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Participatory Action Research

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Participatory action research (PAR) emphasizes collaborative inquiry aimed at enacting positive social change rather than the mere generation of knowledge. Rooted in social and educational contexts, PAR encourages a joint effort between researchers and participants to address pressing issues and empower marginalized communities. This chapter evaluates the principles of PAR, its alignment with social work values, and critiques of the approach while highlighting its potential for transformative impact on practices within the field.

30 Participatory Action Research Mark Baldwin This chapter shows, rather than the genera- right and, if so, what kinds of social work tion of new knowledge – the purpose of practice it suggests. conventional research – participatory action research (PAR) is driven predominantly by a desire for positive social change. Growing out of social and educational research, it is WHAT PARTICIPATORY ACTION one of the few research approaches embrac- RESEARCH CLAIMS TO BE ing the principles of participation and critical reflection. Its aim is to empower and emanci- The Handbook of Action Research defines pate groups of people seeking to improve PAR as: their situation and, to this end, involves col- a participatory process concerned with developing laboration between researchers and stake- practical knowing in the pursuit of worthwhile holders as co-researchers. It closely parallels human purposes. It seeks to bring together action the purpose of social work as conceptualised and reflection, theory and practice, in participation in the International Federation of Social with others, in the pursuit of practical solutions to issues of pressing concern to people, and more Workers (IFSW)/International Association of generally the flourishing of individual persons and Schools of Social Work (IASSW) definition their communities (Reason & Bradbury, 2008, p. 4). (see Chapter 24). The chapter begins with a review of the There are several important aspects to this conceptual foundations of PAR, highlighting definition of PAR as a form of cooperative or its benefits and shortcomings. It then exam- collaborative enquiry. Firstly, PAR conducts ines PAR’s compatibility with the values and research with people not on them (Heron & methods of social work providing illustrative Reason, 2001). Those involved in the prob- examples of its appropriateness for investi- lem under study are part of the research proc- gating many of the questions social work ess. Secondly, co-researchers join together to practitioners, academics, students, and serv- develop knowledge to inform practice and ice users ask. Notwithstanding critiques of solve concrete problems. As such, PAR aims PAR, the chapter asks whether social work is to ensure the actions of those involved are a form of participatory research in its own better informed, if not changed through the 5712-Gray-30.indd 467 2/23/2012 6:04:05 PM 468 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL WORK research process. Thirdly, PAR is a process Three inter-related aspects of PAR are now of knowledge development involving action examined before going on to describe how it and reflection. It is a creative process of test- works in practice: ing knowledge in action and through critical reflection on action. Lastly, PAR aims to 1 its participatory world view fitting the social solve concrete problems and, in so doing, constructionist argument people construct reality make a positive difference in the lives of in relationship with one another; 2 the focus on action and making a difference to those involved in the research process and how people behave; those who benefit from it (Wadsworth, 1998). 3 the nature of knowledge created through partici- Hence PAR is transformative rather than patory action processes not just valuing formal merely informative. As Gergen and Gergen theory, but also other ways of knowing and (2008) argue, PAR is about ‘world making’ making sense of the world. not ‘world mapping’ (p. 159). Research should, in their view, show people how the world could be and not just how it is. In Participatory world view wanting to make a difference, participatory action researchers often make claims to the Participatory action research takes a social emancipatory nature of the PAR process. constructionist perspective holding to the There are examples, in the world of social belief all knowledge is socially created. work, of PAR changing practice through There is no reality independent of human critical reflection (Baldwin, 2001; Bryan, beings and, therefore, suggests all knowledge 2002; Jones, 2004; Kreitzer et al., 2009) and is relative since it is co-constructed by human transforming the lives of marginalised groups beings in relationships with others and, fur- through challenging rather than perpetuating thermore, humans in interaction with one oppression (Baldwin, 1997; Bryan, 2002; another co-create their reality from their par- Chowns, 2008; Cassano & Dunlop, 2005; ticular worldview (Reason, 1994). Hence Fenge 2010). human relationships are fundamental to the Van Rooyen and Gray (1995) provide a co-construction of reality and research meth- useful critique of participatory research and odology should reflect this inextricable rela- its compatibility with social work foreshad- tionship. For researchers to see themselves as owing Reason and Bradbury’s (2008) defini- separate from the researched is to deny this tion cited above. They defined PAR as an relationship. Researcher-led methodologies, ‘experiential research process where people where objective measures are used (see are collectively involved on an equal basis in Chapter 27) wherein the researcher’s inter- collective action aimed at knowledge devel- pretation of the data is paramount are exam- opment, education, social change and ples of the