Interpreting the Ten Commandments: A Study in Special Hermeneutics

MBS TEXTE 34 2. Jahrgang M ARTIN BUCER S EMINAR 2005 Thomas K. Johnson Interpreting the Ten Commandments: A Study in Special Hermeneutics R 2 MINA SE MARTI BUCER N EPH 4 :1 Theological Accents Theologische Akzente Table of Contents Inhaltsverzeichnis 1฀The฀negative฀implies฀the฀positive฀........................................... 5 2฀A฀direct฀prohibition฀of฀an฀action฀makes฀improper ฀ moral฀rationalizing฀more฀diffi฀cult฀......................................... 5 3฀If฀we฀interpret฀the฀commandments฀properly,฀ ฀ we฀will฀be฀confronted฀in฀our฀sinfulness฀................................. 6 4฀The฀Decalogue฀is฀a฀sharpening฀and฀clarifi฀cation฀of ฀ the฀general฀revelation฀of฀God‘s฀law฀through฀creation฀............ 7 5฀The฀Ten฀Commandments฀each฀build฀on฀and฀protect ฀ an฀important฀dimension฀of฀the฀creation฀order฀....................... 7 6฀The฀Ten฀Commandments฀were฀given฀to฀us฀in ฀ a฀particular฀organic฀order฀...................................................... 9 7฀The฀Ten฀Commandments฀contain฀a฀dynamic ฀ dialogue฀between฀law฀and฀grace฀.......................................... 10 8฀Refl฀ections฀.......................................................................... 11 Further฀reading฀...................................................................... 12 The฀Author฀............................................................................ 13 Impressum฀............................................................................. 14 This฀study฀is฀broadly฀informed฀by฀a฀course฀syllabus฀written฀by฀Lambert฀Ponstein฀for฀students฀at฀ Hope฀College฀and฀also฀by฀the฀lectures฀of฀George฀Forell฀at฀the฀University฀of฀Iowa. 1.฀Aufl฀.฀2005 Interpreting the Ten Commandments ... Interpreting the Ten Commandments: A Study in Special Hermeneutics Thomas K. Johnson People฀ often฀ have฀ strong฀ feelings฀ about฀ the฀ Ten฀ Commandments.฀ Just฀ a฀couple฀years฀ago฀Americans฀observed฀ the฀strange฀spectacle฀of฀a฀national฀judge฀ ordering฀a฀state฀judge฀to฀remove฀an฀artistic฀portrayal฀of฀the฀Decalogue฀from฀the฀ courthouse.฀ But฀ then฀ a฀ large฀ group฀ of฀ citizens฀ gather-ed฀ to฀ protest฀ the฀ removal.฀Both฀those฀in฀power฀and฀those฀on฀ the฀streets฀had฀strong฀and฀opposed฀feelings฀about฀God‘s฀law,฀which฀may฀serve฀ as฀ a฀ good฀ illustration฀ about฀ how฀ our฀ world฀ feels฀ about฀ the฀ rules฀ written฀ in฀ stone:฀some฀love฀them,฀some฀hate฀them,฀ and฀ many฀ love฀ and฀ hate฀ them฀ at฀ the฀ same฀time. Possibly฀ the฀ intensely฀ contradictory฀ feelings฀ about฀ the฀ Decalogue,฀ and฀ especially฀the฀hatred฀of฀the฀commandments,฀could฀arise฀from฀serious฀misinterpretations.฀ Surely฀ there฀ are฀ serious฀ misunderstandings฀of฀each฀of฀the฀commandments,฀ but฀ there฀ are฀ also฀ serious฀ misinterpretations฀ of฀ the฀ Decalogue฀ as฀a฀whole.฀In฀fi฀fteen฀years฀of฀teaching฀ philosophy฀and฀religion฀in฀secular฀universities,฀ I฀ have฀ repeated฀ heard฀ two฀ misunderstandings฀ of฀ God‘s฀ law฀ as฀ a฀ whole.฀ The฀ fi฀rst฀ says฀ that฀ these฀ commandments฀are฀arbitrary฀and฀irrational,฀ that฀they฀have฀no฀connection฀to฀human฀ MBS TEXTE 34 nature฀ or฀ human฀ well-being,฀ and฀ that฀ they฀do฀not฀contribute฀to฀human฀happiness.฀ Though฀ it฀ is฀ seldom฀ said฀ so฀ directly,฀some฀seem฀to฀think฀that฀if฀you฀ want฀to฀have฀a฀miserable฀and฀messed฀up฀ life,฀ you฀ just฀ have฀ to฀ follow฀ these฀ old฀ fashioned,฀ irrational฀ rules.฀ This฀ fi฀rst฀ misunderstanding฀ makes฀ it฀ important฀ to฀ emphasize฀ the฀ organic฀ connection฀ between฀the฀Decalogue฀and฀the฀natural฀ moral฀law฀or฀created฀moral฀order.฀The฀ second฀ misinterpretation฀ says฀ that฀ the฀ main฀ purpose฀ of฀ the฀ Ten฀ Commandments฀is฀that฀people฀need฀to฀know฀how฀ to฀earn฀God‘s฀favor.฀If฀you฀want฀to฀go฀ to฀heaven,฀if฀you฀want฀to฀be฀sure฀you฀are฀ accepted฀by฀God,฀if฀you฀want฀to฀overcome฀your฀guilt฀and฀sin,฀it฀is฀said,฀you฀ must฀keep฀the฀commandments.฀This฀is฀ the฀most฀common฀misinterpretation฀of฀ the฀ Decalogue฀ as฀ a฀ whole,฀ and฀ it฀ is฀ so฀ common฀because฀it฀is฀so฀deeply฀rooted฀ in฀ our฀ sinful฀ nature,฀ the฀ nature฀ that฀ keeps฀on฀whispering,฀„If฀we฀need฀to฀be฀ saved,฀we฀can฀do฀it฀ourselves.