Mañjuśrī in East Asia

Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism Volume II: Lives Editor-in-chief Jonathan A. Silk Editors Richard Bowring Vincent Eltschinger Michael Radich Editorial Advisory Board Lucia Dolce Berthe Jansen John Jorgensen Christian Lammerts Francesco Sferra LEIDEN | BOSTON For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Contents Prelims Contributors ............................................................................................................................................................. xi Editors and Editorial Board .................................................................................................................................. xxxiii Primary Sources Abbreviations........................................................................................................................... xxxv Books Series and Journals Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xxxvii General Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... xlii Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. xliv Section One: Śākyamuni: South Asia .......................................................................................................................................... Barlaam and Josaphat ............................................................................................................................................ 3 39 Section Two: South & Southeast Asia: Ajātaśatru .................................................................................................................................................................. Āryadeva.................................................................................................................................................................... Āryaśūra..................................................................................................................................................................... Asaṅga/Maitreya(nātha)....................................................................................................................................... Bhāviveka .................................................................................................................................................................. Brahmā, Śakra, and Māra ...................................................................................................................................... Buddhaghoṣa............................................................................................................................................................ Buddhas of the Past: South Asia ......................................................................................................................... Buddhas of the Past and of the Future: Southeast Asia ............................................................................... Candragomin ........................................................................................................................................................... Candrakīrti................................................................................................................................................................ Ḍākinī ......................................................................................................................................................................... Devadatta .................................................................................................................................................................. Dharmakīrti .............................................................................................................................................................. Dharmapāla .............................................................................................................................................................. Dharmottara............................................................................................................................................................. Dignāga ...................................................................................................................................................................... Early Sarvāstivāda Masters ................................................................................................................................... Gavampati in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................................................... Gopadatta ................................................................................................................................................................. Guṇaprabha.............................................................................................................................................................. Haribhadra................................................................................................................................................................ Haribhaṭṭa ................................................................................................................................................................. Harivarman............................................................................................................................................................... Harṣa .......................................................................................................................................................................... Hayagrīva................................................................................................................................................................... Indian Tantric Authors: Overview ...................................................................................................................... Jñānagarbha ............................................................................................................................................................. Jñānapāda ................................................................................................................................................................. © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2019 Also available online – www.brill.com For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 51 60 70 73 81 85 92 95 109 121 125 132 141 156 168 173 179 186 191 196 198 204 209 211 214 218 228 261 264 BEB, vol. II vi Contents Jñānaśrīmitra ........................................................................................................................................................... Kamalaśīla ................................................................................................................................................................ Karuṇāmaya ............................................................................................................................................................. Kṣemendra ................................................................................................................................................................ Kumāralāta ............................................................................................................................................................... Mahādeva.................................................................................................................................................................. Maitreya..................................................................................................................................................................... Mārīcī ......................................................................................................................................................................... Mātṛceṭa .................................................................................................................................................................... Nāgārjuna .................................................................................................................................................................. Paccekabuddhas/Pratyekabuddhas in Indic Sources ................................................................................... Phra Malai in Thailand and Southeast Asia..................................................................................................... Prajñākaragupta ...................................................................................................................................................... Ratnākaraśānti......................................................................................................................................................... Ratnakīrti .................................................................................................................................................................. Saṅghabhadra .......................................................................................................................................................... Śaṅkaranandana ..................................................................................................................................................... Śaṅkarasvāmin ........................................................................................................................................................ Śāntarakṣita .............................................................................................................................................................. Śāntideva ................................................................................................................................................................... Sarasvatī/Benzaiten................................................................................................................................................ Śāriputra .................................................................................................................................................................... Scholars of Premodern Pali Buddhism ............................................................................................................. Seers (ṛṣi/isi) and Brāhmaṇas in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................ Siddhas....................................................................................................................................................................... Śrīlāta ......................................................................................................................................................................... Sthiramati ................................................................................................................................................................. Śubhagupta............................................................................................................................................................... Tantric Buddhist Deities in Southeast Asia ..................................................................................................... Thera/Therī in Pali and Southeast Asian Buddhism ..................................................................................... Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin .......................................................................................................................................... Upagupta ................................................................................................................................................................... Vāgīśvarakīrti ........................................................................................................................................................... Vasubandhu .............................................................................................................................................................. Vināyaka .................................................................................................................................................................... Yama and Hell Beings in Indian Buddhism ..................................................................................................... 269 272 279 286 293 298 302 325 332 335 348 357 363 366 371 374 378 382 383 391 398 409 420 437 443 452 456 458 463 474 479 481 490 492 507 513 East Asia: Ākāśagarbha in East Asia ...................................................................................................................................... Arhats in East Asian Buddhism .......................................................................................................................... Aśvaghoṣa (East Asian Aspects) ......................................................................................................................... Avalokiteśvara in East Asia................................................................................................................................... Dizang/Jizō ............................................................................................................................................................... Jianzhen (Ganjin) ................................................................................................................................................... Mahākāla in East Asia............................................................................................................................................ Mahākāśyapa in Chan-inspired Traditions...................................................................................................... Mañjuśrī in East Asia ............................................................................................................................................. Maudgalyāyana (Mulian)...................................................................................................................................... Musang (Wuxiang) ................................................................................................................................................. Tejaprabhā ................................................................................................................................................................ Yinyuan Longqi (Ingen) ........................................................................................................................................ For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 521 529 540 546 562 571 576 586 591 600 608 612 616 Contents vii China: Amoghavajra ............................................................................................................................................................ An Shigao .................................................................................................................................................................. Chengguan ................................................................................................................................................................ Daoxuan .................................................................................................................................................................... Falin ............................................................................................................................................................................ Faxian ......................................................................................................................................................................... Fazun .......................................................................................................................................................................... Hanshan Deqing ..................................................................................................................................................... Hongzhi Zhengjue .................................................................................................................................................. Huihong (see Juefan Huihong) Huineng (see Shenxiu) Huiyuan (see Lushan Huiyuan) Jigong.......................................................................................................................................................................... Juefan Huihong ....................................................................................................................................................... Liang Wudi................................................................................................................................................................ Lokakṣema ................................................................................................................................................................ Luo Qing .................................................................................................................................................................... Lushan Huiyuan ...................................................................................................................................................... Mazu