separation of researcher and empowerment’ (van Rooyen & Gray 1995, p. research subjects. They imply research sub- 89). Their review of the literature describes jects’ knowledge has lesser importance. From three aspects of participatory approaches a PAR perspective, knowledge thus gained is which are the source of their strength as a less likely to have meaning for the subjects of research methodology. These are: the research because it has not been con- structed from within their experience. They the collective investigation of problems involving the are, therefore, less likely to find use for active participation of those affected by them; the research findings or to see them as relevant to collective analysis of data so that participants gain their particular situation. In PAR ownership an enhanced understanding of both the problems of research data and the knowledge gener- identified and their underlying structural causes; the collective action of participants to yield both ated is crucial based on the belief people are short and long term solutions to their identified also less likely to change their behaviour in problems (van Rooyen & Gray 1995, p. 3). directions suggested by research if they have 5712-Gray-30.indd 468 2/23/2012 6:04:05 PM PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH 469 not been part of the research experience. co-researchers is paramount and the driving Hence they are more likely to reject the find- force is the search for practical solutions ings of research if they have not participated likely to make a difference in the lives of in the production of knowledge directly rel- participants, who are, more often than not, evant to their concerns (Baldwin, 2000). oppressed or marginalised social groups. For Subject participation, on the other hand, is this reason, Reason and Bradbury (2008) more likely to generate a sense of ownership argued PAR is: (i) political in ‘asserting peo- and ensure the outcomes of the research are ple’s right and ability to have a say in deci- ‘empowering and sustaining’ (van Rooyen & sions which affect them and which claim to Gray, 1995, p. 97). For this reason, PAR claims generate knowledge about them’ (p. 9); and to generate locally relevant, useful knowledge (ii) empowering in enabling marginalised capable of solving real-world problems. people to ‘see that they are capable of construct- In this sense, the influence on the develop- ing and using their own knowledge’ (p. 9). ment of participatory research from ‘in-depth, community level anthropological research’ (van Rooyen & Gray, 1995, p. 88) is discern- ible. This tradition is apparent through much THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE of the ethnographic research used within a CREATED THROUGH PARTICIPATORY participatory framework. For example, Carol ACTION RESEARCH Stack, the white US researcher, is described as using a participatory ethnography in her Rather than privileging objective or proposi- work with Black Americans (Edmonson Bell, tional knowledge, as in orthodox research, 2001). The participative nature of her research, Reason and Heron (2008) suggested an built on a value base which esteemed hearing extended epistemology for PAR including: the voice of the poorest and most marginal- (i) experiential knowledge gained through ised in the community, rather than the usual direct encounters with people, places, and community leaders, is a powerful example of objects; (ii) practical knowledge related to the way in which PAR can use anthropologi- competence or skill – knowing ‘how to’ do cal and ethnographic traditions, within a par- something; (iii) propositional or explanatory ticipatory world view, to hear the voice of knowledge comprising theories ‘about’ some- marginalised people. thing; and (iv) presentational knowledge expressed through speech, writing, and art to symbolise and convey meaning (Reason, 1994; see also Heron, 1996). Propositional Focus on participatory action knowledge – or formal theory – has domi- An action focus is pivotal to PAR built on nated Western epistemology with its positiv- the idea people’s involvement in research ist scientific rationality. Being gleaned by directly concerning them is likely to generate expert researchers from individual subjects useable knowledge and enhance the possibil- alienated as objects of research, it is not ity of problem-solving action based on the grounded in subjective, experiential, and research findings. People’s participation has practical knowledge. In recognising the dan- the added impact of removing power differ- gers of this separation, PAR provides a par- entials between researchers and research ticipatory model to ensure propositional subjects – seen as participants in the PAR knowledge is grounded in the experience process (Healy, 2001; Reason & Heron, of service users as co-researchers and co- 1995). Whereas the aim of conventional constructed by them through democratic research is the generation of objective knowl- decision-making processes. It also requires edge, in PAR the subjective perceptions, reflection upon and validation of other interests, and experiences of participants or forms of knowledge within the extended 5712-Gray-30.indd 469 2/23/2012 6:04:05 PM 470 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL WORK epistemology outlined above and emphasises method with its pursuit of certainty (Harre, the part feelings play in generating or block- 1981). From his study of diverse professions, ing knowledge development in the reflective he found multiple realities and myriad ways inquiry-action learning cycle (Boud & of knowing constituted the everyday lives of Knights, 1996). Honing the critical faculties professionals. PAR is equipped uniquely for of participants is, therefore, an important this uncertain world: Its collaborative proc- outcome of PAR (Baldwin, 2000, 2004; esses of knowledge creation validate multi- Bryan, 2002; Chowns, 2008; Glennie & ple voices and