Islamic History - Prophet Muhammad
Ali Zainal P MalawaniBRIEF LIFE HISTORY OF PROPHET MUHAMMAD (s) A Brief Biography of Prophet Muhammad (s) We have sent thee not except as a mercy to all the Worlds The Holy Quran, The Prophets (21): 107 We have sent thee not except as a giver of glad-tidings and a warner to all the peoples The Holy Quran, Sheba (34): 28 ************************ Muhammad was son of Abdullah, who was son of Abdul-Muttalib, who was son of Hashim - whose ancestry reached the Prophet Ismael son of the Prophet Abraham, peace be upon them. The Prophet Muhammad was born in the city of Mecca, in Arabia, on a Friday, the 17th day of the lunar month of Rabi-I, in the year 570 CE into a noble family whose fathers and ancestors were amongst the chiefs of the Quraysh tribe, and the Bani-Hashim clan. His Prophetic mission began on the 27th day of the month of Rajab, in the year 610 CE, when he received the first divine revelation. Then the Quran was revealed to the Prophet progressively according to the circumstances of the time over a period of 23 years. The Prophet Muhammad was killed by poisoning on the 28th day of the month of Safar in the 11th year of the Hijrah 1, 630 CE.
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Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (1703–1792), the founder of the puritan Wahhābī movement in Islam, has written a biography of the prophet that differs markedly from other later works of this genre. He passes over many episodes that are supposed to elevate the status of Muḥammad beyond that of an ordinary human, whereas he includes episodes that show him as human, or even fallible, such as the controversial “Satanic verses.” The purpose of this selection is to demonstrate that apart from events specifically related to revelation, Muḥammad was a human being whose actions can be imitated. However, the scope of Muḥammad’s actions is reduced to the eradication of unbelief and idolatry. This is supposed to suggest that Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb himself is completing what Muḥammad has begun and to legitimize the warfare of followers against the “idolaters.”
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Muhammad was born in 570, Mecca, Arabia; and he died on June 8, 632, in Medina where he had been forced to emigrate to with his adherents in 622. At the age of 25, Muhammad was employed by a rich woman, Khadija to oversee the transportation of her merchandise to Syria. He so impresses her that she offered him marriage when she was about 40. Their daughter Fatima became the future wife of Muhammad's cousin Ali. Khadija died in 619. According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad's prophetic career began at the age of 40 when the angel Gabriel appeared to him. He was greatly perturbed after this first revelation but was reassured by his wife and her cousin. Muhammad continued to receive revelations. When he began to proclaim his message: the Unity of Allah and the vanity of the Idols in Mecca, he met with opposition.
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Muhammad ibn ‘Abdullah ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim was born in Mecca in 570 CE and died in Medina in 632 CE. He is the Prophet of Islam and the last messenger of God. Muhammad is revered and beloved by Muslims whose worldwide population number more than 1.6 billion. Muhammad is a descendant of the prophet Abraham through Ishmael’s offspring. Muhammad endured psychological and physical hardship such as orphanhood, exile, humiliation, persecution and denial of close kin especially when he received revelation. Being an orphan in his early life, Muhammad was sent to Halima bint ‘Abdullah (a woman from the tribe of Bani Sa‘ad) who nursed him as a child (Ibn Hisham 1978). Muhammad was raised by his paternal grandfather, ‘Abd al Muttalib, until the age of eight. After the death of his grandfather he was brought up by his paternal uncle, Abu Talib.
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Bu makalede Hz. Muhammed’in hem Peygamber yonu hem de tarihsel kisiligi ayri ayri degerlendirilmistir. Daha sonra Ortacag Tarihi kurgusu ele alinmis ve Hz. Muhammed’e gore bir tarihsel dusunus verilmistir. Calismada donemin kaynaklarinin kurgusu gunumuz kurgulari ile birlikte ele alinmistir
In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful
Islamic History
To know the events and circumstances surrounding the life of Prophet Muhammad (s)
Compiled and annotated by: Ali Zainal P. Malawani
Since the time immemorial man has been seeking knowledge through his senses. Thus by
perceiving things he tried to overcome his problems. In the process he made experiments and
ultimately by trial and error he arrived at a workable solution for his problems. Based on this concept
and practice, science developed enormously in dimensions and various fields of its applications.