Daoyi............................................................................................................................................................... Mingben (see Zhongfeng Mingben) Nāgārjuna in China ................................................................................................................................................ Nenghai...................................................................................................................................................................... Ouyang Jingwu ........................................................................................................................................................ Ouyi Zhixu ................................................................................................................................................................ Paramārtha ............................................................................................................................................................... Qian Qianyi............................................................................................................................................................... Qisong ........................................................................................................................................................................ Shenhui (see Shenxiu) Shenxiu, Huineng, and Shenhui ......................................................................................................................... Śubhākarasiṃha...................................................................................................................................................... Wumen ...................................................................................................................................................................... Wuxiang (see East Asia: Musang) Wuzhu ........................................................................................................................................................................ Xiao Ziliang............................................................................................................................................................... Yinshun...................................................................................................................................................................... Yixing ......................................................................................................................................................................... Yuan Hongdao ......................................................................................................................................................... Yuanwu Keqin .......................................................................................................................................................... Zhanran ..................................................................................................................................................................... Zhi Qian ..................................................................................................................................................................... Zhili............................................................................................................................................................................. Zhixu (see Ouyang Zhixu) Zhiyi............................................................................................................................................................................ Zhongfeng Mingben............................................................................................................................................... Zhuhong .................................................................................................................................................................... 623 630 642 648 653 657 662 668 673 679 684 689 700 707 711 722 727 735 741 748 752 759 764 768 777 782 787 791 795 800 806 810 814 818 826 833 839 844 Korea: Chinul......................................................................................................................................................................... Hyujŏng ..................................................................................................................................................................... Ich’adon ..................................................................................................................................................................... For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 853 860 864 viii Contents Kihwa ......................................................................................................................................................................... Kim Sisŭp .................................................................................................................................................................. Kyŏnghŏ..................................................................................................................................................................... Kyunyŏ ....................................................................................................................................................................... Muhak Chach’o ........................................................................................................................................................ Musang (see East Asia) Pou .............................................................................................................................................................................. Tosŏn .......................................................................................................................................................................... Ŭich’ŏn ....................................................................................................................................................................... Ŭisang ........................................................................................................................................................................ Wŏnch’ŭk .................................................................................................................................................................. Wŏnhyo...................................................................................................................................................................... Yi Nŭnghwa .............................................................................................................................................................. 869 873 877 882 887 891 895 900 903 908 913 918 Japan: Amaterasu Ōmikami .............................................................................................................................................. Annen......................................................................................................................................................................... Benzaiten (see South and Southeast Asia: Sarasvatī) Dōgen ......................................................................................................................................................................... Dōhan......................................................................................................................................................................... Eisai (see Yōsai) Eison ........................................................................................................................................................................... En no Gyōja .............................................................................................................................................................. Enchin ........................................................................................................................................................................ Ennin .......................................................................................................................................................................... Ganjin (see East Asia: Jianzhen) Genshin ..................................................................................................................................................................... Hachiman ................................................................................................................................................................. Hakuin ....................................................................................................................................................................... Hōnen ........................................................................................................................................................................ Ikkyū Sōjun ............................................................................................................................................................... Ingen (see East Asia: Yinyuan Longqi) Ippen Chishin .......................................................................................................................................................... Jakushō ...................................................................................................................................................................... Jiun Sonja .................................................................................................................................................................. Jizō (see East Asia: Dizang) Jōjin............................................................................................................................................................................. Jōkei ............................................................................................................................................................................ Kakuban .................................................................................................................................................................... Keizan Jōkin ............................................................................................................................................................. Kōmyō ........................................................................................................................................................................ Kūkai .......................................................................................................................................................................... Kūya ............................................................................................................................................................................ Menzan Zuihō ......................................................................................................................................................... Monkan ..................................................................................................................................................................... Mugai Nyodai ........................................................................................................................................................... Mujaku Dōchū ......................................................................................................................................................... Musō Soseki .............................................................................................................................................................. Myōe ........................................................................................................................................................................... Nichiren ..................................................................................................................................................................... Nōnin.......................................................................................................................................................................... For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 923 930 933 941 944 951 956 961 967 971 976 980 987 991 995 998 1002 1006 1011 1016 1020 1026 1036 1041 1047 1057 1062 1066 1071 1076 1088 Contents Raiyu........................................................................................................................................................................... Ryōgen........................................................................................................................................................................ Saichō ......................................................................................................................................................................... Saigyō ......................................................................................................................................................................... Shinran....................................................................................................................................................................... Shōtoku Taishi ......................................................................................................................................................... Tenjin ......................................................................................................................................................................... Tenkai ......................................................................................................................................................................... Yōsai/Eisai ................................................................................................................................................................. Zaō .............................................................................................................................................................................. ix 1094 1097 1102 1107 1111 1117 1122 1128 1134 1139 Tibetan Cultural Sphere Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters ................................................................................................................ Ge sar of Gling ......................................................................................................................................................... Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers ............................................................................................. Gtsang smyon Heruka ........................................................................................................................................... Lcang skya Rol pa’i Rdo rje ................................................................................................................................... Mi la ras pa................................................................................................................................................................ The Mongolian Jebdzundamba Khutugtu Lineage ....................................................................................... Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism ............................................................................................................ The Sa skya School’s Five Forefathers................................................................................................................ Spirits of the Soil, Land, and Locality in Tibet ................................................................................................ Ston pa Gshen rab: The Bön Buddha ................................................................................................................. Tibet's Crazy Yogins ................................................................................................................................................ Tsong kha pa and his Immediate Successors .................................................................................................. Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet ..................................................................................................................... 