“฀Because฀ of฀this฀second,฀standard฀misunderstanding฀of฀the฀purpose฀of฀the฀law,฀we฀must฀ always฀emphasize฀the฀contrast฀between฀ Law฀ and฀ Gospel.฀ The฀ gospel฀ tells฀ us฀ that฀ we฀ are฀ justifi฀ed฀ by฀ faith฀ alone,฀ a฀ faith฀that฀trusts฀in฀the฀promise฀of฀God฀ 3 Thomas K. Johnson of฀ forgiveness฀ based฀ on฀ the฀ death฀ and฀ resurrection฀of฀Christ.฀The฀gospel฀tells฀ us฀that฀the฀proper฀purposes฀of฀the฀law฀ must฀be฀something฀other฀than฀telling฀us฀ how฀to฀earn฀God‘s฀favor. So฀ what฀ are฀ the฀ proper฀ purposes฀ of฀ God‘s฀ law,฀ if฀ not฀ to฀ earn฀ salvation?฀ There฀are฀at฀least฀three฀proper฀purposes฀ or฀ uses฀ of฀ the฀ moral฀ law฀ that฀ seem฀ to฀ stand฀up฀to฀critical฀scrutiny,฀and฀none฀of฀ them฀have฀to฀do฀with฀earning฀salvation.฀ 1.฀God‘s฀law฀shows฀us฀our฀sin฀and฀need฀ for฀the฀gospel.฀This฀is฀commonly฀called฀ the฀„theological฀use“฀or฀„converting฀use“฀ of฀God‘s฀law.฀Whether฀at฀the฀beginning฀ of฀ our฀ life฀ of฀ faith฀ or฀ on฀ a฀ continuing฀ basis฀over฀many฀years฀of฀living฀by฀faith,฀ God‘s฀law฀drives฀us฀to฀cry฀out,฀„God,฀be฀ merciful฀ to฀ me,฀ a฀ sinner.“฀ By฀ showing฀ us฀our฀sin,฀the฀law฀drives฀us฀to฀love฀the฀ gospel฀ ever฀ more฀ strongly,฀ for฀ in฀ the฀ gospel฀ we฀ learn฀ about฀ forgiveness,฀ justifi฀cation,฀and฀adoption฀as฀God‘s฀children.฀ 2.฀ The฀ law฀ also฀ restrains฀ our฀ sin,฀ so฀ we฀ do฀ not฀ act฀ out฀ all฀ of฀ the฀ sinful฀ tendencies฀in฀our฀hearts.฀This฀is฀sometimes฀called฀the฀„political“฀use฀of฀the฀law,฀ using฀the฀ancient฀meaning฀of฀the฀word฀ „polis“,฀which฀is฀community.฀Our฀sin฀is฀ so฀powerful฀that฀if฀it฀is฀not฀restrained,฀ the฀communities฀for฀which฀God฀created฀ us฀are฀easily฀turned฀into฀the฀total฀chaos฀ of฀the฀„war฀of฀all฀against฀all“.฀But฀God‘s฀ law฀comes฀to฀us฀a฀wide฀variety฀of฀ways,฀ some฀not฀so฀pure,฀including฀conscience,฀ reason,฀civil฀law,฀family,฀and฀scripture,฀ with฀the฀effect฀of฀normally฀restraining฀ our฀sin฀at฀least฀partially.฀In฀this฀way฀it฀ is฀ a฀ primary฀ means฀ of฀ God‘s฀ common฀ or฀civilizing฀grace,฀which฀makes฀life฀in฀ 4 society฀ possible฀ most฀ of฀ the฀ time.฀ For฀ this฀reason,฀this฀is฀also฀called฀the฀„civil“฀ use฀of฀the฀moral฀law.฀3.฀The฀law฀of฀God฀ also฀ provides฀ a฀ norm฀ or฀ standard฀ for฀ the฀life฀of฀gratitude.฀Because฀of฀the฀tremendous฀ grace฀ we฀ have฀ been฀ given฀ in฀ the฀ gospel,฀ our฀ entire฀ lives฀ should฀ be฀ an฀ expression฀ of฀ thankfulness฀ to฀ God,฀ but฀this฀gratitude฀needs฀some฀structure฀ and฀direction.฀This฀we฀fi฀nd฀in฀the฀commands฀in฀the฀scriptures,฀which฀are฀not฀ only฀ the฀ condemning฀ law฀ but฀ also,฀ by฀ the฀ Spirit,฀ the฀ empowering฀ directives฀ and฀descriptions฀of฀the฀new฀possibilities฀ for฀believers.฀The฀law฀describes฀the฀restored฀ life฀ which฀ God฀ wants฀ us฀ to฀ live฀ for฀his฀glory. We฀ must฀ notice฀ and฀ say฀ over฀ and฀ over฀ again฀ that฀ none฀ of฀ the฀ proper฀ uses฀of฀God‘s฀law฀have฀anything฀to฀do฀ with฀ earning฀ God‘s฀ favor฀ or฀ salvation.฀ There฀are฀multiple฀valid฀and฀good฀uses฀ of฀God‘s฀law,฀and฀in฀life฀experience฀the฀ various฀uses฀may฀tend฀to฀slide฀together,฀ but฀earning฀our฀way฀to฀heaven฀is฀not฀a฀ proper฀use฀of฀God‘s฀law. If฀ very฀ strong฀ feelings฀ about฀ God‘s฀ law฀are฀often฀connected฀with฀mistaken฀ interpretations฀ as฀ well฀ as฀ with฀ mistaken฀uses฀of฀God‘s฀law,฀we฀should฀try฀to฀ articulate฀ clear฀ principles฀ of฀ interpretation฀ and฀ application.฀ The฀ following฀ seven฀ principles฀ have฀ been฀ developed฀ by฀a฀range฀of฀theologians,฀ethicists,฀and฀ bible฀scholars.฀They฀are฀presented฀here฀ as฀a฀kind฀of฀compendium฀or฀short฀study฀ for฀those฀who฀may฀not฀be฀able฀to฀read฀ extensively฀ in฀ Christian฀ ethics฀ or฀ hermeneutics.฀ Serious฀ students฀ will฀ want฀ to฀read฀much฀farther. THEOLOGISCHE AKZENTE Interpreting the Ten Commandments ... I The negative implies the positive Many฀ of฀ the฀ commandments฀ are฀ phrased฀ in฀ the฀ negative,฀ „you฀ shall฀ not฀...“฀ From฀ that฀ starting฀ point฀ a฀ mature,฀ morally฀ sensitive฀ reader฀ can฀ normally฀ see฀ the฀ positive฀ expectation฀ of฀a฀particular฀commandment,฀what฀we฀ should฀do.฀Since฀God฀did฀not฀make฀us฀ to฀ be฀ robots฀ or฀ computers,฀ apparently฀ he฀wants฀us฀to฀engage฀in฀the฀process฀of฀ considering฀ the฀ positive฀ demand฀ implied฀ by฀ the฀ negative฀ prohibition.฀ For฀ example,฀ Commandment฀ 6฀ says,฀ „You฀ shall฀ not฀ murder“.