In this modern age of science hundreds and thousands of research laboratories are engaging
the attention of scientists who are making wonderful discoveries and inventions of unbelievably
accurate gadgets and tools.
Yet the only things that science has failed so far to capture is the social problem. Obviously,
social problems are the human problems. And human problems are such that they cannot be
precipitated in a test tube. To give credence to this fact one knows it very well that for instance, science
has not yet been able to offer answers to the discord and hatred that exist among the people or the
class distinction that is rampant in various strata of human society.
History tells us of great civilizations that flourished in the past and ultimately perished. We are
left with only the mute remains and dumb ruins which tell us the hoary past of the mankind. Science
of course is discovering the facts of life through excavations, and by studying the relics and fossils
embedded in the rocks. But despite all this no tangible results have come forward with regard to the
man's manifold problems.
Imam Ali (as) gave a bit of his mind to his son which is pertinent to the relevant issue. He
said: "My dear son! though the span of my age is not as large as that of some other people who have
passed away before me, but I took great care to study their lives; assiduously I went through their
activities, I contemplated over their deliberations and deeds, I studied their remains, relics and ruins;
1|Islamic History – Prophet Muhammad (s)
and I pondered over their lives so deeply that I felt as if I have lived and worked with them from early
ages of history down to our times, and I know what did them good and what brought harm to them."
True, history has recorded all facts, pleasant and detestable, but what is to be regretted is that
nobody ever cared to go into the depth of their root causes. As to the real solution of a problem, big or
small, no effort on the part of man is traceable in history. Only unimportant matters have been dwelt
upon with uncanny details.
Since history is a recorded statement of events of the past, it owes its existence to its compilers.
The people who wrote history were not immune from personal, racial or parochial prejudices and,
therefore, its very purpose seems to have been defeated.
On the face of the misinterpretation and fabrication of facts, an ordinary reader of history is at
a loss to understand the truth of the matter. It is like a doctor who, if he has no correct information
about the case-history of his patient, will not be able to diagnose the actual malady of his patient.
One bright aspect of history of course is that it carries the life sketches of great men of the
ancient past. These men in fact created history as they brought about revolution and change in the life
pattern of mankind.
Amongst such great personalities no one led as eventful, revolutionary and meaningful a life as
Prophet Muhammad did. None of them left such a lasting impression upon the society he sprang from
as the Prophet of Islam did. This is a fact which has been acknowledged by almost all the historians
whether of the East or of the West.
The study of the life of Prophet Muhammad, the greatest of all men, is thought-provoking,
awe-inspiring and self-enlightening. A chain of events before and after the birth of this great man
provides food for thought for anybody who has even a slight grain of intelligence and sense of
proportion.
The birth of the Prophet as a posthumous child and the death of his mother, Aminah, when he
was only six and his upbringing first by his grandfather and then by his uncle are something
extraordinary.
2|Islamic History – Prophet Muhammad (s)
After passing an eventful life, his confinement to the Cave in Mt. Hira and the subsequent
Divine Revelation, the invitation to the religion of Allah, the resistance of the infidels and idolaters,
their oppression and persecution, his continued steadfastness in upholding the Message of Allah during
the first thirteen years of his prophethood in Makkah until the time of his migration to Madina, are
the events finish have no parallel in history.
The last ten years of his life in Madina, his intensifying the efforts of his mission for the spread
of Islam, his participating in the numerous battles with the infidels and the final conquest of Makkah
are still greater events which are seemingly unbelievable, but have been recorded in history as
miraculous achievements.
Hundreds of books have been written on the life and mission of the Prophet but these cannot
be taken as a complete treatise on his attributes and achievements. Especially the writings of the
orientalists are punctuated with prejudices, errors and misinterpretations.