constructions of reality, where Cosier, 1994; Jones, 2004). participants own the knowledge created. More important in professional practice is making sense of participants’ subjective experience and behaviour in particular situa- THE PURPOSE OF PARTICIPATORY tions rather than the generation of ‘new’ ACTION RESEARCH AND ITS knowledge or solution of broader social USE IN PRACTICE problems. Reason and Bradbury (2008) refer to three purposes for PAR. Firstly, it brings an ‘action Illustrative examples of dimension’ back to research generating useful participatory action knowledge in practice. As a collaborative research in practice research process, it uses cycles of reflection and action to create new forms of knowledge In the context of professional social work and understanding where the aim is to link practice, PAR can provide support for social rather than separate knowing and doing. This workers working in threatening organisa- is why participatory action researchers claim tional contexts (Baldwin, 2000, 2001; Heron, the potential to produce useful, practical, 1996), such as Black practitioners working in locally relevant, emancipatory knowledge predominantly White organisations, given its freeing research participants to transform commitment ‘to improving practice in organ- their lives through the actions they take in isations and bringing about political change and as a result of the research process. to improve the lives of black people in a Secondly, it challenges the status quo by racist society’ (Bryan, 2002, p. 1). It enhances giving voice to local people’s perspectives multidisciplinary practice in contexts, such and shifting views on what constitutes as child protection, where engaging groups ‘useful’ knowledge (Swantz, 2008). It pro- of practitioners in collaborative inquiry is motes ‘inclusive participation … to address essential to interprofessional teamwork embedded social and economic inequalities’ (Glennie & Cosier, 1994). Jones (2004) dem- (Gaventa & Cornwall, 2008, p. 173) giving it onstrated its usefulness in improving assess- the appearance of political action or commu- ment practices with prospective foster nity development rather than research or parents. Baldwin (2001) used cooperative knowledge development. Thirdly, it moves inquiry to explore social workers’ use of pro- away from the modernist, positivist mindset fessional knowledge, skills, and values within many PAR protagonists argue is dominated a challenging new policy framework per- by ‘crude notions of economic progress’ ceived to be undermining their autonomy. (Reason & Bradbury, 2008, p. 7). Most influ- They experimented with new forms of prac- ential in this regard was the work of psy- tice, collected data on their effectiveness, chologist Schön (1984) who believed over a six-month period, developed under- reflection in action was a better way of standing of the nature of the problems with making sense of the ‘swampy lowlands’ of which they were dealing, and gained confi- professional practice than the scientific dence in the process, in particular, valuing 5712-Gray-30.indd 470 2/23/2012 6:04:05 PM PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH 471 the opportunities to reflect critically on their and, after some cycling, presented to all practice. Three further examples are dis- involved as an action plan. This initial proc- cussed below to illustrate PAR’s use in social ess was far from easy. There was a commit- work. Each depicts PAR as a strongly col- ment from most staff but this was complicated laborative and empowering approach, con- as many centre users did not initially have the gruent with the ethos, values, aims, and capacity to make choices or offer opinions. practice of social work. The depth of marginalisation of these centre users was remarkable, although, through the use of a participatory research approach, this Daycare on the move marginalisation was largely overcome. With (Baldwin, 1997) sensitive and empowering facilitation, the groups moved from being unable to under- Baldwin (1997) describes his research with stand the concept of choice to being assertive colleagues involved in a daycare centre for about what they wanted individually and people with learning difficulties, where a collectively for the centre. person-centred model of service provision The next phase involved networking was used (Williams, 2006). Senior staff mem- groups based on areas for future activity bers were concerned service users were identified as appropriate and desirable by the being stigmatised and labelled in the local changeover groups. They then took the activ- community. Consequently, they had bought ity (or occupation) as a research focus. The into a consultancy package, which was based degree of sophistication of this cooperative on a participatory, action-oriented approach inquiry was remarkable. It followed the prin- to change, and had engaged the researcher ciples of PAR in being participatory (all as an external participant tasked with pro- members of the group were involved as equal viding an evaluation of the change process. partners), involving action and reflection Drawing on O’Brien and Lyle’s (1987) frame- (going out and finding information, followed work, Baldwin (1997) endeavoured to assess by an opportunity to share and make sense of the extent to which service users had been what had been learnt), and creating useable able to: knowledge. An example was the catering group, who 1 exercise their right to share the centre with eve- decided to research the viability of a business ryone else; 2 make real choices affecting their lives; providing light lunches, with a view to mar- 3 develop their skills and abilities; keting their enterprise to the local authority 4 be treated with respect and play a valued role in for staff on training days. They explored society; menus, ingredients, purchasing, preparation, 5 grow in relationships. cooking, equipment, health and safety, and