The importance of ethno-archaeology of mongolian nomadism

MONGOLICA AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MONGOL STUDIES Vol. 47, 2014 Secretariat of the International Association for Mongol Studies Ulaanbaatar INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR MONGOL STUDIES President Honorory President Vice-Presidents Secretary-General Executive Director Klaus Sagaster (Germany) Ozawa Shigeo (Japan) Bira Sh (Mongolia) Bazarov B.V (Russia) Bawden Ch (UK) Chingeltei (PRC) Choi Kee Ho (Korea) Enkhtuvshin B (Mongolia) Humphrey C (UK) Tumur-Ochir S (Mongolia) Schwarz H.G (USA) Tumurtogoo D (Mongolia) Ishdorj Ts (Mongolia) The International Association for Mongol Studies (IAMS) is an International nongovernmental scholarly organization uniting Mongolists, Centres of Mongol studies and Associations on a voluntary basis. The IAMS aims at encouraging Mongol studies, assisting scholarly activities of Mongol study Centres and Scholars Mongolists, promoting munual understanding and cooperation among scholars from different countries of the world (from the IAMS Constitution. ----------------------------------------------------This “Mongolica” was prepared by the IAMS Secretariat Editor-in-chief Tumurtogoo D. Executive Secretary Purevjav E. Technical Editor Battulga M., Altantsetseg M. Computer Typist Altantsetseg M., Narantuya Ch. ----------------------------------------------------Editorial Address: Sukhbaatar Square-3 Ulaanbaatar-11, P.O. 20A Mongolia Office of the IAMS Secretariat E-mail: iams@magicnet.mn Phone/Fax: 976-11-261328 Phone: 976-11-262553, 262491 ----------------------------------------------------The views expressed in the materials, contributed for the “Mongolica” are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily reflect views of the Editors or the IAMS Secretariat ----------------------------------------------------- ISSN 1024-3143 MONGOLICA Vol. 47, 2014 ÃÀÐ×Èà I. Ýðäýì øèíæèëãýýíèé ºã¿¿ëýë Èíõóà Õà (Ñîëîíãîñ). Àâèà áà ä¿ðñ äóóðàéõ ¿ãèéí ºã¿¿ëáýðò ã¿éöýòãýõ ¿¿ðýã 7 Ï¿ðýâæàâ Ý (Ìîíãîë). Ìîíãîë ñóäëàëûã ¿íäýñëýã÷ Îíõîäûí Æàìüÿí (1864-1930) 21 Óëààí Ì (ÁÍÕÀÓ). Îéðàä Ìîíãîëûí öàãààí ÿñòíû “Ãàëãàñ” îâãèéí òóõàé øèíæèõ íü 44 Óðàíãóà Æ., Áàÿðìàà à (Ìîíãîë). Õýðãýì, çýðãèéã õóäàëäàí àâ÷ áîëäîã áàéñàí óó? 53 Õèøèãòîãòîõ × (ÁÍÕÀÓ). Õ¿í ¿ñýã ñóäëàë 67 Francesca Lugli (Italy). The Importance of Ethno-Archaeology of Mongolian Nomadism 96 Koichi Matsuda (Japan). Mongol-Japan Joint Bichees Project I-III 103 Pavel Rykin (Russia). Linguistic Features of the Mongolian Text of the Tyr Trilingual Inscription (1413) 126 Sharad K. Soni (India). The Mongols of Xinjiang: A Retrospective Overview 139 Èäàìæàïîâà Á.À (Ðîññèÿ). Ìèôîôîëüêëîðíûé òðåõ÷àñòíûé ìèð ó íàðîäîâ Þæíîé Ñèáèðèè è ßêóòèè 153 Çîðèêòóåâ Á.Ð (Ðîññèÿ). Îá îáðàçîâàíèè ðîäà Áîðäæèãèí 158 II. Ñóäàëãààíû òýìäýãëýë Çýëìý Áÿìáàà Ä (Ìîíãîë). “Æîëîîäîã÷” ø¿ëãèéí çîõèîã÷ Í.Ê.Ðåðèõèéí òóõàé 167 Èøäîðæ Ö (Ìîíãîë). Í.Ê.Ðåðèõèéí “Æîëîîäîã÷” ø¿ëýãò õèéñýí òàéëáàð 172 Èñëàì Õ (Ìîíãîë). Îëîí óëñûí ìîíãîë ñóäëàëûí àñóóäëààð ýðãýö¿¿ëýõ¿é 180 Òºìºðòîãîî Ä (Ìîíãîë). Ìîíãîë ìîðèíû õóÿã, ãîëûí ã¿¿ð õî¸ð óÿëäàõ íü 199 Øàãäàðñóðýí À., Ýíõòóð Í (Ìîíãîëèÿ). Íåêîòîðûå õóäîæåñòâåííûå îñîáåííîñòè Òîðãóäñêîé íàðîäíîé ïåñíè 3 209 MONGOLICA Vol. 47, 2014 CONTENTS I. RESEARCH ARTICLES Inhua Ha (Korea), Functions of Onomatopoeia and Mimetic Words in a Sentence 7 E.Purevjav (Mongolia), Onkhod Jamiyan (1864-1930), a Founder of Mongolian Studies 21 M.Ulaan (China), Studying the “Galgas” Clan of White Ethnic Group, Oirat Mongolia 44 J.Urangua, G.Bayarmaa (Mongolia), Were Titles used to be Bought? 