฀ If฀ you฀ are฀ able฀ to฀ read฀this฀article,฀you฀probably฀also฀have฀ the฀ ability฀ to฀ think฀ out฀ the฀ positive฀ demand฀of฀Commandment฀6,฀that฀God฀ wants฀us฀to฀protect฀and฀care฀for฀the฀lives฀ of฀people.฀Even฀if฀no฀murder฀detective฀ is฀ hot฀ on฀ your฀ trail,฀ you฀ are฀ not฀ fi฀nished฀with฀this฀commandment.฀We฀are฀ required฀to฀treat฀the฀people฀we฀meet฀as฀ images฀or฀refl฀ections฀of฀the฀Lord฀himself.฀ But฀ even฀ that฀ does฀ not฀ complete฀ our฀obligations.฀We฀have฀to฀think฀about฀ society฀ very฀ generally.฀ What฀ is฀ there฀ that฀ we฀ could฀ do฀ to฀ protect฀ and฀ care฀ for฀the฀lives฀of฀other฀people฀in฀our฀city,฀ our฀ country,฀ and฀ beyond?฀ Obedience฀ to฀this฀commandment฀goes฀far฀beyond฀ avoiding฀ murder.฀ It฀ should฀ make฀ us฀ consider฀long฀and฀hard฀what฀we฀need฀to฀ do฀ to฀ protect฀ people’s฀ lives฀ and฀ safety.฀ There฀is฀a฀direct฀spiritual฀line฀from฀this฀ commandment฀to฀actions฀like฀working฀ to฀ abolish฀ slavery,฀ starting฀ orphanages,฀ providing฀ disaster฀ assistance,฀ and฀ ending฀abortion.฀If฀the฀negative฀prohi- MBS TEXTE 34 bition฀implies฀and฀assumes฀the฀positive฀ demand,฀ we฀ can฀ spend฀ a฀ lifetime฀ learning฀to฀obey฀the฀will฀of฀God. If฀we฀are฀morally฀sensitive฀readers฀of฀ the฀Decalogue,฀we฀must฀do฀something฀ like฀this฀with฀most฀of฀the฀ten.฀We฀will฀ begin฀a฀process฀of฀thinking,฀consideration,฀ and฀ action฀ that฀ can฀ change฀ our฀ lives,฀families,฀and฀communities. 2 A direct prohibition of an action makes improper moral rationalizing more difficult This฀is฀a฀moral฀consideration฀that฀also฀ has฀to฀do฀with฀the฀negative฀phrasing฀of฀ the฀ commandments.฀ One฀ can฀ understand฀this฀by฀contrasting฀a฀very฀general฀ moral฀ principle฀ like฀ „private฀ property“฀ with฀ God‘s฀ commandment,฀ „You฀ shall฀ not฀ steal“.฀ Of฀ course฀ the฀ general฀ moral฀ principle฀ is฀ very฀ good฀ and฀ has฀ much฀ value฀ in฀ life฀ and฀ society.฀ But฀ in฀ a฀moment฀of฀weakness฀or฀temptation฀it฀ is฀ much฀ more฀ powerful฀ for฀ us฀ sinners฀ to฀have฀the฀explicit฀negative฀command฀ echoing฀in฀the฀back฀of฀our฀minds.฀The฀ commandment฀ confronts฀ us฀ precisely฀ at฀ the฀ point฀ of฀ our฀ weakness.฀ It฀ puts฀ a฀ name฀ on฀ the฀ sinful฀ act฀ we฀ might฀ otherwise฀ prefer฀ to฀ leave฀ unnamed฀ and฀ unnoticed,฀ and฀ we฀ sinners฀ would฀ prefer฀ to฀ leave฀ our฀ sins฀ unnamed฀ and฀ unnoticed.฀Of฀course฀the฀negative฀confrontation฀is฀uncomfortable฀for฀us,฀but฀ precisely฀this฀moral฀discomfort฀may฀be฀ what฀is฀necessary฀to฀restrain฀some฀of฀our฀ destructive฀instincts.฀Many฀of฀the฀com- 5 Thomas K. Johnson mandments฀ can฀ be฀ rephrased฀ as฀ positive,฀ general฀ moral฀ principles,฀ and฀ as฀ suggested฀above,฀this฀is฀a฀good฀thing฀to฀ do.฀If฀done฀properly,฀this฀will฀be฀extremely฀ challenging,฀ even฀ life฀ changing.฀ But฀ this฀ must฀ never฀ replace฀ the฀ negative,฀ confrontational฀ format฀ in฀ which฀ God฀ chose฀ to฀ give฀ the฀ commands.฀ All฀ too฀often฀our฀sinful฀nature฀would฀seek฀ to฀fi฀nd฀good฀sounding฀rational/ethical฀ reasons฀for฀doing฀what฀is฀simply฀wrong.฀ Then฀we฀need฀to฀be฀confronted฀by฀the฀ divine฀„You฀shall฀not“! 3 If we interpret the commandments properly, we will be confronted in our sinfulness If฀God฀had฀given฀the฀commandments฀ to฀Adam฀and฀Eve฀prior฀to฀the฀fall฀into฀ sin,฀the฀disturbing฀word฀„NOT“฀might฀ have฀been฀avoided.฀But฀since฀the฀fall,฀all฀ of฀us,฀the฀sons฀and฀daughters฀of฀Adam฀ and฀ Eve,฀ need฀ to฀ be฀ continually฀ confronted฀ with฀ our฀ sin.฀ One฀ could฀ say฀ we฀ need฀ to฀ get฀ to฀ know฀ ourselves฀ as฀ God฀ sees฀ us,฀ and฀ that฀ means฀ getting฀ to฀know฀ourselves฀as฀sinners.฀This฀self฀ knowledge฀ is฀ not฀ something฀ that฀ one฀ learns฀simply฀and฀quickly,฀like฀a฀bit฀of฀ information;฀it฀is฀a฀continual฀process฀of฀ learning฀that฀lasts฀a฀lifetime,฀something฀ like฀ the฀ process฀ of฀ learning฀ wisdom.฀ The฀ commandment฀ says฀ „You฀ shall฀ not“,฀to฀which฀a฀dark฀voice฀in฀our฀souls฀ sometimes฀still฀replies,฀„But฀I฀want฀to“.฀ In฀this฀experience฀we฀encounter฀one฀of฀ the฀ darkest฀ sides฀ of฀ sin:฀ sometimes฀ we฀ 6 want฀to฀do฀something฀simply฀because฀it฀ is฀wrong.฀This฀leads฀to฀the฀unpleasant฀ collision฀with฀the฀little฀word฀„not“. This฀experience฀is฀a฀key฀that฀helps฀us฀ understand฀ the฀ continually฀ recurring฀ controversy฀about฀the฀public฀display฀of฀ the฀Ten฀Commandments.