudīr al-šarika ‫ريرر لشرك‬, mu assis al-ḥizb ‫ر سس لحز‬. 2. Belonging: amwāl al-nās ‫أرا ل ل‬, bayt al-Cā ila ‫بي لولئل‬. 3. Colour: luḥ”m bayḍā ‫لحا بيضلء‬, bašara samrā ‫بشر س ر ء‬, Casal aswad ‫أسا‬ ‫ع‬, In ArabiCorpus there are no co-occurrences of sulṭah ‫( سل‬power) and ğaa iC/ğawCaan ‫جاعل‬/ ‫( جلئ‬hungry). In the Oxford Arabic Corpus there is only one occurrence of ğaa iC ilā al-sulṭah. In Oxford English Corpus of 2 billion words (Oxford Dictionaries website), there are 1209 co-occurrences of power and hungry (power hungry, power-hungry, and hungry for power), whereas there are only 13 co-occurrences of power and thirsty (power thirsty, powerthirsty, and thirsty for power). 11 -------------------------------------------------------------11 * This is the final pre-publication version of the paper published in Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik, 2015, 61, pp 72-100. © All rights reserved. ‫ شقر لشور‬ašqar al-šaCr. 4. Content: Culba ḥalawiyyāt ‫عل حلارل‬, ṣund”q al- adawāt ‫ص ي أ‬. 5. Group: qaṭīC (mina al-) ġanam ‫ق ي رن لـ غ م‬, ratl (mina al-) sayyārāt ‫بت رن لـ سيلب‬. The second element has to be a plural or generic noun. It can be of two different configurations, with or without a preposition, making it either type N1 (n-n) or N2 (n-prep-n). 6. Identity: tanẓīm sirriy ‫ت يم سري‬, muḥāmiy al-difāC ‫رحلر ليفل‬. 7. Material: ātam ḏahab ‫خلتم ذهب‬, ṣund”q ašab ‫ص ي خشب‬. The second element functions as a modifier to signify made of . 8. Movement: ğaḥiẓat Caynāh ‫عي ل‬ ‫جح‬, mādat al- arḍ ‫رل أب‬. 9. Object: āḍa tağriba ‫خل تجرب‬, tabaw a makāna ‫ت اأ ركلن‬, tadāraka al-mawqif ‫تي ب َ ل اقف‬. 10. Part-whole: bu bu al-Cayn ‫ب ب لوين‬, kumm al-qamīṣ ‫كم لق ي‬, bahw al-funduq ‫ب ا ل ي‬, fuṣṣ ‫ف‬. The second element of the latter has to be a generic noun. It can (mina al-) ṯ”m ‫رن لـ ثا‬ be of two different categories whether with or without the preposition, making it either type N1 (n-n) or N2 (n-p-n). 11. Place: Carīn al- asad ‫عررن أسي‬, maqarr al-ḥuk”ma ‫رقر لحكار‬, dā ira inti ābiyya ‫ ئر ن لبي‬. 12. Process: kitāba taqrīr ‫ك لب تقررر‬, yunaẓim al-waqt ‫ر م لاق‬. 13. Purpose: mubīd ḥašrāt ‫ر يي حشر‬, Culba hadāyā ‫عل هي رل‬, ṣund”q al-iqtrāC ‫ص ي اق ر‬, ġurfa al-iğtimāCāt ‫غرف اج لعل‬. 14. Sound: ṣāḥa al-dīk ‫صل لير‬, ṣahala al-ḥiṣān ‫ص ـ َ لح ل‬, dawiy al-infiğār ‫ يَّ ان جلب‬. ‫بأ ل‬, Cawda al-ḥuğğağ ‫عا لحجل‬, mawsim al-ḥaṣād ‫راسم لح ل‬. 15. Time: ra s al-sana In some cases, there is more than one attribute of the same collocation, which makes them fall under different categories. For example, ġurfa al-iğtimāCāt can also be a place, and Cawda al-ḥuğğağ can be a process as well. 4. Conclusion Lexical items tend to co-occur with each other within their immediate environment where the collocation of words results in a unique combination. Frequent collocations reflect the way in which language is organized and used. They are a clear manifestation of language structure and use, especially in their makeup and recurrence. Collocations are very diverse in nature in terms of number of their elements, their word classes and syntactic arrangement. 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K. – ROBINS, R. H. (eds): In memory of J.R. Firth. London: Longman, 410-430. -------------------------------------------------------------13 * This is the final pre-publication version of the paper published in Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik, 2015, 61, pp 72-100. © All rights reserved. SINCLAIR, J. (1987). Collocation, a progress report. In: STEELE, R. and TREADGOLD, T. (eds), Language Topics, essays in honour of Michael Halliday. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 319-331. SINCLAIR, J. (1991). Corpus, Concordance, Collocation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. SMADJA, F. (1993). Retrieving Collocations from Text: Xtract. Computational Linguistics, 19:1, 143-177. -------------------------------------------------------------14 * This is the final pre-publication version of the paper published in Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik, 2015, 61, pp 72-100. © All rights reserved.