This study not only presents an inspiring material but it is also based on authentic historical
documents. One of its salient features is that the author has taken extreme care in narrating historical
events and at the same time he has endeavored as a research scholar, to approach them with an
analytical mind also.
Another interesting feature of this book is that it is absolutely free from heresies and concocted
stories invented by vested interests. In other words, it is quite in keeping with the required standard of
the historical veracity. In short, it is addressed to the Muslims in general without any bias and
prejudice.
We hope that this study will serve its noble purpose of enlightening the young generation who
has a keen urge to acquire authentic and reliable information about the great Prophet of Islam, and
trust our young Muslims will derive inspiration from this study in fashioning their lives in accordance
with the dictates of Allah as well as the noble attributes of the Holy Prophet and his Chosen
Descendants.
3|Islamic History – Prophet Muhammad (s)
Part 1: Introduction to Islamic History
The word ‘history’ is derived from the Greek word ‘istoria’ which means information or
inquiry. It is a systematic account of the origin and the development of the human kind. It is the result
of the interplay of man with his environment and his fellow men. It is the living past of man. It can
also be seen as an attempt made by man through centuries to reconstruct, describe and interpret his
owns past. History is so multi-faceted a subject that no comprehensive definition of it can be given
except in general terms. Most definitions of history point to its nature and scope or to the value of its
study.
Aristotle, the great philosopher probably gave the first formal definition. He said, ‚History is an
account of the unchanging past."
E.H. Carr characterized history as ‚a continuous process of interaction between the historian and his
facts, an unending dialogue between the present and the past.‛
History is a branch of learning which helps man to mould his future. It provides an awareness
of the development of human beings in economic, social, political and cultural fields and gives a sense
of direction for the future
‚History is a science that investigates and presents in their context of psycho-physical causality, the
facts determined by space and time of the evolution of men in their individual as well as typical and
collective activity as social beings‛ - Earnest Bernheim
. ‚History is nothing but the biography of great men and that it is a record of human accomplishment
particularly of great souls‛ – Thomas Carlyle.
‚History is the art of choosing from among many lies that one which most resembles the truth‛-
Rousseau.
Islamic History is a comprehensive and multi-dimensional discipline which contains all aspects
of lives and achievements of the Muslim community as a whole. The subject matter of Islamic History
contains the history of Arabia before Prophet Muhammad, the development of Muslim society under
4|Islamic History – Prophet Muhammad (s)
the prophet and the imams and the society under various dynasties up to the present century. It also
deals with the life and cultural contributions of Muslims.
'Tarikh' is the corresponding Arabic term to the English word 'History'. It usually means 'the past'.
'Tarikhul Islam' is the common term used by Arabic historians to denote Islamic history which means
the history of the Islamic people. In documenting the history of their people, the Arabs followed the
rational approach.
Sources of Islamic History
The main sources of Islamic History are the Qur'an and the Sunnah.
Material and literary sources such as architectural monuments and historical works are also used.
Historical works include:
• Diwanul Arabs (The pre-Islamic poetry)
• Ayyamul Arabs (The days of the Arabs - Tales of battle days of tribes)
• Tabaqat (Group Relating History)
• Sira Literature (Biographies)
• Houwaliyat (Chronicles)
• Khabar (Historical Anecdotes)
• Ilmul Ansab (Genealogy)
History may be defined in three ways. In fact, there are three closely connected disciplines related to
history.
1) Knowledge of the incidents, events, circumstances, and conditions of people living in the past
in relation to the present conditions and circumstances. All situations, conditions, events, and
episodes which take place belong to the present, that is, the time during which they take shape,
5|Islamic History – Prophet Muhammad (s)
are judged, reported, and recorded as matters of the day by daily newspapers. However, as
soon as their time elapses, they are merged with the past and become a part of history.
Hence, history, in this sense, is the knowledge of the bygone incidents, events, conditions and
circumstances of the people in the past. Biographies, records of battles and conquests, and all such
chronicles compiled in the past, or at the present, by all nations, come under this category. History in
this sense is, firstly, the knowledge of the particular; that is, it is the knowledge of a sequence of
personal and individual episodes, not the knowledge of a series of general laws and relationships.