53 Ch. Hexigetaoketao (China), Study on Hsiung-Nu Characters 67 Francesca Lugli (Italy), The Importance of Ethno-Archaeology of Mongolian Nomadism 96 Koichi Matsuda (Japan), Mongol-Japan Joint Bichees Project I-III 103 Pavel Rykin (Russia), Linguistic Features of the Mongolian Text of the Tór Trilingual Inscription (1413) 126 Sharad K.Soni (India), The Mongols of Xinjiang: A Retrospective Overview 139 B.A.Idamjapova (Russia), Tripartite Universe of Mytho-Folklore among the Peoples of South Siberia and Yakutia 153 B.R.Zoriktuev (Russia), Education Studies of Borjigin 158 II. NOTES Zelme D.Byambaa (Mongolia), On the Poetry “Leader”, by N.K.Roerich 167 Ts.Ishdorj (Mongolia), Explanation to the Poetry “Leader” 172 Kh.Islam (Mongolia), Considering the Issues of International Studies of Mongols 180 D.Tumurtogoo (Mongolia), Coherence of Mongolian Horse Harness and the River Bridge 199 A.Shagdarsuren, N.Enkhtur (Mongolia), Some Artistic Features of Torgud Folk Songs 209 4 I. ÝÐÄÝÌ ØÈÍÆÈËÃÝÝÍÈÉ ªÃ¯¯ËÝË MONGOLICA Vol. 47, 2014 THE IMPORTANCE OF ETHNO-ARCHAEOLOGY OF MONGOLIAN NOMADISM Francesca Lugli (Italy) Abstract Part of the Mongolian population still maintains a nomadic lifestyle. They move frequently throughout the year, setting up new camps depending on the region, climate, and the availability of food and water for themselves and their livestock. In Mongolia therefore ethno-archaeology constitutes a definite possibility for the development of research concerning the history of nomadism. In fact, it is possible to document different types of nomadism still present today, in order to build valid interpretative models for the past. There are many crucial points which can be considered from an ethno-archaeological point of view such as, land exploitation, seasonal itineraries, water and salt resources and many others. Winter and spring camps, in particular, usually found in mountainous regions, are used repeatedly throughout different generations and often have fixed structures. The repetitive use and choice of the winter camps can be considered one of the key aspects of steppe pastoralism. Introduction It is well known that Ethno-archaeology has recently freed itself from the strict limitations of formational process understanding. Presently it is a flexible discipline which allows its scholars to consider tangible and intangible elements, both of the present and of the past. For many scholars ethno-archaeology must be considered the ‘reference science’ of the entire archaeological discipline (Gallay 1991; 1995; Pétrequin e Pétrequin 2006). From this perspective ethno-archaeology is not merely useful for the comprehension of past pastoralist societies, but it’s also an important research strategy for the observation and documentation of threatened cultures which are quickly changing, and in some cases are even disappearing. Therefore, since 2002 the Italian Society for Ethno-archaeology, with funding from the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and in collaboration with the National University of Ulaan Baatar, has been researching nomadic camps in different Mongolian regions. The aim is to observe study and verify socio-cultural, environmental diversity and repetitiveness, which can be useful for the development of the archaeology of steppe nomadism. It will also provide effective parameters for 96 MONGOLICA Vol. 47, 2014 present day Mongolian nomadism and its life in the near future (Lugli 2011; Lugli 2013). MONGOLIA AND THE POSSIBILITIES OF AN ETHNO-ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF NOMADISM In Mongolia there is a strong cultural identity which stems from its past. Nomadism is still relevant and has undoubted traits of continuity with it’s past, although it is currently undergoing an epochal change1. In fact, about 30%2 of the people live some type of nomadic lifestyle. They move across the land with methods which rely on well-used routes, travelling from one grazing area to another, from one water source to another; in accordance with paths and adaptation models which have been established and accepted since time immemorial (Vercellin 1998: 4). This continuity is a valid requirement for ethno-archaeological research, which intends to document the present in order to better understand the past. In fact, observation and documentation of present pastoralism provides helpful parameters and models for a better comprehension of past micro and macro events. The study of present steppe nomadism allows for the observation of millennial adaptation strategies to the environment, which in the thirteenth century enabled Mongolians to create both an identity and an empire. Their traditional lifestyle is a complex universe and