potential markets. Each person’s interests The collaborative PAR process involved and capabilities – in what became known as staff-facilitated groups of service users, staff, the catering crew – contributed the motiva- and other stakeholders. It was overseen by a tion to start a successful business providing core group comprising representatives of all delicious lunches (tried and tested by the constituencies. Centre users were placed in author!). changeover groups taking the process through This was a PAR project because: (i) it was the early stages of action and reflection when inclusive, democratic, and participatory; and options for change were explored and (ii) rather than merely map the existing world debated. Each changeover group provided of service users, it created a new world for the core group with ideas for change, where- them (Gergen & Gergen, 2008). Some centre upon they were collated, critically reflected users had very poor communication skills upon, checked with each group for accuracy and dedicated efforts were made by staff and 5712-Gray-30.indd 471 2/23/2012 6:04:05 PM 472 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL WORK user colleagues to ensure their involvement. which a democratic, collaborative process One service user, who was believed to be was followed and knowledge and learning mute, began to speak when being filmed and was co-constructed could be subject to some literally found his voice through the PAR critique. Nevertheless, the justification for process. using PAR was located within its transforma- Cycles of action and reflection meant the tional potential. The group endeavoured to process of cooperative inquiry resulted in construct methods to ensure democratic com- effective learning about the practicalities munication, worked hard to reach consensus of running a small enterprise. The author on important matters, such as information observed and highlighted the different gathering and critical analysis, and generated forms of knowledge found most helpful. research themes geared towards constructing Presentational knowledge was used in imagi- action plans. These then determined the native ways by staff and centre users alike. focus of the work. The view of the ‘mute’ man, presented on One theme was the exploration of ‘past video, was one such example. The validation influences that have affected education in of different forms of knowledge in the Ghana’ (Kreitzer et al., 2009, p. 152). Explo- extended epistemology of PAR was vital in ration through cycles of study and reflection ensuring everyone’s voice was heard (Heron challenged the group to ‘critically examine & Reason, 2008). underlying [Western] assumptions’ (Kreitzer et al., 2009, p. 153) affecting their personal and professional development. This action- Developing culturally and-reflection phase enabled the group to appropriate social work in explore traditional Ghanaian beliefs and cul- tural practices so collectively they could Ghana (Kreitzer et al., 2009) decide which were appropriate to local social Baldwin (1997) showed PAR can be devel- work education and practice. In so doing, opmental or emancipatory in process and they also studied the effects of globalisation intent. Another study, facilitated by Canadian and the way in which neoliberal International academic Kreitzer as the subject of her Ph.D. Monetary Fund policies had led to cuts in research, was primarily developmental but government spending on education and wel- had emancipatory potential. She involved a fare services thus marginalising social work group of nine Ghanaian social workers – one in Ghana. academic, five Bachelor of Social Work The group’s inquiry focused on: (i) foreign (BSW) and Diploma graduates, two BSW and local influences on social work educa- students, and a local community leader in a tion in Ghana and social work’s position PAR project aimed at developing culturally on the ‘periphery’ (Kreitzer et al., 2009, appropriate social work education in Ghana p. 156); (ii) restructuring the Ghanaian (Kreitzer et al., 2009). The initial stages of Association of Social Workers (GASOW), the research involved developing understand- which had become weak and disorganised; ing of social work in Ghana so as to explore (iii) researching African social work litera- ways to make it more consistent with African ture and getting these texts into university culture and values. Kreitzer’s research libraries; (iv) evaluating the effectiveness of involved developing an understanding of the social welfare institutions and social work tension between Western and African per- practice in Ghana, noting the undue British spectives by collecting African social work influences and the implications of changes literature for the group and, based on group for social work education; and (v) developing discussions, developing her critique of a new culturally appropriate postcolonial Western, hegemonic social work ideas vis à social work curriculum, which balanced vis Ghanaian social work. Thus the extent to the traditional and colonial systems. After a 5712-Gray-30.indd 472 2/23/2012 6:04:05 PM PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH 473 ten-month period, the following outcomes approach to research respecting the margin- were achieved. alised nature of the group and the need to engage in a process in which their voices 1 The ‘core themes of the research were incor- could be heard and make a difference, at the porated into the existing courses’; new ones very least, in their own lives. Chowns (2008) reflecting ‘the social needs of Ghanaian society’ described the research as ‘a collaborative (Kreitzer et al., 2009, p. 159) were added; read- inquiry that sought to enable children to be ing lists were revised to include the new-found African texts; and new teaching methods, such listened to, and respected for their expertise as the use of video, were developed. and experience’ (p. 562). She focused on two 2 To raise the