1145 1159 1165 1171 1175 1181 1191 1197 1213 1226 1233 1239 1246 1254 Appendix To Volume I: Buddhist Narrative Literature in Japan ............................................................................................................. Poetry: Japan ............................................................................................................................................................ Korean Sŏn Literature............................................................................................................................................ For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 1269 1286 1294 Mañjuśrī in East Asia Mañjuśrī (Chn. Wenshu [文殊]; Kor. Munsu; Jpn. Monju) is known as the “Bodhisattva of Wisdom,” based on his strong association with prajñā. This conventional designation, however, obscures a more multifaceted persona. Literary traditions reveal him as the exemplar of Mahāyāna bodhisattva ideals, a being who has already attained awakening but continues to manifest himself throughout the realms of rebirth to help sentient beings. Iconographically, among many other forms, Mañjuśrī is often portrayed as a youth or prince, his left hand holding a lotus flower or volume of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra and his right hand holding a sword. In East Asia, he is also frequently shown riding a lion, adding to his majesty. Many Chinese sūtra translations cast Mañjuśrī as an interlocutor of buddhas or other awakened beings, as in his famed encounter with Vimalakīrti in the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa. But Mañjuśrī is also revealed to be a buddha himself, enlightened eons ago and now presiding over his own Pure Land in a distant realm or this world, especially Mount Wutai (五臺) in China. He is further lauded as the “Mother of Buddhas” ( fomu [佛母]) or “Mother of Awakening” (juemu [覺母]) for engendering the crucial aspiration for enlightenment (Skt. bodhicitta). The popular Lotus Sūtra depicts him as the ancestral teacher of the historical buddha, Śākyamuni, while esoteric traditions reveal him as the teacher of the primordial or cosmic buddha, Vairocana (e.g. Dasheng yuqie jingang xinghai Manshushili qianbi qianbo dajiaowang jing [大乘瑜伽金剛性海曼殊 室利千臂千鉢大教王經]; Sūtra of the Mañjuśrī of a Thousand Arms and a Thousand Bowls; T. 1177A [XX] 725b11–18). Extraordinary powers attributed to Mañjuśrī include the ability to avert celestial catastrophes, protect the state from foreign invaders, erase karmic transgressions, provide healing and protection in this life, ensure rebirth in a Pure Land after death, and induce supreme awakening in this or future lives. For all Mañjuśrī’s cosmic powers and abilities, however, literary and iconographic traditions also frequently show him in such humble forms as a child, old man, outcast, or animal. To properly “see” Mañjuśrī, then, we must turn to his particular manifestations. Mañjuśrī in Early Chinese Sūtra Translations Considering the earliest corpus of Chinese sūtra translations – those reliably attributed to Lokakṣema (Zhiloujiachen [支婁迦讖]; 2nd cent. CE) – Harrison (2000) concludes that although Mañjuśrī played an important role, there is little to suggest any Mañjuśrī cult at this stage. The seeds for such a cult, however, can be found in Lokakṣema’s Asheshiwang jing (阿闍世王經; Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodana, T. 626). Particularly revealing is a section incorporating an anonymously translated separate sūtra devoted to Mañjuśrī, the Fang bo jing (放鉢經, T. 629), which Harrison (1993, 155–156) argues was likely produced by the Lokakṣema school and inserted into the Asheshiwang jing. The Fang bo jing, alongside the Dasheng bensheng xindi guan jing (大乘本生心地觀經, T. 159), proved to be one of the locus classici for East Asian views of Mañjuśrī as father and mother of buddhas, once the cult spread (T. 629 [XV] 451a14–19; T. 159 [III] 305c25–26; Quinter, 2011, 286–290; 2015, 77–83; Radich, 2015, 150–152). Although Lokakṣema’s translation of the Śūraṃgamasamādhi-sūtra does not survive, some two centuries later Kumārajīva’s (Jiumoluoshi [鳩 摩羅什]; 344–413) translation, the Shoulengyan sanmei jing (首楞嚴三昧經, T. 642) features Mañjuśrī prominently as a master of the samādhi and an exemplary practitioner, extolled as much for his miraculous powers as for his teaching of the bodhisattva path (esp. T. 642 [XV] 642a26–644b6; trans. McRae, 1998, 71–80). This depiction of Mañjuśrī likely influenced the *Mañjuśrī Parinirvāṇa Sūtra (Wenshushili banniepanjing [文殊師利般涅槃經]; T. 463; trans. Quinter, 2010, 105–114), which similarly praises Mañjuśrī’s mastery of the samādhi (T. 463 [XIV] 480c17–20, c24–26), and played a key role in later instantiations of the cult (see below). © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2019 Also available online – www.brill.com For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV BEB, vol. II 592 Mañjuśrī in East Asia Also proving influential among relatively early Chinese sūtra translations is the Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa. The earliest extant translation, the Weimojie jing (維摩詰經, T. 474), is attributed to Zhi Qian (支謙; fl. c. 220–252), but Kumārajīva’s version (Weimojie suoshuo jing [維摩詰所説經]; T. 475) became the most popular. The sūtra extols the layman Vimalakīrti, portraying him as superior in wisdom not only to such arhats as Śāriputra but also to the great bodhisattvas. Mañjuśrī comes to the fore in Chapters 5–9, which culminate with a series of bodhisattvas presenting their views on non-duality. Mañjuśrī is the final bodhisattva to speak, but even his profound insight is outshone by Vimalakīrti, who demonstrates his mastery of non-duality through silence (T. 475 [XIV] 551c16–24). From one perspective, Mañjuśrī merely represents the final monastic foil showing off the greater wisdom of the layman Vimalakīrti. However, Mañjuśrī’s wisdom is clearly portrayed as foremost among those bodhisattvas. Iconographically, moreover, pairings of Mañjuśrī and Vimalakīrti constitute our most abundant Chinese representations of the bodhisattva in the 5th century (Heyrman, 1994), the earliest period identified for extant East Asian images of Mañjuśrī. The Mañjuśrī Parinirvāṇa Sūtra The Mañjuśrī Parinirvāṇa Sūtra is a brief text, extant only in a Chinese translation traditionally attributed to Nie Daozhen (聶道眞; d.u.) and accordingly dated circa 280–312, when Nie Daozhen was said to have worked with the more renowned translator Dharmarakṣa (Zhu Fahu [竺法護]; c. 230–316 or c. 233–310). It is often viewed as one of the earliest testimonies to the Mañjuśrī cult. However, this attribution is dubious, and the scripture more likely dates to the 5th century (Quinter, 2010). The testimony the sūtra provides to the Mañjuśrī cult at the time of its composition may merely be literary and prescriptive, but its contents are nonetheless vivid, and were used by later proponents in diverse ways. In the sūtra, in response to Bhadrapāla’s request for a prediction of Mañjuśrī’s parinirvāṇa, the Buddha provides a mini-biography, beginning with Mañjuśrī’s birth in an Indian village and culminating with his attainment of the śūraṃgamasamādhi. Through the power of this samādhi, Mañjuśrī repeatedly manifests throughout the ten directions, enters parinirvāṇa, and benefits sentient beings. In a passage that ultimately formed one of the proof texts for Mount Wutai as Mañjuśrī’s dwelling place, the Buddha then foretells that, 450 years after the nirvāṇa of the Buddha, Mañjuśrī will arrive in the Mountain of Snows and convert 500 sages. Although for Indian contexts the “Mountain of Snows” typically referred to the Himalayas and “sages” (xianren [仙人]) to ṛṣi or other Indian nonBuddhist practitioners, the terms here were later interpreted as referring to “Mount Clear and Cool” (Qingliang shan [清涼山]) – an alternate name for Mount Wutai – and to Daoist-style “transcendents” (e.g. Daoxuan’s [道宣; 596–667] 664 Ji Shenzhou sanbao gantong lu [集神州三寶感通錄], T. 2106 [LII] 424c25–27; and Yanyi’s [延一; b. 999] c. 1060 gazetteer of Wutai, Guang qingliang zhuan [廣清涼 傳], T. 2099 [LI] 1103c6–8, 1105a8–10). After mentioning Mañjuśrī’s flight back to his birthplace alongside the sages, the Buddha depicts the miraculous lights, flames, colors, and other signs that Mañjuśrī will manifest through the śūraṃgamasamādhi, including transformation of the lights and flames into a beryl statue. For future generations, the Buddha then enumerates Mañjuśrī’s spiritual powers, insisting that those “who merely hear Mañjuśrī’s name” will have their transgressions from countless lifetimes removed and that “those who pay reverence and make offerings will always be reborn” in the presence of buddhas (T. 463 [XIV] 481a15–17). The description that follows of the “method of calling to mind the image of Mañjuśrī” includes passages that proved very influential for the Mañjuśrī cult in Japan. The Buddha proclaims: If people call to mind this Dharma-Prince Mañjuśrī, if they wish to make offerings and cultivate meritorious deeds, then [Mañjuśrī] will transform himself, turning into an impoverished, solitary, or afflicted sentient being, and appear before the practitioners. When people call Mañjuśrī to mind, they should practice compassion. Those who practice compassion will thereby be able to see Mañjuśrī (T. 463 [XIV] 481a28–b3). In early and medieval Japan, these passages were cited repeatedly as scriptural precedent for holding Mañjuśrī assemblies (Jpn. Monju-e [文殊會]) in conjunction with charitable relief activities. For example, an 828 Council of State directive granted state support for such assemblies, which had been carried out privately by Gonzō (勤操; 754–827) and Taizen (泰善; d.u.) (Ruiju sandaikyaku [類聚三代格], For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Mañjuśrī In East Asia KT, vol. XXV, 53–54; trans. Quinter, 2015, 251–253). Within the narrative flow of the sūtra, however, the passages appear as part of the proper “contemplation” (guan [觀]) of Mañjuśrī’s auspicious marks and signs, highlighting their simultaneously visual and discursive character. Such a synthesis is attested again in the sūtra’s concluding passages, which first appear to equate Mañjuśrī’s bodily remains (sheli [舍利]; Skt. śarīra) with the beryl statue formed from those marks, then proclaim that the statue will emit a continuous light preaching “the dharmas of suffering, emptiness, impermanence, and no-self” (T. 463 [XIV] 481b12–17). The Lotus Sūtra Among Chinese scriptures translated by the 5th century CE, the Lotus Sūtra also forged key precedents for the Mañjuśrī cult. Again, earlier translations of the sūtra existed, but Kumārajīva’s 406 version (Miaofa lianhua jing [妙法蓮華經]; T. 262) enhanced its popularity. Mañjuśrī appears variously in his typical role as interlocutor of buddhas, but significant developments include portrayals of him as the ancestral teacher of Śākyamuni and Maitreya, the future buddha, and as the expounder of the Lotus Sūtra in the ocean palace of the nāga king Sāgara. Also noteworthy are iconographic pairings with Bodhisattva Samantabhadra as attendants to Śākyamuni influenced by the sūtra. The opening chapter signals Mañjuśrī’s prominence when Maitreya asks him to elucidate the miraculous signs the Buddha manifested. In reply, Mañjuśrī explains that, eons ago, when he was Bodhisattva Wonderfully Bright (Miao guang [妙 光]; Skt. Varaprabha), he had been the teacher of the eight sons of Buddha Sun Moon Bright (Ri yue deng ming [日月燈明]; Skt. Candrasūryapradīpa), who each became buddhas themselves. This led to commentarial traditions in which the final son was viewed as Śākyamuni’s teacher and Mañjuśrī as his ninth-generation ancestral teacher (e.g. Jizang’s [吉蔵; 549–623] Fahua yishu [法華義疏], T. 1721 [XXXIV] 481b2–3; Zhanran’s [湛然; 711–782] Fahua xuanyi shiqian [法華玄義釋籤], T. 1717 [XXXIII] 922c23–26). Mañjuśrī also revealed that Maitreya had been one of his 800 disciples. These passages thus further spread Mañjuśrī’s reputation as teacher of buddhas, past and future (T. 262 [IX] 4a22–b16; Watson, 1993, 16–17). 593 The most dramatic portion of Chapter 12, “Devadatta,” which was added to Kumārajīva’s version by Fayi (法意; d.u.) around 490, occurs after Mañjuśrī emerges from Sāgara’s palace, where he had been preaching the Lotus Sūtra and converting countless sentient beings. Here, he introduces the king’s eight-year-old daughter to exemplify the rapid attainment of buddhahood. To counter doubts raised by members of Mañjuśrī’s audience, the “Dragon Girl” (Longnu [龍女]; Skt. Nāgakanyā) appears before the Buddha, declares her awakening, and demonstrates that attainment. She instantly changes into a man, completes all the bodhisattva practices, and assumes her place as a buddha in a purified realm in the south (T. 262 [IX] 35a22–c21; Watson, 1993, 185–189). While the Dragon Girl may be the star of the episode, the transformative power of Mañjuśrī’s teachings in the ocean palace is also clear, and links between him, the Dragon Girl, and nāgās more broadly became an important motif in Mañjuśrī traditions. (See, e.g., Cartelli, [2013, 60–62, 89–92, 106–107, 158–159, 185–186] on “Dragon King” motifs in Mount Wutai traditions, which also drew on representations of Mañjuśrī in the Śūraṃgamasamādhi-sūtra; and Abé [2015] on the relationship between Mañjuśrī and the Dragon Girl in the sūtra and its influence in medieval Japan.) The pairing of Mañjuśrī and Samantabhadra as Śākyamuni’s attendants, which became common in East Asian iconography, cannot be found in the sūtra itself. However, several 7th- and 8th-century murals at Dunhuang show the bodhisattvas as a pair, and a prominent theme is scenes related to Chapter 11, “Emergence of the Jeweled Stūpa” (Wong, 2016). For scenes specific to that chapter, the two could actually be viewed as attendants to the two buddhas, Prabhūtaratna and Śākyamuni, who came to sit side by side in the manifested stūpa. But Śākyamuni’s centrality throughout the sūtra, coupled with the prominence afforded Mañjuśrī and Samantabhadra, to whom the culminating 28th chapter is dedicated, suggest the logic of linking them with Śākyamuni. Flower Garland, Mount Wutai, and Odaesan Traditions Pairings of Mañjuśrī with Samantabhadra also feature prominently in motifs related to the Buddhāvataṃsaka (Huayan jing [華嚴經]; Flower Garland For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 594 Mañjuśrī in East Asia Sūtra; T. 278, T. 279), one of the most influential scriptures for the East Asian Mañjuśrī cult. Vairocana (Pilushena [毘盧舍那] or Piluzhena [毘盧 遮那]) is the sūtra’s main buddha, but he remains silent, and the discourse is propelled by Mañjuśrī and Samantabhadra. This ultimately led to formations of these three protagonists as the “three sages” (sansheng [三聖]) in doctrinal, ritual, and iconographic traditions, especially via writings of Chengguan (澄觀; 738–839) preserved in Korea and influential in medieval Japan (Gimello, 1996). Mañjuśrī serves as the main guide to the youth Sudhana (Shancai [善財]) in the popular “Entering the Dharma World” chapter (Ru fajie pin [入法 界品]), the final chapter in both the 60-fascicle version, translated circa 420 (T. 278), and the 80fascicle version, translated circa 699 (T. 279). (This final chapter also circulated as an independent sūtra [T. 293; Skt. Gaṇḍavyūha].) Mañjuśrī starts Sudhana on his journey to enlightenment through the successive guidance of 53 (alternatively 54 or 55) spiritual friends, and appears again – as the only guide to appear twice – just before Sudhana meets his final guide, Samantabhadra. Thus Mañjuśrī and Sudhana were also frequently paired, including in iconographic configurations associated with Wutai, for which Sudhana became a leading representative of Mañjuśrī’s ten thousand attendants. Popular among these were triads with a royal groom for Mañjuśrī’s lion and, especially in medieval Japan, a pentad adding an old man and the Indian monk Buddhapālita (Kaneko, 1992, 20–57; Wu, 2002, 73–137). The Flower Garland Sūtra and the Wutai Mañjuśrī cult were also intimately linked, because the sūtra designated a mountain in the northeast, Qingliang, as Mañjuśrī’s dwelling place (T. 278 [IX] 590a3–5; T. 279 [X], 241b20–23) and Qingliang came to be identified as Wutai. Moreover, Huayan and Wutai traditions rose to national prominence in the decades surrounding the new 80-fascicle translation of the sūtra, in the late 7th to early 8th centuries. That prominence soon spread to other parts of Asia, as pilgrims from other regions were drawn to Wutai, and as Huayan and related traditions were transmitted to Korea and Japan. For example, textually and visually, one of the most widely celebrated encounters with Mañjuśrī on Wutai concerns the aforementioned Buddhapālita (or Buddhapāla; Chn. Fotuoboli [佛 陀波利]; d. after 677), a meditation master from northern India (Chen, 2002, 104–111). In a 689 preface to a Chinese translation of the Foding zunsheng tuoluoni jing (佛頂尊勝陀羅尼經; Sūtra of the Supreme Dhāraṇī of the Buddha’s Crown, T. 967, Skt. Uṣṇīṣavijayadhāraṇī), Buddhapālita is reported to have journeyed to Wutai in 676. When he prayed to see Mañjuśrī, an old man appeared, speaking the language of the brahmans, and instructed him that if Buddhapālita brought a copy of the sūtra, he would reveal where to find Mañjuśrī. Buddhapālita thus returned to “the Western countries” (South or Central Asia) to secure a copy, which he presented to the Chinese emperor in 683, before bringing the Sanskrit original to Wutai (T. 967 [XIX] 349b2–c5; Lamotte, 1960, 86–88). Other versions of the story, including one in the pilgrimage diary of the Japanese monk →Ennin (圓仁; 794–864; Reischauer, 1955, 246–247), who journeyed to Wutai in 840, clearly identify the old man as Mañjuśrī, as do visual portrayals. For example, Ennin’s account refers to a painting of the encounter (Reischauer, 1955, 217, 228) and a banner with the story inscribed (Reischauer, 1955, 266), while the 10th-century mural Representation of Mount Wutai and its inscriptions in Dunhuang cave 61 depict their encounters twice (Wong, 1993, 37, figs. 7B, 7H). Stories and other representations of Buddhapālita and Mañjuśrī’s encounters thus likely influenced the inclusion of