it is necessary to identify aspects of it which can be considered important from an ethno-archaeological perspective and to recognize the crucial points, which have been consistently important, both from an economic and socio-cultural aspect. From an ethno-archaeological and ethnographical point of view, land exploitation strategies in different regions and different contexts are a key aspect. In fact, in Mongolia, the principal ecosystems such as forest, tundra, steppe, prairie and desert may have very diverse environmental conditions. Pasture, water and salt3 availability can vary a lot, as well the ease of movement. These have certainly conditioned nomads’ lives for thousands of years. For this reason the identification of seasonal movement is crucial. Mongolian seasonal roaming may vary from an average of 3 up to 10 times a year, usually covering an average of 3-7 km, and in exceptional cases, up to 150 km (Lugli 2008a; 2011; 2013)4. The observation of roaming in different regions can be useful to understand adaptation strategy variability which exists in all environmental conditions. In some cases it is also possible to observe very small migration phenomena, which are determined by the search for more favorable environmental conditions 97 MONGOLICA Vol. 47, 2014 (Lugli forthcoming). In the summer of 2009 for example, some families were recorded to have moved with their livestock from Khovd aimag to Bulgan aimag. They covered approximately 1500 km, at an average of 25-30 km. per day, in a period of four to six weeks. It’s interesting to note that in this case their movements followed well-known paths which have always been a link between western and eastern regions. These itineraries, until recently had allowed traders’ caravan to sell, buy and exchange various goods in these regions. It is also possible to observe the gradual abandonment of certain areas for different reasons. For example, due to climate change and watercourse diversion in the Gobi region (2005) as well as for the construction of a new road (Bulgan 2010). Consequently, the data obtained from such micro migration phenomena can provide parameters to identify the modes of previous migrations which have been both gradual and abrupt. At this level typical data would include displacement speed, paths followed, stops, village and sedentary people relationships and long term stays in cold season campsites, if the displacement slows down then the family must endure the cold. Cold season sites are one of the most important aspects from an ethnoarchaeological point of view. The winter-spring period is a long and difficult season which can be affected by actual climatic-environmental disasters, resulting in the death of thousands of animals in affected regions (Lugli 2013). In fact, it was calculated that “over the last five decades due to drought and dzud disasters a total of 32 million head of livestock have been lost, of these 23 million were fully grown and 9 million were young animals” (Oyun 2002: 69). The choice of a proper winter-spring location of a camp and the actual physical condition of the animals, built up during the warm months, are the main conditions for survival during these hard seasons. The wrong choice of the site, or an error in evaluating the time to move, can be fateful for both the nomads and their livestock. For example, in May 2008, in the Khenti region, many families decided to move from their spring camps to the summer camps too early. Consequently, when the temperature dropped suddenly one night, several head of livestock, exhausted from the long winter and spring period, died because it was impossible for them to find adequate shelter. The warm season camps, which usually don’t have fixed structures, are mostly located in the valleys where they are exposed to the wind; and therefore don’t leave significant traces on the ground from an archaeological point of view. Conversely, Mongolian nomads generally spend a long period in winter and spring camps that are mainly located at a higher altitude, in places which are 98 MONGOLICA Vol. 47, 2014 sheltered from the cold winds. They are closer to pasture, and