profile of social work, the research particular aspects, namely, power and com- group made a public education video with assist- petence. She covered the ethical issues ance from Ghana TV. involved, namely, informed consent, confi- 3 The GASOW was revivified with a new, more dentiality, and the ownership of knowledge active executive. generated, noting her value position as well as a number of different methods for ensur- While there are some concerns about the ing ethical issues were addressed. These written evaluation of this project, such as included acknowledging the children’s rights questions regarding participants’ insider– and abilities and seeking their consent before outsider status, power, and control of the talking to parents. In addition, she engaged in PAR process, and the possibility some were a number of trust exercises enabling the marginalised as a consequence, Kreitzer et young people to address their hopes and al. (2009) concluded the ‘PAR process, as fears, starting from an ‘assumption of ability experienced by this group of people, gener- rather than vulnerability’ (Chowns, 2008, p. ated a wealth of knowledge and experience’ 566). She conveyed the message their voice (p. 161). The process was described as inter was important thus addressing the power dif- alia chaotic, confusing, serious, and conflict- ferentials in research involving young people. ual, but the outcome of a clear process to At all stages, children were given permission disseminate learning and conscientise par- to veto the content of discussions and the ticipants so changes to the curriculum could recording of them. As in Baldwin (1997), a be made to the benefit of Ghanaian society great deal of emphasis was placed on group made it worthwhile. This is a substantial processes and facilitation, and on building claim for a research project and it perhaps trust and modelling good practice, which overplays the importance of the research Chowns (2008) saw as fundamental to the process in particular and social work in gen- success of the project. The vehicle for dem- eral as a force for the benefit of society as a onstrating the knowledge, as in the example whole. above, was video. The children generated ideas for discus- sion, although the process was facilitated Collaborative inquiry with by adults. In light of the possibility of dis- children (Chowns, 2008) tressing feelings being generated by the proc- ess, opportunities for feedback, reflection, In engaging in a process of research with and offloading were introduced. These children facing the life-threatening illness of included trust exercises, games, discussions, a parent, Chowns (2008), a palliative care and opportunities for feedback at the begin- social worker-researcher, pushes the bounda- ning and end of each session when partici- ries of what she identifies as an acceptable pants were given the chance to examine subject group because the voices of these positive and negative aspects of the process. particular children were rarely heard. Hence Other than the skill of reflection, the children she thought it necessary to employ an learnt to express themselves in coherent and 5712-Gray-30.indd 473 2/23/2012 6:04:05 PM 474 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL WORK sophisticated ways over the course of the regarding young people’s capacity or com- project. They also showed the video at con- petence to express their feelings and beliefs, ferences and learnt skills of presentation. thus questioning their reliability as co- Hence ‘the project … enabled a marginalised researchers. However, she believed the chil- group of service users – children – to com- dren would be no more reliable or unreliable municate their research directly to the wider than any other group of participants. Hence, public’ (Chowns, 2008, p. 565). While ongo- she started with the ‘assumption of ability’ ing critique is necessary (see later) about the favouring ‘capacity and competence’ degree to which this process constituted (Chowns, 2008, p. 566). The process of the ‘research’, there is a strongly made argument research, the video produced, and the oppor- the process enabled these young people to tunities for the children to present their work create new knowledge for and about them- to adults at professional practitioner confer- selves and this made a difference in their ences, changed those involved despite the lives. For instance, the effect on the young project’s ‘limited power to change the broader people’s self-esteem was considerable, ena- context in which it took place’ (Chowns, bling them ‘to properly value themselves 2008, p. 568). Since competence was not as worthwhile contributors to society, rather acknowledged, generally, by other key adults than as passive victims needing help’ in the children’s lives – parents, school teach- (Chowns, 2008, p. 565). Chowns (2008) also ers, and the wider community, Chowns noted their critical faculties were honed, par- (2008) concluded ‘knowledge may be power, ticularly through practising ‘other-centred but if that knowledge is not respected or behaviour’ (p. 566). Another fundamental sanctioned as knowledge by those currently aspect of PAR was the collaborative ethos, in power (adults), then it may yet not bring which was significant, not just in building power to the knowers (children)’ (p. 568). critical capability, but also for mutual capac- She noted, in constructing children ‘as know- ity building. There were some profoundly ers, actors and equals … the espoused values moving examples of the ability to empathise of social work and collaborative inquiry [we] and draw out deep feeling between the chil- re the same’ (Chowns, 2008, p. 568). dren in the account. The learning from this Collaborative inquiry tried to shift the power research process concluded young children dynamic not through research as method but were able to use the participatory aspect of through modelling collaboration. This made the research