Secondly, it is a study of narratives and traditions, not a rational discipline. Thirdly, it is the knowledge
of `being,' not that of `becoming.' Fourthly, it is related to the past, not to the present. This type of
history we shall term as `traditional history' (Tarikh Naqli).
2) History is the knowledge of laws that appear to govern the life of the past, obtained through
investigation and analysis of the past events.
The stuff with which the traditional history is concerned, i.e. the events and incidents of the
past, provides the rudimentary and basic material for this study. For the study of history in this sense,
such events and incidents are similar to the material gathered by a natural scientist for his laboratory
analysis and investigation to discover certain general laws, through induction, regarding the nature and
properties of his material and the causal relations governing its changes.
The historian, in this analytical endeavor, wishes to uncover the true nature of historical events
and their causal relationship, and to discover the general and universal laws applicable to all similar
events of the past and the present. We shall call history in this sense `scientific history'.
Although the object of research and the subject matter of scientific history are the events and
episodes of the past, the laws which it deduces are not specifically confined to the past. They have the
ability of being generalized in order to be applied to the present and the future also. This aspect of
history makes it very useful, making it one of the sources of man's knowledge regarding himself, and
enables him to exercise control over his own future.
6|Islamic History – Prophet Muhammad (s)
The difference between the task of a researcher in the field of scientific history and a researcher
in the natural sciences is notable. The material of research for the natural scientist is a chain of real and
verifiable occurrences that are present.
Hence, necessarily, all his investigations, analyses, and results are empirical and verifiable. But
the material on which a historian works belongs to the past and does not exist in the present. What is
accessible to a historian now is only a bundle of chronicles about the past.
A historian is like a judge in a court of law who decides on the basis of circumstantial evidence
and indications on record in his files, not on the basis of the testimony of any eye-witness. In this way,
the analysis of a historian is logical, rational, and mental, not one based upon verifiable external
evidence. A historian makes his analysis in the laboratory of his mind and intellect, with the instruments of logic and inference, not in the external physical laboratory with instruments of observation
and measurement.
Hence, the job of a historian is more akin to that of a philosopher than of a scientist. Scientific
history, like traditional history, is concerned with the past, not with the present. It is the knowledge of
`being' not of `becoming.' But unlike traditional history it is general, not particular; it is rational, not
based upon tradition.
Scientific history is actually a branch of sociology; i.e. it is a sociological study of the societies
of the past. The subject of sociology includes the study of the past and the present societies. However,
if we restrict sociology to the study of contemporary societies, then scientific history and sociology
should be considered as two disciplines, separate but closely related, complementary, and dependent
upon each other.
3) Philosophy of history is based upon the knowledge of gradual changes and transformations
which lead societies from one stage to another. It deals with the laws governing these
transformations and changes. In other words, it is the science of `becoming' of societies, not of
their `being' only.
Perhaps this question might have arisen in the mind of the honoured reader, whether it is
possible for societies to have simultaneously `being' as well as `becoming,' and that being should be
7|Islamic History – Prophet Muhammad (s)
the subject of one discipline, viz. scientific history, and `becoming' of societies the subject of another
discipline, viz. philosophy of history. Isn't any synthesis between the two impossible, as `being' implies
rest and `becoming' movement? Only one of the two should be chosen. Our picture of the societies of
the past should be either a picture of `being' or a picture of `becoming'.
Probably the honourable reader may pose this problem in more general and comprehensive
terms: Our picture of the universe as a whole-and of society as a part of it-is either a static or a
dynamic one. If the universe or society is static then it has `being,' not becoming; and if it is changing
and dynamic, it has `becoming' and not `being.'
From this point of view, the most significant division of the schools of philosophy is made. It
has been said that philosophical systems are divided into two main groups: the philosophies of `being'
and the philosophies of `becoming.' The philosophies of `being' are those which hold that being and
non-being are incompatible with each other, and they. regard contradictions as impossible. It is
supposed that if there is `being' there cannot be `non-being' and if there is `non-being' there is no
`being.'