to water resources such as snow or ice (Fig. 1, Fig. 2). These camps usually have fixed structures, in order to protect a portion of their livestock and are often reused from year to year, by many generations (Lugli 2008a; 2013; forthcoming). Consequently, in these sites we can observe modern formational processes and possibly find their predecessors. At a macroscopic level, rubbish or ash heaps - which can be up to 60 square meters and 1 meter high - are very important. From an archaeological point of view, they can indicate whether 99 MONGOLICA Vol. 47, 2014 a camp is a new one or an old one (Lugli 2008a; forthcoming). Furthermore, the percentage of refuse materials, like the remains of slaughtered animals (bones and pieces of leather), vodka bottles and other waste, can provide useful information about the life of the camps and their families. Historically and archaeologically the presence of dung in the camps is an important aspect. It can be used as fuel, a building material or simply abandoned. The dung is periodically removed from the pen when it hardens so that the animals do not get cold. Dung and stratigraphic levels inside the pen are other examples of archaeological indicators. In fact, the periodic removal of dung leaves a succession of negative and positive interfaces which can supply precious information about the use of the structure and of the camp itself. It is important to recall that the distances between the camps and their sizes vary significantly from region to region and under different environmental conditions. For example, in the green central regions the camps may have more than one tent and be just a few meters apart, whereas in the arid southern and western regions they often have only one tent and can be entirely isolated. Isolated families in the Bulgan region have also been documented as they may have large quantities of livestock, and thus need extensive pastures. Consequently, it is important to study winter camps localization and criteria which guide herders as to where the cold months should be spent (albeit nowadays these criteria can be subverted by the use of modern technologies, ie automobiles). In addition to material aspects (wind protection, presence of grazing, water, salt, roads etc), there are further important motives which influence nomads in choosing a site. Kinships and friendships are certainly very important factors because they can determine the presence of group linkage, its dissolution, or its deterioration, in an area. Parental and friendship bonds between nomads in winter camp sites in the mountains near Mogod soum (Bulgan aimag) have been observed, as well as the presence of old sites and new sites resulting from new relationships. It has also been documented that at times nomads can also be influenced by spiritual or religious beliefs. For instance, the presence and/or absence of camp sites in the holy mountains near Mogod. Cold season camp sites are a precious opportunity for ethno-archaeologists. They must be considered from the perspective of the complex problem of wide variability in steppe adaptation strategies. 100 MONGOLICA Vol. 47, 2014 It is also noteworthy that the presence of prehistoric and historic archaeological remains is not uncommon near or in coincidence with current winter camps throughout Mongolia. The mountains of the northern Bulgan region as well as those of the southern Dundgov region are good examples (Lugli 2011; forthcoming). Vestiges of the past can be regarded as evidence of a long, although not continuous, use of these mountains. Surely it is interesting to question whether or not nomads take these remains into consideration and if they have an influence on the choice of a site. The exploitation of land, itineraries and especially winter camps are decisive aspects for ethno-archaeological observation, however, there are many other topics of investigation which must be considered. For instance, it is also useful to recall how important it is to document and to study the ger. This is a very complex aspect of the archaeology of steppe nomadism. In fact, with a ger no poles are inserted into the ground, hence