process to express personal feel- it akin to empowering social work practice ings, such as fear or grief, they found diffi- (e.g. Dalrymple & Burke, 2006; Dominelli, cult to articulate. Again, some observers may 2002; Guttierez, Parsons, & Cox, 1998). The wish to define this more as group work than discussion now turns to the overlapping research. What makes this research from the nature of social work practice and participa- PAR perspective is the engagement of the tory action research. researcher in helping young people under- stand the research process, that is, how to collect information so as to find new and effective ways of solving the problems more PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH: traditional helping approaches had left them AN APPROACH SUITABLE FOR struggling with, such as grief management. SOCIAL WORK? The key outcome of the research is the new knowledge generated through the process Participatory action research and social making a difference in these young people’s work are linked in three ways: (i) there are lives. similarities between the aims, values, and Chowns (2008) encountered views from skills of PAR and social work (Barbera, parents, schools, and the wider community 2008; Healy, 2001); (ii) social work favours 5712-Gray-30.indd 474 2/23/2012 6:04:06 PM PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH 475 collaborative, cooperative research (Reason & Bradbury, 2008) and other com- approaches involving service-user participa- mentaries on its purpose and aims, several tion (see Chapter 44); (iii) the social work connections emerge: (i) Reason and Bradbury process could be seen as a form of PAR and (2008) emphasise the participatory nature of vice versa; (iv) both are political in represent- PAR in much the same way that social work ing the interests of oppressed and marginal- emphasises working in solidarity with those ised groups; (v) both capitalise on strengths; who are disadvantaged; (ii) PAR emphasises (vi) both focus on process and outcomes; and the importance of practical change as does (vii) both recognise the importance of critical the definition of social work; (iii) the IFSW/ reflection. IASSW (2000/2001) definition refers to enhancing well-being, while Reason and Bradbury (2008) refer to ‘human flourishing’ Definitional similarities (p. 1) and the contribution of PAR to ‘increased well-being’ (p. 4); and (iv) Reason and The two principal international social work Bradbury (2008) talk about creating ‘theories organisations, the IASSW and the IFSW, which contribute to human emancipation’ (p. agreed on the following definition of social 4) while the definition of social work refers work: to the values of alleviating poverty and liber- The social work profession promotes social change, ating ‘vulnerable and oppressed people in problem solving in human relationships and the order to promote social inclusion’ (IFSW/ empowerment and liberation of people to enhance IASSW, 2000/2001). These correspondences well-being. Utilising theories of human behaviour between the two activities at the level of and social systems, social work intervenes at the definition are profound, but the similarities points where people interact with their environ- ments. Principles of human rights and social jus- do not stop there. tice are fundamental to social work (IFSW/IASSW, 2000/2001). Service-user involvement And on the following statement on values: Much of the rhetoric from social care policy, Since its beginnings over a century ago, social practice guidelines, and academic writing work practice has focused on meeting human needs and developing human potential. Human about social work emphasises the importance rights and social justice serve as the motivation of working in participation with service and justification for social work action. In solidarity users. Indeed, in the UK, for instance, this with those who are disadvantaged, the profession was written into law (e.g., in the Children’s strives to alleviate poverty and to liberate vulnera- Act, 1989 and National Health Service and ble and oppressed people in order to promote social inclusion (IFSW/IASSW, 2000/2001). Community Care Act, 1990) and governs how social workers should work with chil- The statement on theories states: ‘The dren, their families, and with adults. This social work profession draws on theories of directly reflects the centrality of participation human development and behaviour and social as a value and process not only for effective systems to analyse complex situations and to social work but also for successful PAR, as facilitate individual, organisational, social discussed earlier. and cultural changes’ (IFSW/IASSW, 2000/ 2001). Finally, the statement on practice includes: ‘Social work addresses the barriers, Shared political objectives inequities and injustices that exist in society’ (IFSW/IASSW, 2000/2001). Proponents of social work and PAR see both Returning to the definition of PAR pro- as areas of political activity, with an eye to the vided in the Handbook of Action Research ways in which unequal power relationships 5712-Gray-30.indd 475 2/23/2012 6:04:06 PM 476 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL WORK create and maintain poverty and oppression. direct outcomes for oppressed and marginal- In the radical tradition, social work was ised people than with knowledge develop- viewed as a political activity seeking to: (i) ment and this brings the approach close to liberate some sections of the community the the values of contemporary social work welfare state machinery maintained in pov- where service-user participation is seen as erty (Bailey & Brake, 1975); (ii) involve empowering and transformative. One impor- them in decision making about the distribu- tant outcome is giving marginalised groups a tion of scarce resources (Baldwin, 2011); (iii) ‘voice’, as in the example above of children work with marginalised people constructed as living with