฀If฀one฀reads฀ the฀American฀legal฀documents฀surrounding฀this฀controversy,฀one฀will฀probably฀ fi฀nd฀competing฀theories฀about฀the฀separation฀of฀church฀and฀state.฀Some฀of฀us฀ think฀that฀as฀long฀as฀the฀state฀does฀not฀ fund฀ or฀ directly฀ promote฀ a฀ particular฀ church,฀ and฀ as฀ long฀ as฀ no฀ church฀ is฀ controlling฀ the฀ state,฀ we฀ have฀ enough฀ separation฀of฀church฀and฀state.฀Others฀ seem฀ to฀ want฀ almost฀ no฀ contact฀ between฀ any฀ state฀ agency฀ and฀ anything฀ vaguely฀ religious,฀ even฀ symbols฀ or฀ terminology,฀ perhaps฀ an฀ impossible฀ goal.฀ But฀this฀disagreement฀might฀be฀a฀quiet฀ debate฀among฀scholars,฀were฀it฀not฀for฀ the฀ intense฀ reactions฀ people฀ have฀ to฀ the฀ Ten฀ Commandments.฀ The฀ law฀ of฀ God฀ makes฀ us฀ feel฀ guilty฀ because฀ we฀ are฀ guilty;฀ there฀ is฀ no฀ escaping฀ this฀ ฀unpleasant฀truth.฀If฀we฀are฀believers,฀it฀ pushes฀us฀to฀more฀deeply฀appreciate฀the฀ gospel฀of฀forgiveness฀in฀Christ.฀But฀the฀ person฀who฀does฀not฀accept฀forgiveness฀ in฀ Christ฀ may฀ simply฀ become฀ angry,฀ and฀ this฀ anger฀ may฀ be฀ taken฀ out฀ on฀ people฀who฀have฀a฀different฀reaction฀to฀ God‘s฀law. THEOLOGISCHE AKZENTE Interpreting the Ten Commandments ... 4 The Decalogue is a sharpening and clarification of the general revelation of God‘s law through creation We฀ should฀ normally฀ speak฀ of฀ two฀ revelations฀from฀God,฀his฀special฀revelation฀through฀Christ฀and฀Scripture฀and฀ his฀general฀revelation฀through฀creation.฀ There฀are฀very฀signifi฀cant฀differences฀in฀ content฀ between฀ the฀ two฀ revelations:฀ special฀ revelation฀ has฀ Christ฀ and฀ the฀ gospel฀at฀its฀very฀center,฀whereas฀general฀revelation฀contains฀only฀vague฀hints฀ about฀ grace;฀ general฀ revelation฀ gives฀ us฀ a฀ sense฀ of฀ God‘s฀ majesty฀ and฀ holiness,฀whereas฀special฀revelation฀gives฀us฀ much฀ more฀ specifi฀c฀ information฀ about฀ God‘s฀ character฀ and฀ also฀ explains฀ his฀ mercy;฀by฀special฀revelation฀God‘s฀law฀ was฀ specifi฀cally฀ written฀ on฀ stone฀ at฀ Sinai,฀whereas฀by฀general฀revelation฀his฀ law฀ was฀ partly฀ written฀ in฀ the฀ human฀ heart฀and฀mind.฀This฀means฀that฀even฀ if฀ people฀ do฀ not฀ acknowledge฀ it฀ and฀ do฀ not฀ like฀ it,฀ they฀ know฀ something฀ about฀the฀demands฀of฀God‘s฀law.฀This฀ knowledge฀ comes฀ through฀ conscience,฀ through฀feelings฀for฀the฀needs฀of฀others,฀ through฀thinking฀about฀what฀is฀rational฀ for฀people฀to฀do,฀through฀relationships,฀ and฀ through฀ the฀ everyday฀ demands฀ of฀ life.฀ We฀ could฀ call฀ it฀ an฀ unrecognized฀ demand,฀ because฀ some฀ do฀ not฀ want฀ to฀ recognize฀ that฀ the฀ demand฀ comes฀ from฀ the฀ Almighty.฀ It฀ is฀ this฀ unrecognized฀demand฀that฀is฀a฀primary฀means฀ of฀God‘s฀common,฀civilizing฀grace฀that฀ helps฀ keep฀ life฀ in฀ society฀ somewhat฀ humane,฀ and฀ which฀ also฀ can฀ prepare฀ MBS TEXTE 34 people฀to฀see฀their฀need฀for฀the฀gospel. Because฀ of฀ this฀ general฀ revelation฀ of฀ God‘s฀law,฀also฀called฀the฀natural฀moral฀ law,฀ the฀ Ten฀ Commandments฀ are฀ not฀ exactly฀ „new“฀ or฀ „news“.฀ Reading฀ or฀ hearing฀ the฀ Decalogue฀ is฀ more฀ like฀ taking฀ passive฀ knowledge฀ and฀ making฀ it฀ active฀ or฀ like฀ taking฀ subconscious฀ knowledge฀ and฀ making฀ it฀ conscious.฀ For฀some฀it฀may฀be฀like฀remembering฀a฀ pleasant฀dream,฀for฀others฀it฀is฀more฀like฀ being฀ pushed฀ back฀ into฀ a฀ frightening฀ nightmare฀ because฀ of฀ the฀ demanding฀ Law฀Giver฀they฀hoped฀to฀avoid. People฀ just฀ know฀ that฀ murder,฀ stealing,฀ lying,฀ and฀ adultery฀ are฀ wrong,฀ even฀ when฀ they฀ try฀ to฀ defend฀ their฀ foolish฀ actions.฀ People฀ just฀ know฀ we฀ should฀ practice฀ love,฀ justice,฀ honesty,฀ faithfulness฀and฀courage,฀even฀if฀some฀ may฀not฀want฀to฀admit฀that฀we฀know.฀ This฀ is฀ because฀ of฀ God‘s฀ general฀ revelation.฀ We฀ should฀ not฀ talk฀ as฀ if฀ the฀ Ten฀Commandments฀primarily฀give฀us฀ new฀information฀that฀we฀did฀not฀have฀ before.฀ The฀ written฀ law฀ of฀ God฀ takes฀ the฀ demand฀ that฀ may฀ have฀ previously฀ been฀ unrecognized฀ and฀ makes฀ it฀ more฀ clear,฀conscious,฀and฀precise,฀while฀also฀ emphasizing฀ that฀ this฀ demand฀ comes฀ from฀our฀Creator. 5 The Ten Commandments each build on and protect an important dimension of the creation order Each฀ of฀ the฀ commandments฀ makes฀ certain฀ assumptions฀ about฀ human฀ life฀ 7 Thomas K. Johnson and฀the฀created฀moral฀order.