an old man in the aforementioned Mañjuśrī pentad (on visual portrayals in China and Japan, see also Kaneko, 1992, 51–57; on literary depictions, see also Cartelli, 2013, 109–118, 187–188). Ennin’s travels to Wutai and accounts of Mañjuśrī there are well known, to the extent that he is sometimes mistakenly reported to have “introduced” the Mañjuśrī cult to Japan. However, cultic traditions in Japan for Wutai and Mañjuśrī clearly predate Ennin’s return from China in 847. For example, the earliest surviving Wutai gazetteer, Gu qingliang zhuan (古清涼傳; Ancient Records of Mount Clear and Cool; T. 2098), was compiled circa 679 to 683 by Huixiang (慧祥; d.u.), whose writings attest to Mañjuśrī’s presence and the numinous character of the mountain based on his own journeys and others’ accounts (Andrews, 2016). The text was copied in Japan in 740 and was soon followed, in 744, by Fazang’s (法藏; 643–712) Huayan jing zhuanji (華嚴經傳記; Records of the Flower Garland Sūtra; T. 2073), which also contains references to the Wutai Mañjuśrī cult (Yoshida, 1977, 32). Yoshida (1977, 30) considers Gyōga (行賀; 729– 803), who entered China in 753, the first recorded Japanese pilgrim to Wutai, although some scholars For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Mañjuśrī In East Asia give this honor to Genbō (玄昉; d. 746), largely on the basis of later sources (Palmer, 2009, 196n49). In either event, accounts of Mañjuśrī’s compassionate activity on Wutai likely influenced portrayals of Gyōki (行基; 668–749) as Mañjuśrī, first attested in the Nihon ryōiki (日本靈異記; NKBT, vol. LXX, 86–87; Nakamura, 1973, 115) compiled in the late 8th to early 9th centuries. Gyōki was renowned for his charitable activities and temple construction projects and quickly became a focus of cultic devotion himself, with his identification as Mañjuśrī flourishing in Heian-period (794–1185) and later literature (Horiike, 1982; Augustine, 2005). Wutai narratives, especially accounts of assemblies featuring egalitarian feasts, also likely influenced Gonzō and Taizen’s Mañjuśrī assemblies (Quinter, 2015, 58–85). Wutai traditions figured prominently in spreading the Mañjuśrī cult in Korea as well. Most salient is the establishment of a mountain temple complex in northern Silla named after Wutai, pronounced in Korean as Odaesan (五臺山). Accounts of the founding of Odaesan by Chajang (慈藏; c. 590–658) and two princes in the 7th and early 8th centuries in Iryŏn’s (一然; 1206–1289) Samguk yusa (三國遺事, T. 2039; Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms; hereafter Memorabilia) – our earliest textual source for Odaesan – are likely apocryphal, and more critical historians date the establishment of the temple complex to the late Unified Silla (668–938) or early Koryŏ (936–1392) periods (Cho, 2012). That said, the origin story reflects well the indigenization of the cult in Silla and merits examination. The Memorabilia reports that Chajang entered China in 636, hoping to see Mañjuśrī’s “true body” (Chn. zhenshen [眞身]) on Wutai. He first visited a stone image of Mañjuśrī at Taihe (太和) pond, where he prayed for seven days. Suddenly, Mañjuśrī manifested in a dream and conferred a four-line verse (gāthā) in Sanskrit, which Chajang could not interpret. The next morning a monk appeared, bringing a robe, begging bowl, and skull bone relic. He translated the verse for Chajang and transmitted to him these relics of Śākyamuni’s. He further proclaimed that in the northeast of Chajang’s native country, there was a mountain named Odae where ten thousand Mañjuśrīs constantly dwelt. The monk then instructed Chajang to go see them there, and vanished. Before Chajang left, the dragon of Taihe pond revealed that the monk was truly Mañjuśrī (T. 2039 [XLIX] 998b21–c7). 595 Intriguingly, however, the Memorabilia subsequently reports that Chajang did journey to Odaesan and similarly prayed for seven days, but was unable to see Mañjuśrī (T. 2039 [XLIX] 1000a11–12). Moreover, just before Chajang died, he realized too late that an old hermit who had come to see him, carrying a dead puppy, was actually Mañjuśrī with his lion (T. 2039 [XLIX] 1005c12–27). Thus, as Cho argues (2012), the Memorabilia shows some ambivalence toward Chajang, and the text devotes more attention to two princes, sons of King Sinmun (神文; r. 681–691), for establishing Odaesan. Particularly noteworthy is the portrayal of the royal establishment of a “Hwaŏm [Chn. Huayan] Community” on the mountain in 705, and the revelation to the princes on the central terrace not only of ten thousand Mañjuśrīs, led by Vairocana, but also of four different sets of ten thousand bodhisattvas and arhats for the four remaining peaks of the five-peaked mountain (McBride, 2008, 110–116). While these accounts of Chajang and the princes surely incorporate later Silla and Koryŏ projections, they do provide Odaesan with an illustrious dharma and royal pedigree. That pedigree is linked directly to manifestations of Mañjuśrī on Wutai and native Korean territory, as well as Huayan traditions of Mañjuśrī and his retinue of ten thousand in his northeastern mountain home(s). Esoteric Buddhism, Amoghavajra, and Tendai Mañjuśrī’s northeastern homes are closely linked to his role as a state-protecting deity. Wutai and Odaesan could each be seen as symbolically protecting their states or kingdoms from northern invasion (McBride, 2008, 114–115). Such state-protecting aspects came to the fore especially in esoteric traditions gaining popularity in 8th-century China. In 710, for example, the South Indian monk Bodhiruci (Putiliuzhi [菩提流志]; d. 727) is credited with translating the probably apocryphal Wenshushili fa baozang tuoluoni jing (文殊師利法寶藏陀羅 尼經; Mañjuśrī Dharma-Treasury Dhāraṇī Sūtra; T. 1185A; see also T. 1185B). The scripture shows Śākyamuni pronouncing that, after his passing, Mañjuśrī would manifest himself in *Mahācīna (Dazhenna [大振那]), or “Great China,” at a mountain called “Five Peaks” (Wuding [五頂]); the connection with Wutai, literally “Five Terraces,” could For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 596 Mañjuśrī in East Asia hardly be missed. Śākyamuni then reports that Mañjuśrī has a mantra, image, and rite suited to the “latter terminal age, when the Buddha dharma is in demise, wicked teachings proliferate, and disasters increasingly arise.” Also noteworthy is the characterization by the Buddha of the age as a time when “wicked stars will cause transmutations” (T. 1185A [XX] 791c11–26; Birnbaum, 1983, 11–13, trans. modified). Esoteric forms of Mañjuśrī include one-, five-, six-, and eight-syllable forms – corresponding to the numbers of syllables in his mantras, and of his adorning topknots in iconographic portrayals – and this scripture concerns the eight-syllable Mañjuśrī. Due to the influence of this and related scriptures, as well as the efforts of the prolific translator →Amoghavajra (Bukong [不空]; 705–774) and his imperial supporters in promoting Wutai and the Mañjuśrī cult, eight-syllable and other Mañjuśrī rites became popular in China and Japan in times of peril from astrological factors, foreign invaders, and other threatening forces. A collection of documents compiled by Amoghavajra’s disciple Yuanzhao (圓照; 719–800) in the late 8th century, the Daizong chao zeng sikong dabian zheng guangzhi sanzang heshang biaozhi ji (代宗朝贈司空大辯正廣智三藏和上表制集, T. 2120; hereafter, Collected Documents), reveals the growing importance of Wutai and the Mañjuśrī cult in Amoghavajra’s activities (Orlando, 1981; Birnbaum, 1983, 29–38). The Collected Documents begins with praise of the repression of the An Lushan (安祿山) rebellion in 757, underscoring the context of state protection. A series of memorials from 766 to 767 subsequently shows Amoghavajra receiving imperial support for the construction of a major Wutai monastery, the Golden Pavilion (Jin’ge [金閣]), originally revealed as a “sacred trace” of Mañjuśrī’s in a 736 vision to the Chan master Daoyi (道義; d.u.). Amoghavajra also renovated four leading temples there, and had 37 monks installed at each of those five temples. From 769 until Amoghavajra’s death in 774, his solicitations for imperial support of the Mañjuśrī cult moved beyond Wutai. He first requested an imperial edict to replace the arhat Piṇḍola (→Arhats) with Mañjuśrī as the main deity in monastic dining halls. His request was granted in early 770. Later that year, Amoghavajra obtained an edict to establish temples for Mañjuśrī and Samantabhadra in Taiyuan (太原), the Tang ancestral seat. Moreover, in 772, the emperor granted his request to order Mañjuśrī pavilions constructed at every monastery in the land. Beginning a few decades after Amoghavajra’s death, →Saichō (最澄; 767–822) and other Japanese monks who helped transmit Tiantai (天台; Jpn. Tendai) and esoteric traditions from China adapted both “exoteric” and “esoteric” aspects of the Tang-dynasty (618–c. 907) Mañjuśrī cult. For example, Saichō echoed Amoghavajra’s request to have Mañjuśrī installed in monastic dining halls, and integrated it with efforts to establish a specifically “Mahāyāna” monastery on Mount Hiei (比叡山), just outside the new Heian capital. Notably, Saichō quoted the Mañjuśrī Parinirvāṇa Sūtra in full to further support his position (Kenkairon [顯戒論]; T. 2376 [LXXIV] 602a15–603c6). He also gave Mañjuśrī a role in his envisioned “exclusively Mahāyāna” ordination system on Mount Hiei, petitioning that the ceremonies be held with the bodhisattva himself serving as Master of the Proceedings (Jpn. konma ajari [羯 磨阿闍梨]; lit. karma ācārya), ordinarily the monk responsible for conducting the ordination in the proper manner (Groner, 1984, 138–143). An express goal of Saichō’s disciple Ennin in journeying to China was to visit Wutai, and his diary preserved many details regarding monasteries, images, and numinous phenomena associated with Mañjuśrī (Horiike, 1982, 481–482; Birnbaum, 1983, 16–18, 68). Scriptures that Ennin brought back included a record of Fazhao’s (法照; d. c. 820) visionary experiences, which led to the establishment of the Bamboo Grove Monastery (Zhulin si [竹林寺]) on Wutai and the implementation of the “five-tempo Buddha recitation” (wuhui nianfo [五會念佛]) revealed to Fazhao by Amitābha and Mañjuśrī. Ennin is thus credited with introducing the practice to Mount Hiei, which helped integrate the Mañjuśrī cult with devotion to Amitābha’s Pure Land (Stevenson, 1996; Lin, 2014, 124–128). Ennin is also one of three monks who brought the 824 Dasheng Miaojixiang pusa mimi bazi tuoluoni xiuxing mantuluo cidi yigui fa (大聖妙吉祥菩薩祕密 八字陀羅尼修行曼荼羅次第儀軌法; Eight-Syllable Mañjuśrī Dhāraṇī and Maṇḍala Rites; T. 1184) to Japan in the 9th century. The 13th-century Tendai iconographic compendium Asabashō (阿娑縛抄, T. 3190) reports that Ennin subsequently led eightsyllable Mañjuśrī rites in 850 to cure an ill emperor, and further notes major eight-syllable Mañjuśrī rites in 1099, 1142, 1143, and 1157 for such purposes as praying for rain and averting harmful astrological influences (T. 3190 [XCIV] 248a–b; Birnbaum, 1983, 68–69, 94). The Eight-syllable rites thus became a pride of Tendai esotericism, but from the 12th For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV Mañjuśrī In East Asia century were also practiced widely in Shingon esotericism (Kaneko, 1992, 75). As significant as the eight-syllable Mañjuśrī was in Tang and subsequent Japanese traditions, we cannot neglect the importance of other esoteric forms of Mañjuśrī. Most saliently, at least five scriptures on the five-syllable Mañjuśrī are attributed to Amoghavajra (T. 1171, 1172, 1174, 1175, 1176), and in Japan images of the five-syllable Mañjuśrī far outnumber other esoteric forms. Thus, additional research is warranted on these and other esoteric scriptures and forms (e.g. the aforementioned “Mañjuśrī of a Thousand Arms and a Thousand Bowls;” see Wang, 2016), which have not received the same attention as eight-syllable ones. Further Research and the “Living Mañjuśrī” It is probably misguided to pursue a consistent identity for Mañjuśrī across his diverse East Asian textual and iconographic manifestations, and there remain many aspects of his cult not examined here. For example, an important theme is the imperial promotion of the cult through several periods of Chinese history, including the eventual identification of rulers with Mañjuśrī himself. Recently, Goble (2015) has argued that Amoghavajra’s involvement with Wutai and the Mañjuśrī cult reflected Emperor Daizong’s (代宗; r. 762–779) impetus more than Amoghavajra’s own. Although this point merits further investigation, it is valuable in helping place Daizong within the long tradition of imperial promotion of Wutai and the Mañjuśrī cult. Assertions of such imperial involvement before the Tang almost invariably stem from sources from the late 7th century on, but there is substantial evidence for Wu Zetian (武則天; 624–705; r. 690–705), both before and during her reign (Chen, 2002, 95, 109–111, 132). The descendants of the Mongol ruler Qubilai (or Kublai Khan; r. 1260–1294) posthumously proclaimed his identity with Mañjuśrī (Farquhar, 1978, 11–13) in 1345, and the Qianlong (乾隆; r. 1736–1795) emperor made creative use of his identity as Mañjuśrī in seven portraits (Berger, 2003, 113–116). The inclusion of Yamāntaka (Daweide [大威德]), a wrathful form of Mañjuśrī and protector of Beijing (Bianchi, 2008), among Qianlong’s portraits reminds us that Mañjuśrī’s protective qualities have fierce sides as well, and these too merit further research. 597 Perhaps most pressing, however, is the need for more research on the Mañjuśrī cult in Korea, especially for the Chosŏn dynasty (1392–1897) and beyond. Thus, at the risk of suggesting more continuity than is warranted, it is possible to conclude by juxtaposing two provocative examples of the cult in medieval Japan and Chosŏn to modern Korea. For medieval Japan, →Eison’s (叡尊; 1201–1290) Shingon Ritsu (眞言律) movement may be especially revealing for syntheses of esoteric practices with portrayals of Mañjuśrī’s particular concern for the impoverished and afflicted. Inspired by Ninshō (忍性; 1217–1303), who was strongly influenced by five-syllable Mañjuśrī practices, beginning in the 1240s Eison and colleagues regularly held Mañjuśrī assemblies that combined chanting Mañjuśrī’s name and mantra, dedication of Mañjuśrī images, and charitable relief for outcasts (hinin [非人]). Here too we see the influence of the Mañjuśrī Parinirvāṇa Sūtra, which Eison quoted in his proposal for a grand “non-discriminatory assembly” to be held at the recently restored Hannyaji (般若寺) in 1269. Contemporary sources reveal that during the ceremony, both the Mañjuśrī main icon – animated by the insertion of relics, texts, and other objects – and two thousand outcasts were venerated as the “living Mañjuśrī” that Eison attributed to the sūtra (Quinter, 2007; 2008; 2015). It is also likely, however, that Ninshō and Eison were inspired by faith in the healing power of Mañjuśrī’s mantra, including for those afflicted with leprosy and other skin diseases, who constituted one of the core groups of medieval outcasts (Abé, 2002–2003). Intriguing parallels can be found in accounts of a Mañjuśrī sculpture enshrined at the Sangwŏnsa (上院寺) on Odaesan. As detailed by Kim (2016), during 1984 repairs, the sculpture – commissioned by Princess Ŭisuk (懿淑; d. 1477) and her husband in 1466 – was found to have inserted inside it texts, jewels, and textiles printed with dhāraṇī and maṇḍalas, and other items. Most significant here is a jacket stained with what looked like bodily fluids. Media reports quickly linked the jacket to a local legend in which King Sejo (世祖; r. 1455–1468), the princess’s father, was cured of a skin disease when a passing boy washed his back in the Odaesan mountain stream. In typical Wutai and Odaesan fashion, the boy revealed himself to be Mañjuśrī before disappearing (see also Cho, 2012, 159, on the legend). The reports thus claimed that the jacket had been donated by the king and that the stains were remnants of his skin disease. Kim (2016) convincingly For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV 598 Mañjuśrī in East Asia shows that, although the jacket could indeed have been donated by King Sejo, early accounts of his role in a 1464 restoration of Sangwŏnsa – to which the Mañjuśrī sculpture was probably linked – make no mention of skin disease. Later developments of the legend and the Sangwŏnsa Mañjuśrī, however, provide fresh testimony to preexisting beliefs in Mañjuśrī’s efficacy for healing skin disease and to what we might call a “living Mañjuśrī” for modern times. And while the Korean example features a king rather than outcasts, that very juxtaposition may reflect twinned themes of royalty and liminality highlighted repeatedly in the East Asian Mañjuśrī cult. Bibliography Abé, Ryūichi, 2015. “Revisiting the Dragon Princess: Her Role in Medieval Engi Stories and Their Implications in Reading the Lotus Sutra,” JJRS 42/1, 27–70. Abé, Ryūichi, 2002–2003. “Mantra, Hinin, and the Feminine: On the Salvational Strategies of Myōe and Eizon,” CEA 13, 101–125. Andrews, S., 2016. “The Temple of the Prince Who Torched His Body and the Making of Mount Wutai,” Journal of Chinese Buddhist Studies 29, 91–127. Augustine, J., 2005. Buddhist Hagiography in Early Japan: Images of Compassion in the Gyōki Tradition, London: RoutledgeCurzon. 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For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV David Quinter