a parent who has a life-threaten- quasi-consumers in a market of care (Ferguson ing condition (Chowns, 2008), where those & Woodward, 2009); and (iv) question the involved also gained confidence in the value supremacy of global capitalism and the way of the knowledge they had generated, not just in which it marginalises and oppresses people for them, but also for others, such as fellow (Ferguson & Woodward, 2009; Ferguson, practitioners, or where children are con- Lavalette, & Whitmore, 2005). cerned, their parents. PAR encourages ‘people from minority groups to have a “voice” in defining knowledge, theory and practice in Capitalising on strengths their lives’ (Fenge, 2010, p. 878) and might also provide social workers working in hos- Another aspect of commonality is a focus on tile environments with a powerful means of strengths (see Chapter 11), with its emphasis understanding and addressing their feelings on the expertise and autonomy of service of powerlessness. By aligning themselves users in assessing and meeting their own with service users, clients and social workers needs (Baldwin & Teater, 2012; Teater 2010). alike can gain a voice. Social workers do, however, need to be wary of trumpeting the strengths perspective in isolation from other considerations, such as Focus on critical reflection structural inequalities, as it could, in isolation from a broader political analysis, be seen to Writers such as Schön (1984) and Boud and be congruent with ‘contemporary neoliberal Knights (1996) have been highly influential notions of self-help and self-responsibility’ in the development of critical reflection in (Gray, 2011, p. 10). The UK’s ruling Con- social work (Fook, 2002; Gould & Baldwin, servative Party policy on ‘The Big Society’ 2004; Gould & Taylor, 1996) and Heron’s would be a good example of this. The more (1996) cooperative inquiry, later expanded empowering version of the strengths per- with Peter Reason into the approach now spective is reflected in the writing of a known as action research, further popular- number of action researchers, such as Brydon- ised critical reflection (Heron & Reason, Miller (2008), who acknowledges the impor- 2001). Hence Gaventa and Cornwall (2008) tance of participant autonomy and voice in and Brydon-Miller (2008) refer to PAR as a the construction of knowledge and research process of reflection emphasising its impor- practice. However, this is difficult to sustain tance in developing critical consciousness in neoliberal environments seeking to curtail and dealing with power relationships within autonomy (see Chapter 4). the research process. However, neither PAR nor radical social work is mainstream. PAR has struggled to maintain a place in the research hierarchy, although there is some Focus on process and outcomes evidence of its success in the market for Some forms of participatory research are books and journals, such as Reason and more concerned with processes leading to Bradbury (2008) and the Journal of Action 5712-Gray-30.indd 476 2/23/2012 6:04:06 PM PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH 477 Research (now into its eighth volume), both acknowledge this means power becomes of which have elicited contributions from invisible or is driven underground. She many disciplines across the globe. Radical laments the lack of reflection on the overt social work perspectives retain their appeal forms of power recreated by PAR, such as due to their critique of mainstream social consciousness-raising, which presupposes work practice and the global managerialist research participants are uneducated or igno- agenda (Ferguson & Lavalette 2008; Ferguson rant and need the researcher to make sense of & Woodward, 2009; Ferguson, Lavalette, & their oppression. She asks how overarching Whitmore, 2005). They are rediscovering claims of PAR’s potential to change the their voice in some parts of the world, such world might be measured, noting examples as the UK, where the radical Social Work of projects contributing to local change but a Action Network (SWAN) has proved suc- lack of evidence of PAR initiatives changing cessful in attracting social workers’ interest the social order. Further, Healy (2001) sug- in its publications (e.g., Ferguson & Lavalette, gests PAR is too conflictual and oppositional 2008) and conferences (see Chapter 47). in its approach to dealing with the results of Likewise, PAR is marginal in social research, structural oppression, since social workers partly because of wariness as to its efficacy. have to make pragmatic decisions about For example, Frideres (1992) offers a strident which battles to fight, partly because they attack on the nonscientific basis of participa- risk losing their jobs if they take on the tory research claiming it is ‘moral and ideo- wrong power brokers. There are limited logical’ (p. 4) in its search for a ‘legitimizing opportunities for social workers to act as co- strategy’ (p. 5). He sees knowledge gleaned researchers in contemporary Western envi- from PAR as ‘idiosyncratic’ (Frideres, 1992, ronments where market forces, managerialism, p. 8) reflecting ‘the opinion or conviction of and privatisation threaten professional auton- a specific individual’ (p. 7). He goes on to omy, ascribe highly prescriptive roles, and claim PAR undermines the privileging of leave little time for the reflective approach of scientific knowledge are ‘an ethical consid- PAR. PAR is time and resource intensive eration … [rather than] a research issue’ (p. making it unattractive to research funders. 