฀Because฀of฀ the฀reality฀of฀this฀created฀order,฀it฀is฀possible฀for฀people฀to฀abuse฀this฀order฀or฀go฀ the฀ wrong฀ direction฀ within฀ this฀ order.฀ Some฀examples฀will฀make฀this฀clear. We฀ are฀ commanded,฀ „You฀ shall฀ not฀ bear฀ false฀ witness฀ against฀ your฀ neighbor“.฀A฀crucial฀assumption฀of฀this฀commandment฀ is฀ that฀ words฀ are฀ powerful฀ and฀ play฀ a฀ large฀ role฀ in฀ relationships฀ and฀in฀society.฀This฀is฀a฀distinct฀dimension฀ or฀ structure฀ of฀ the฀ created฀ moral฀ order.฀ Part฀ of฀ the฀ image฀ of฀ God฀ in฀ us฀ is฀that฀our฀words฀make฀things฀happen;฀ after฀ all,฀ God฀ created฀ the฀ whole฀ universe฀ by฀ speaking.฀ We฀ also฀ create฀ by฀ means฀of฀words,฀including฀plans,฀policies,฀goals,฀reports,฀and฀even฀the฀words฀ we฀speak฀only฀to฀ourselves.฀Of฀course,฀ relationships฀ are฀ created฀ largely฀ by฀ means฀of฀words.฀This฀is฀enough฀on฀the฀ topic฀of฀speech฀to฀illustrate฀the฀way฀this฀ commandment฀ builds฀ on฀ and฀ protects฀ a฀ particular฀ dimension฀ of฀ the฀ created฀ moral฀ order.฀ Or฀ maybe฀ we฀ should฀ say฀ the฀commandment฀requires฀us฀to฀go฀the฀ right฀ direction฀ within฀ a฀ created฀ structure. A฀second฀illustration฀using฀a฀different฀ commandment฀may฀be฀in฀order.฀We฀are฀ told฀ in฀ the฀ fi฀rst฀ commandment,฀ „You฀ shall฀ have฀ no฀ other฀ gods฀ before฀ me.“฀ Of฀ course,฀ this฀ commandment฀ confronts฀idolatry,฀which฀is฀common.฀This฀ commandment฀is฀necessary฀because฀of฀ at฀ least฀ two฀ dimensions฀ of฀ the฀ created฀ moral฀order.฀First,฀people฀are฀incurably฀ religious.฀ Even฀ if฀ people฀ do฀ not฀ worship฀the฀true฀God,฀they฀can฀hardly฀stop฀ themselves฀from฀looking฀somewhere฀for฀ 8 their฀hope,฀comfort,฀and฀meaning.฀And฀ as฀ soon฀ as฀ people฀ turn฀ somewhere฀ for฀ hope฀and฀comfort,฀they฀turn฀something฀ created,฀some฀created฀good,฀into฀a฀godsubstitute,฀hoping฀this฀idol฀will฀provide฀ what฀ they฀ need.฀ This฀ dimension฀ of฀ human฀ life฀ moved฀ the฀ atheist฀ philosopher฀Ludwig฀Feuerbach฀to฀say฀that฀the฀ main฀ difference฀ between฀ humans฀ and฀ animals฀ is฀ that฀ people฀ are฀ religious.฀ Idolatry฀would฀not฀be฀possible฀as฀a฀sin฀ if฀ people฀ were฀ not฀ created฀ as฀ religious฀ beings.฀This฀fi฀rst฀commandment฀builds฀ on฀ and฀ directs฀ this฀ dimension฀ of฀ the฀ created฀moral฀order. The฀ fi฀rst฀ commandment฀ also฀ builds฀ on฀ and฀ directs฀ a฀ second฀ dimension฀ of฀ the฀created฀moral฀order.฀This฀has฀to฀do฀ with฀the฀role฀of฀religion฀in฀personal฀and฀ cultural฀ life.฀ False฀ religion,฀ idolatry,฀ is฀ important฀ not฀ only฀ because฀ it฀ insults฀ God฀but฀also฀because฀religion฀plays฀such฀ a฀large฀role฀in฀shaping฀personal฀and฀cultural฀life.฀If฀we฀worship฀personal฀peace฀ and฀ affl฀uence,฀ our฀ lives฀ will฀ take฀ one฀ shape;฀ if฀ we฀ worship฀ our฀ Creator฀ and฀ Redeemer,฀ our฀ lives฀ will฀ take฀ another฀ shape.฀ The฀ philosopher฀ Paul฀ Tillich฀ summarized฀ some฀ of฀ the฀ better฀ sociological฀ and฀ anthropological฀ insights฀ when฀ he฀ said,฀ „Culture฀ is฀ the฀ form฀ of฀ religion;฀religion฀is฀the฀substance฀of฀culture.“฀ This฀ observation฀ may฀ not฀ be฀ as฀ penetrating฀and฀critical฀as฀the฀Old฀Testament฀assessment฀of฀why฀idolatry฀is฀so฀ dreadful.฀ About฀ idols฀ we฀ read,฀ „Those฀ who฀make฀them฀will฀be฀like฀them,฀and฀ so฀ will฀ all฀ who฀ trust฀ in฀ them“.฀ (Psalm฀ 135:18)฀The฀fi฀rst฀commandment฀builds฀ on฀ a฀ crucial฀ dimension฀ of฀ how฀ God฀ THEOLOGISCHE AKZENTE Interpreting the Ten Commandments ... created฀ human฀ life:฀ Our฀ choice฀ of฀ an฀ object฀ of฀ worship฀ will฀ play฀ a฀ massive฀ role฀in฀shaping฀our฀personal฀and฀cultural฀life.฀This฀relationship฀between฀worship฀and฀the฀shape฀of฀human฀life฀is฀part฀ of฀the฀creation฀order. These฀comments฀on฀two฀of฀the฀commandments฀must฀be฀seen฀as฀illustrative฀ of฀a฀principle฀of฀interpretation.฀Each฀of฀ the฀ten฀builds฀on,฀protects,฀and฀directs฀ our฀ actions฀ in฀ relation฀ to฀ a฀ particular฀ dimension฀ or฀ structure฀ of฀ the฀ created฀ order฀that฀is฀at฀risk฀because฀of฀sin.฀The฀ commandments฀ teach฀ us฀ how฀ to฀ use฀ the฀ different฀ dimensions฀ of฀ creation฀ properly฀and฀how฀to฀move฀in฀the฀right฀ direction฀within฀the฀various฀structures฀ of฀creation. 