they don’t leave consistent archaeological evidence after their removal. Nevertheless, investigating the tent is essential to the field of Mongolian ethno-archaeological research and, it is crucial to document the use of external and internal space of the tent and its formational processes which may exist in protected and low wind condition sites (Lugli 2008a: 139-140; fig. 6; 2008b; 2011: 195-196). CONCLUSION Current Mongolian nomadism provides an invaluable opportunity for ethnoarchaeologists to have a better understanding of the history of steppe life. It is vital to identify highlights which can help to provide present and past adaptation strategy models. Land exploitation, itineraries, roaming and especially cold month camps are crucial points to be analysed from an ethno-archaeological perspective. REFERENCES Gallay, A. 1991. Itineraires ethnoarchéologiques I. Documents du Département d’Anthropologie e d’Ecologie de l’Université de Genève. Genève. Gallay, A. 1995. “L’Ethnoarchéologie entre science et histoire. Une réflexion sur le développement des sciences de la nature”, Ethno-archéologie Méditerranéenne, CCV(54): 17-27. Garam-Ochir, D. 2010. “A Beginning of Globalization in the World”, Nomadic Studies, 17: 62-71. 101 MONGOLICA Vol. 47, 2014 Lugli, F. 2008a. “The nomadic camps of Mid-West Mongolia: the case of the spring site of Hulhin Shilin (Ih Tamir)”, in F. Lugli e A.A. Stoppiello (editors) Proceedings of the 3rd Italian Congress of Ethnarchaeology, Rome 17-19 March 2004. BAR International Series 1841, Oxford: 135-145. Lugli, F. 2008b. “Gli accampamenti invernali e primaverili dei nomadi dell'Arkhangaï e dell'Ovorkhangaï settentrionale: i ricoveri per gli animali (Mongolia centrooccidentale)”, in G. Fiorentino e D. Magri (editors) Charcoals from the past: cultural and palaeoenvironmental implications: proceedings of the third international meeting of anthracology, Cavallino, Lecce (Italy), June 28th-July 1st 2004. BAR International Series 1907, Oxford. Lugli, F. 2011 “The nomadic camps of the Middle Gobi Region. The case of Shar Udag site (Luss Dundgov) and of Buleenher site (Delgerhangai Dundgov)”, in F.Lugli, A.A.Stoppiello e S.Biagetti (editors) Proceedings of the 4rd Italian Congress of Ethnarchaeology, Rome 17-19 May 2006. BAR International Series 2235, Oxford: 194-206. Lugli, F. 2013 “Winter camps in Mongolia, in F.Lugli, A.A.Stoppiello e S.Biagetti (editors) Proceedings of the 5rd Italian Congress of Ethnarchaeology, Rome 13-14 May 2010. BAR International Series 2472. Oxford: 209-216. Lugli, forthcoming “Per un’etnoarcheologia del nomadismo della Mongolia, in B. Cerasetti and Carl C. Lambert Karlowsky (a cura di), Volume in onore del prof. Maurizio Tosi. BAR International Series. Oxford. Oyun, R. 2002. “Pastoral animal husbandry and information systems”, in B.Enkhtuvshin e J.Tsolmon (a cura di) Market-Economy Nomads-Technology, Ulaan-Baatar: 69-96. Pétrequin, P. e A.M.Pétrequin 2006. “Ethnoarchéologie appliquée: le point de vue de deux chercheurs presses”, in I. Briz Codino (a cura di) Etnoarqueología de la Prehistoria: más allá de la analogía. Treballs d’ethnoarqueología, 6. Barcelona. Vercellin, G. 1998. Genghiz Khan. Firenze. Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia) from “Ìîíãîëûí ¿íäýñíèé ñòàòèñòèêèéí õîðîî”. National Statistical Office of Mongolia. Retrieved 2013-11-14. NOTES 1 Currently nomads often abandon the countryside for an urban and sedentary lifestyle. But it is important to say that it is sometimes possible to observe a return to nomadism when people decide to leave the city to become herders. 2 Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia) from Ìîíãîëûí ¿íäýñíèé ñòàòèñòèêèéí õîðîî". National Statistical Office of Mongolia. Retrieved 2013-11-14. 3 Salt which is indispensable for human beings and their animals, is another crucial aspect to understand the delicate equilibrium of life in steppe regions. Therefore, it is interesting to record its availability and its use, both in warm and in cold month camps. 4 Of course roaming depends on environmental conditions, (nomads can move several times in the western and southern arid areas). 102