8) and rebrands PAR as an education or com- Finally, it does not transfer easily across cul- munity development medium claiming it tures built as it is on a Western ethos of ‘con- transcends ‘the bounds of research … [in] flict, protest and dissent as features of social mixing ideology and politics with scientific progress’ (Healy, 2001, p. 102), which is not research’ (p. 9). Whether or not PAR consti- necessarily applicable, for example, in some tutes research is clearly debatable and, as in Asian contexts. the examples above, it is not always clear While noting the consistency between the what new knowledge has been produced. core values of social work and PAR, Barbera Rather it is clearer how existing knowledge (2008) warns there is an ethical issue in the has been used for the betterment of partici- risks participants take in speaking up, whether pants, either to enhance their understanding they are practitioners or members of the or improve their skills. For academics who community. Social workers could lose their accept PAR as a legitimate form of research, jobs and members of the community could there are still problems requiring resolution. fall foul of the authorities as shown in her For example, Healy (2001) questions whether case example from Chile, post-Pinochet. The PAR reduces power differentials in research need for participants to make informed deci- relationships. While PAR claims researchers sions about the consequences of participation should eliminate power differences, activi- is clear. PAR exponents Rennie and Singh ties, such as initiating activism, promoting (1995) warn, at its worst, PAR could result in involvement, and facilitating meetings all co-option of key members of communities to involve the exercise of power. Failure to more powerful agendas, thus undermining 5712-Gray-30.indd 477 2/23/2012 6:04:06 PM 478 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF SOCIAL WORK community cohesion. Participation holds the than a mainstream research methodology. danger of being exploitative and tokenistic. It Likewise, Healy (2001) believes participa- can provide an impression of involvement tory action researchers must be transparent but actually have the effect of legitimising given the considerable opportunities for powerful political and business agendas social workers to engage in collaborative rather than those of marginalised communi- research (Baldwin, 2000, 2004; Jones, 2004); ties. Another powerful proponent of PAR, positive feedback from service users engaged McTaggart (1999) notes the problems of as co-researchers in cooperative or collabora- publication and dissemination as having tive inquiry (Baldwin, 1997; Chowns, 2008); potential to alter or at least diffuse the voice and encouraging outcomes in multidiscipli- of participants because of the problem of col- nary environments (Glennie & Cosier, 1994; lective recording. Ultimately, whose voice is Jones, 2004). Indeed, wherever human beings heard? experience the blunt end of discrimination, Another interesting critical consideration due to racism, gender inequalities, homopho- for participatory action researchers is the bia, disabling environments, ageism, clas- notion of insiders and outsiders (Cassano & sism, Indigeneity, or any of the other ways in Dunlop, 2005). In describing PAR with South which people’s lives are devalued as a result Asian immigrant women, Cassano and of unequal power relationships, social work- Dunlop (2005) note how an external ers and participatory action researchers will researcher, acting as facilitator for a PAR be found. However, they will be people who group, had her position undermined by the recognise the negative impacts of global director of a voluntary organisation. There is capitalism and want to make a difference by also an issue, not discussed in any detail, of changing the world. There are others, for the problems associated with outsider status, example from some of the new social move- where the facilitator can skew the cooperative ments, with whom participatory action inquiry process by their presence – as in the researchers and social workers will also col- Kreitzer et al. (2009) example earlier. In laborate, but, in the fields of social work and other contexts, where researchers are insid- research practice, such a political perspective ers, there might be questions about the degree is still comparatively unusual. to which they can be neutral in the research process (van Rooyen & Gray, 1995). The problem for PAR is it purports to be demo- cratic and collaborative, and this aspect is CONCLUSION: SOCIAL WORK crucial to the validity and meaning of knowl- AS A FORM OF PARTICIPATORY edge generated by the participatory research ACTION RESEARCH process. If there are unacknowledged power relationships from outsiders towards insiders, This chapter described and defined PAR illus- then the danger is this validity and meaning trating its compatibility with social work’s is undermined. Vigorously identifying the aims, values, processes, and, to a lesser potential for such occurrences and building degree, its practice. While academic freedom checks and balances at every stage of a PAR gives some leeway to researchers committed project is then essential to avoid this. In light to social justice, social work practitioners of such critique, van Rooyen and Gray might not have the same leeway within neo- (1995) argue researchers committed to PAR liberal welfare regimes (Ferguson et al., have a duty to ensure consistency and clarity 2005). Those in nongovernment organisa- through use of ‘systematic methodologies’ tions engaged in community action and social (p. 93), especially if they want to avoid per- development might enjoy more freedom than ceptions PAR is merely a ‘problem-solving those working in public social services where process’ (p. 93) like community work rather most social workers are employed. There are 5712-Gray-30.indd 478 2/23/2012 6:04:06 PM PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH 479 signs of resistance in some quarters which oppressed, and poor. PAR is illustrative in its are encouraging for social workers who intentions and in its practice of a different treasure the profession’s radical roots, but way of understanding and instigating social there is little to suggest organisations employ- change. 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