6 The Ten Commandments were given to us in a particular organic order The฀ Decalogue฀ does฀ not฀ begin฀ with฀ the฀prohibition฀of฀adultery,฀not฀does฀it฀ end฀ with฀ the฀ rule฀ against฀ lying.฀ Even฀ if฀ you฀ have฀ not฀ thought฀ about฀ it,฀ you฀ probably฀ sense฀ a฀ certain฀ order฀ of฀ presentation.฀Some฀refl฀ection฀on฀this฀order฀ can฀teach฀us฀much฀about฀moral฀life฀and฀ experience.฀ The฀ fi฀rst฀ commandment฀ addresses฀ the฀ deepest฀ motives฀ of฀ our฀ hearts,฀ the฀ choice฀ of฀ an฀ object฀ for฀ our฀ worship.฀This฀commandment฀seems฀to฀ be฀in฀the฀fi฀rst฀position฀because฀all฀of฀life฀ fl฀ows฀ from฀ our฀ choice฀ of฀ an฀ object฀ of฀ worship.฀With฀a฀little฀exaggeration฀one฀ might฀say฀that฀our฀response฀to฀the฀fi฀rst฀ commandment฀decides฀our฀response฀to฀ MBS TEXTE 34 the฀other฀commandments.฀The฀second฀ and฀third฀commandments฀build฀on฀the฀ basic฀ principles฀ of฀ the฀ fi฀rst฀ commandment,฀giving฀a฀lot฀more฀defi฀nition฀and฀ content฀to฀our฀worship,฀while฀also฀speaking฀ to฀ the฀ problems฀ of฀ our฀ worship฀ becoming฀mixed฀with฀idolatry฀or฀unbalanced฀from฀an฀improper฀view฀of฀God.฀ The฀ fourth฀ commandment฀ (Sabbath)฀ requires฀ that฀ our฀ worship฀ include฀ the฀ public฀ institutional฀ expression฀ of฀ our฀ faith.฀It฀is฀not฀only฀about฀a฀day฀but฀also฀ about฀ public฀ worship,฀ which฀ requires฀ having฀ a฀ time,฀ place,฀ plan,฀ facilities,฀ and฀so฀on.฀It฀is฀valuable฀to฀see฀that฀the฀ Sabbath฀commandment฀stands฀between฀ the฀commandments฀that฀may฀be฀largely฀ hidden฀ matters฀ of฀ the฀ heart฀ (the฀ fi฀rst฀ three)฀ and฀ the฀ commandments฀ that฀ address฀public฀society฀matters,฀such฀as฀ stealing,฀lying,฀murder,฀etc.฀This฀order฀ closely฀ parallels฀ an฀ important฀ characteristic฀ of฀ life:฀ a฀ person’s฀ faith฀ begins฀ to฀ effectively฀ transform฀ a฀ person’s฀ life฀ partly฀by฀means฀participation฀in฀public฀ worship฀ with฀ a฀ worshipping฀ community.฀ People฀ can฀ claim฀ to฀ have฀ a฀ deep฀ faith฀ without฀ that฀ faith฀ having฀ much฀ effect฀ on฀ their฀ life฀ and฀ habits.฀ Participation฀ in฀ worship,฀ Bible฀ study,฀ prayer,฀ giving,฀serving,฀and฀witnessing฀in฀a฀real฀ community฀with฀a฀living฀congregation฀ turns฀a฀hidden฀faith฀into฀a฀transformed฀ life.฀The฀fourth฀commandment฀makes฀ a฀hidden฀faith฀public฀and฀equips฀a฀person฀for฀the฀commands฀that฀follow. The฀fi฀fth฀commandment,฀about฀honoring฀parents,฀is฀in฀some฀ways฀similar฀to฀ the฀ Sabbath฀ command.฀ People฀ who฀ have฀intact฀relations฀with฀their฀parents฀ 9 Thomas K. Johnson and฀who฀also฀keep฀the฀Sabbath฀will฀be฀ largely฀equipped฀to฀keep฀the฀following฀ commandments.฀Phrased฀differently,฀it฀ is฀by฀means฀of฀church฀and฀family฀that฀a฀ real฀faith฀becomes฀a฀power฀that฀changes฀ life฀ and฀ culture.฀ And฀ even฀ those฀ people฀who฀do฀not฀share฀in฀the฀life฀of฀faith฀ in฀the฀church,฀but฀who฀do฀have฀intact฀ relations฀ with฀ their฀ parents,฀ are฀ much฀ better฀able฀to฀keep฀the฀following฀commandments฀and฀have฀a฀humane฀life฀in฀ society.฀Even฀without฀a฀proper฀faith,฀an฀ intact฀family฀is฀means฀of฀common฀grace฀ that฀helps฀keep฀human฀life฀humane. Commandments฀ six฀ through฀ nine฀ are฀the฀primary฀social฀commandments.฀ They฀are฀intended฀to฀protect฀life,฀marriage,฀ property,฀ and฀ truth.฀ Though฀ most฀societies฀have฀some฀rules฀on฀these฀ topics฀ because฀ these฀ topics฀ are฀ central฀ to฀ the฀ natural฀ moral฀ law฀ (revealed฀ by฀ God฀ through฀ creation),฀ these฀ commandments฀remind฀us฀that฀God฀is฀very฀ interested฀in฀these฀matters.฀Our฀actions฀ in฀ all฀ these฀ areas฀ are฀ either฀ glorifying฀ or฀ dishonoring฀ to฀ God.฀ They฀ are฀ the฀ major฀areas฀of฀concern฀in฀the฀study฀of฀ applied฀ethics. The฀ last฀ commandment฀ says,฀ „You฀ shall฀ not฀ covet“.฀ As฀ the฀ apostle฀ Paul฀ discovered฀(Romans฀7:7),฀this฀is฀a฀commandment฀ that฀ is฀ different฀ from฀ the฀ previous฀four.฀We฀cannot฀easily฀deceive฀ ourselves฀ into฀ thinking฀ we฀ have฀ fulfi฀lled฀it.฀All฀of฀us฀covet฀in฀some฀way฀at฀ some฀time.฀But฀coveting฀is฀not฀really฀a฀ specifi฀c฀sin฀so฀much฀as฀a฀desire฀to฀commit฀some฀other฀sinful฀action.฀The฀commandment฀ says฀ we฀ are฀ not฀ to฀ covet฀ a฀ neighbor’s฀house฀or฀wife,฀referring฀back฀ 10 to฀ the฀ commandments฀ about฀ stealing฀ and฀ adultery,฀ in฀ this฀ way฀ illustrating฀ God‘s฀expectation฀of฀a฀right฀attitude฀or฀ desire฀in฀relation฀to฀all฀the฀commandments.฀ So฀ the฀ last฀ commandment฀ is฀ a฀ principle฀ of฀ interpreting฀ all฀ the฀ commandments:฀ all฀ the฀ commandments฀ require฀ not฀ only฀ the฀ right฀ actions฀ but฀ also฀the฀right฀desires฀and฀intentions.฀All฀ the฀commandments฀address฀the฀attitudes฀of฀the฀human฀heart. If฀ we฀ encounter฀ the฀ last฀ commandment฀properly฀it฀forces฀us฀to฀our฀knees฀ to฀ confess฀ our฀ sin,฀ and฀ then฀ it฀ drives฀ us฀back฀to฀the฀beginning฀of฀the฀Decalogue,฀ to฀ learn฀ that฀ our฀ God฀ is฀ a฀ God฀ who฀delivers฀from฀bondage.฀This฀means฀ that฀the฀order฀of฀the฀commandments฀is฀ not฀exactly฀a฀line;฀it฀is฀more฀like฀a฀circle.฀ Once฀ we฀ have฀ discovered฀ that฀ our฀ hearts฀are฀fi฀lled฀with฀coveting,฀then฀we฀ are฀ready฀to฀properly฀consider฀the฀question฀of฀a฀pure฀faith,฀which฀is฀฀demanded฀ by฀the฀fi฀rst฀three฀commandments. 7 The Ten Commandments contain a dynamic dialogue between law and grace Throughout฀the฀Bible฀we฀are฀confronted฀by฀both฀the฀Gospel,฀a฀set฀of฀promises฀of฀God‘s฀grace,฀and฀the฀Law,฀which฀ is฀ a฀ set฀ of฀ commands฀ to฀ obey.฀ For฀ the฀ life฀of฀faith฀to฀stay฀in฀balance,฀we฀must฀ be฀ continually฀ responding฀ to฀ both฀ the฀ law฀ and฀ the฀ Gospel.฀ Distortions฀ arise฀ when฀ either฀ is฀ neglected฀ or฀ misconstrued.฀What฀we฀might฀miss฀is฀the฀way฀in฀ which฀the฀Decalogue฀itself฀points฀to฀the฀ THEOLOGISCHE AKZENTE Interpreting the Ten Commandments ... life฀of฀faith฀as฀a฀dynamic฀dialogue฀with฀ both฀the฀Law฀and฀the฀Gospel. Of฀ course฀ the฀ Ten฀ Commandments฀ are฀ primarily฀ law,฀ the฀ outline฀ of฀ all฀ of฀ God‘s฀law.฀Where฀do฀we฀see฀the฀gospel฀ of฀ grace฀ in฀ the฀ Decalogue?฀ The฀ fi฀rst฀ place฀ is฀ the฀ preamble:฀ „I฀ am฀ the฀ Lord฀ your฀ God฀ who฀ brought฀ you฀ out฀ of฀ Egypt,฀out฀of฀the฀land฀of฀slavery“.฀For฀ Old฀ Testament฀ believers,฀ the฀ Exodus฀ out฀of฀Egypt฀was฀the฀great฀act฀of฀God฀ to฀rescue฀and฀save฀them.฀In฀their฀faith,฀ the฀Exodus฀played฀a฀role฀very฀similar฀to฀ the฀role฀played฀by฀the฀death฀and฀resurrection฀ of฀ Jesus฀ for฀ New฀ Testament฀ believers.฀It฀was฀the฀key฀historical฀event฀ which฀formed฀a฀basis฀for฀their฀redemption,฀ faith,฀ and฀ identity.฀ As฀ New฀ Testament฀ believers฀ we฀ could฀ almost฀ substitute฀ that฀ says฀ something฀ like,฀ „I฀ am฀ the฀ Lord฀ your฀ God฀ who฀ sent฀ Jesus฀ to฀ pay฀for฀all฀your฀sins.“฀Of฀course฀this฀sets฀ the฀Ten฀Commandments฀into฀a฀context฀ or฀ framework฀ of฀ a฀ life฀ of฀ response฀ to฀ grace,฀a฀life฀of฀gratitude.฀It฀would฀be฀a฀ big฀mistake฀for฀us฀to฀neglect฀reading฀the฀ preamble฀when฀we฀read฀the฀Decalogue. A฀ second฀ place฀ we฀ see฀ the฀ dynamic฀ dialogue฀ between฀ law฀ and฀ gospel฀ is฀ in฀ the฀ third฀ commandment,฀ „You฀ shall฀ not฀misuse฀the฀name฀of฀the฀Lord฀your฀ God“.฀ In฀ parts฀ of฀ the฀ Old฀ Testament,฀ and฀ especially฀ in฀ the฀ book฀ of฀ Exodus,฀ the฀ phrase฀ „name฀ of฀ God“฀ had฀ a฀ very฀ particular฀meaning.฀It฀referred฀to฀a฀proper฀recognition฀of฀both฀God‘s฀holiness฀ and฀wrath,฀on฀the฀one฀hand,฀but฀also฀his฀ grace฀and฀mercy,฀on฀the฀other฀hand.฀In฀ Exodus฀34:฀6฀&฀7฀God฀proclaimed฀his฀ own฀name฀to฀Moses฀saying,฀„The฀Lord,฀ MBS TEXTE 34 the฀ Lord,฀ the฀ compassionate฀ and฀ gracious฀God,฀slow฀to฀anger,฀abounding฀in฀ love฀and฀faithfulness,฀maintaining฀love฀ to฀thousands,฀and฀forgiving฀wickedness,฀ rebellion,฀and฀sin.฀Yet฀he฀does฀not฀leave฀ the฀guilty฀unpunished;฀he฀punishes฀the฀ children฀ and฀ their฀ children฀ for฀ the฀ sin฀ of฀ the฀ fathers฀ to฀ the฀ third฀ and฀ fourth฀ generation“.฀ This฀ description฀ of฀ God฀ explains฀ what฀ his฀ „name“฀ means:฀ the฀ carefully฀ balanced฀ understanding฀ of฀ both฀God‘s฀grace฀and฀his฀wrath฀on฀sin.฀ In฀this฀balanced฀description฀of฀God฀we฀ see฀the฀basis฀for฀both฀the฀promise฀of฀forgiveness฀in฀the฀gospel฀and฀the฀demand฀ for฀obedience฀to฀his฀law.฀To฀not฀misuse฀ the฀name฀of฀God,฀to฀speak฀of฀him฀properly,฀requires฀we฀that฀keep฀both฀his฀law฀ and฀his฀gospel,฀his฀wrath฀and฀his฀grace฀ in฀view. A฀fi฀nal฀way฀we฀see฀the฀dialogue฀between฀law฀and฀gospel฀is฀in฀the฀last฀commandment.฀When฀God฀says,฀„You฀shall฀ not฀covet“,฀all฀we฀can฀do฀is฀fall฀to฀our฀ knees฀and฀say,฀„God฀be฀merciful฀to฀me,฀a฀ sinner“.฀If฀we฀are฀honest฀with฀ourselves,฀ God‘s฀ law฀ will฀ drive฀ us฀ to฀ seek฀ God‘s฀ grace฀and฀forgiveness฀once฀again. 8 Reflections God‘s฀ law฀ will฀ probably฀ always฀ be฀ controversial฀ among฀ fallen฀ men฀ and฀ women.฀People฀love฀or฀hate฀God‘s฀commands,฀ and฀ maybe฀ both฀ at฀ the฀ same฀ time.฀ This฀ complex฀ reaction฀ is฀ to฀ be฀ expected฀ because฀ the฀ law฀ both฀ confronts฀our฀sinfulness฀and฀also฀guides฀us฀ in฀ the฀ direction฀ of฀ living฀ consistently฀ 11 Thomas K. Johnson with฀ how฀ God฀ created฀ us฀ to฀ live.฀ In฀ the฀midst฀of฀these฀strong฀feelings,฀and฀ maybe฀ to฀ overcome฀ these฀ strong฀ feelings,฀it฀is฀important฀to฀try฀to฀interpret฀ the฀commandments฀carefully.฀It฀is฀probably฀wise฀to฀always฀emphasize฀that฀the฀ law฀is฀not฀the฀gospel฀and฀is฀not฀the฀way฀ to฀earn฀salvation,฀since฀mistakes฀on฀this฀ topic฀are฀so฀common฀and฀so฀serious.฀It฀ is฀probably฀also฀wise฀to฀emphasize฀that฀ the฀ commandments฀ fi฀t฀ so฀ closely฀ with฀ the฀ general฀ revelation฀ of฀ the฀ natural฀ moral฀ law฀ and฀ with฀ the฀ created฀ moral฀ order.฀This฀helps฀overcome฀the฀misunderstanding฀ that฀ sees฀ God‘s฀ law฀ as฀ arbitrary฀or฀destructive฀of฀human฀well฀ being.฀These฀insights฀may฀help฀us฀learn฀ to฀love฀God‘s฀law. Further reading: There฀ are฀ two฀ truly฀ classical฀ studies฀in฀the฀special฀hermeneutics฀of฀the฀ Decalogue฀ that฀ theological฀ students฀ will฀surely฀want฀to฀read.฀They฀are฀John฀ Calvin,฀Institutes฀of฀the฀Christian฀Religion,฀Book฀II,฀Chapter฀8,฀sections฀1฀to฀ 12฀(Final฀Latin฀version฀in฀1559,฀translated฀ by฀ Ford฀ Lewis฀ Battles,฀ edited฀ by฀ John฀ T.฀ McNeill,฀ Philadelphia:฀ The฀ Westminster฀Press,฀1960);฀and฀Charles฀ Hodge,฀ Systematic฀ Theology,฀ Vol.฀ 3,฀ Chapter฀19,฀sections฀1฀to฀3.฀(Originally฀ published฀ in฀ 1873.฀ Reprint฀ edition,฀ Grand฀ Rapids:฀ Wm.฀ B.฀ Eerdmans,฀ 1986.)฀An฀excellent฀overview฀of฀Calvin฀ and฀classical฀Reformed฀theology฀related฀ to฀the฀law฀is฀I.฀John฀Hesselink,฀Calvin‘s฀ Concept฀of฀the฀Law฀(Allison฀Park,฀PA:฀ Pickwick฀Publications,฀1992). 12 The฀distinction฀between฀law฀and฀gospel฀ was฀ classically฀ developed฀ for฀ evangelical฀thought฀by฀Martin฀Luther,฀especially฀in฀his฀Commentary฀on฀Galatians฀ of฀ 1536,฀ which฀ is฀ available฀ in฀ various฀ editions.฀The฀connection฀between฀natural฀ law฀ and฀ the฀ Decalogue฀ was฀ classically฀articulated฀by฀Thomas฀Aquinas฀in฀ his฀Treatise฀on฀Law,฀which฀is฀questions฀ 90–97฀ of฀ his฀ Summa฀ Theologica,฀ originally฀ published฀ in฀ the฀ 1270‘s,฀ now฀ available฀in฀various฀editions.฀The฀views฀ of฀Aquinas฀were฀substantially฀followed฀ by฀Calvin฀and฀Luther,฀and฀can฀bear฀the฀ type฀of฀light฀improvement฀suggested฀by฀ Albert฀ Wolters฀ in฀ Creation฀ Regained฀ (Grand฀ Rapids:฀ Wm.฀ B.฀ Eerdmans,฀ 1985).฀ The฀ slogan฀ „The฀ War฀ of฀ all฀ against฀ All“฀ was฀ probably฀ coined฀ by฀ Thomas฀ Hobbes฀ and฀ enjoys฀ a฀ prominent฀ place฀ in฀ his฀ work฀ Leviathan฀ (1651).฀ Good฀ excerpts฀ from฀ Hobbes฀ are฀ found฀ in฀ most฀ good฀ anthologies฀ of฀ readings฀ in฀ ethics฀ and฀ political฀ theory.฀ Ludwig฀ Feuerbach‘s฀ philosophy฀ of฀ religion฀ received฀ its฀ most฀ prominent฀ articulation฀ in฀ his฀ Essence฀ of฀ Christianity฀ (1841),฀selections฀of฀which฀are฀found฀in฀ many฀ good฀ anthologies฀ on฀ the฀ history฀ of฀philosophy.฀The฀Tillich฀quotation฀is฀ from฀ „Aspects฀ of฀ a฀ Religious฀ Analysis฀ of฀Culture,“฀in฀Theology฀of฀Culture,฀by฀ Paul฀ Tillich฀ (Oxford฀ University฀ Press,฀ 1959). THEOLOGISCHE AKZENTE Interpreting the Ten Commandments ... The Author Über den Autor Thomas K. Johnson, M.Div. ACPE, Ph.D. serves Martin Bucer Seminary as Professor of Apologetics and Dean of Czech Programs. He is also Director of Komensky Institute of Prague and teaches philosophy at Charles University. He is a pastor of the Presbyterian Church in America and his work is largely sponsored through the International Institute for Christian Studies. Johnson served as a Visiting Professor of Philosophy and Psychology at the dissident European Humanities University (1994–96)in totalitarian Minsk, Belarus. He also taught evangelical theology in the orthodox theological faculty of EHU. (EHU was later closed by force at the orders of the dictator.) He has been a church planter in the US (Hope Evangelical Church, Iowa) and a pastor in the former Soviet Union. He has taught in nine universities or theological schools in five countries. 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