Hence one has to choose one of these two alternatives. As being is necessary and there is
nothing except being in the world and society, the world is governed by rest and stillness. But the
philosophies of becoming, on the other hand, hold that being and non-being co-exist in each and every
single moment, and this is what we call motion. Motion is nothing except that a thing `is' and at the
same time it `is not.'
Hence, the philosophy of being and the philosophy of becoming are two opposite views
regarding existence, and one has to choose any one of the two. If we associate ourselves with the first
view, we should hold that societies have `being' not `becoming,' and, contrarily, if we associate
ourselves with the second view, it should be assumed that societies have `becoming' and not `being.'
Either we can have scientific history, in the light of the above discussion, without having any
philosophy of history, or we can have philosophy of history without a scientific history.
The answer to these questions lies in the fact that such thinking about being and nothingness,
about motion and rest, and about incompatibility of opposites, is a characteristic feature of the Western
though and originates in the West's ignorance of the philosophical problems o: being (problems
8|Islamic History – Prophet Muhammad (s)
concerning existence) and specially the profound problem of principality of existence (Asalat al-Wujud)
and a number o: other problems related to it.
Firstly, take the statements that `being' is synonymous with rest, or, in other words, rest is being, and
that motion is a synthesis between being and non-being and means unity of two opposites. These
notions are some of the gross errors made by some schools of Western philosophy.
Secondly, what is maintained here has nothing to do with the above-mentioned philosophical problem?
The positions taken here are based upon the hypothesis that society, like all other living beings, follows
two different sets of laws: one set of laws which are confined to a particular species, and the other set
of a law which deals with changes of species and their transformation into one another. We shall term
the first kind of laws, `the laws of being', and the other, `the laws of becoming.'
Incidentally, this point has been realized by some sociologists. Auguste Comte is one of them.
Raymond Aron says about him:
Statics and dynamics are two basic categories of Auguste Comte's sociology... Statics consists
essentially in examining, in analyzing what Comte calls the social consensus (social unanimity). A
society is comparable to a living organism.
It is impossible to study the functioning of an organ without placing it in the context of living
creature. By the same token it is impossible to study politics of the state without placing them in the
context of the society at a given moment ....As for dynamics at the outset it consists merely of the description of the successive stages through which human societies pass.
If we take into consideration any species from among the species of living beings, like
mammals, reptiles, birds etc., we shall see that they have a group of particular laws specific to their
kind, which govern them as long as they are related to that particular species. (For example, the laws
related to. an animal's embryonic stages, its health and survival, its conditions of sickness and disease,
its food habits and nourishment, reproduction and growth, or the laws related to the patterns of its
habitation or migration, and its mating habits.)
But according to the theory of evolution and development of species, in addition to certain
specific laws that operate within the species, there is another set of laws which are concerned with the
9|Islamic History – Prophet Muhammad (s)
process of evolution and transformation of .the lower species into the higher ones. These laws are
formulated philosophically, and sometimes termed as the `philosophy of evolution' as distinct from the
science of biology.
As society is considered to be a living organism, it is also governed by two types of laws:
biological laws and evolutionary laws. The laws which are concerned with the causes of birth and
decline of civilizations, and the conditions which determine social existence, are laws which are
universally applicable to all the varying forms and changes taking place in various societies.
We shall call them the `laws of being' of societies. And those laws which are concerned with
the causes of evolution of societies from one epoch to another and from one system to another system
would be termed as the `laws of becoming' of societies. The difference between them will become
clearer when we discuss each of the two types of problems.
Hence history, according to its third meaning, is the study of evolution of societies from one
stage to another. It is not merely the knowledge of the existence of the society at a particular stage or
at all stages. For the sake of avoiding any possibility of confusion, these problems should not be mixed
with the problems of scientific history. We shall call the study of these problems the ` philosophy of
history.'
Very often the problems related with scientific history, which deals with the non-evolutionary
movement of society, are not clearly differentiated from the problems of philosophy of history, which
deals with the evolutionary movement of society. This is what gives rise to misunderstandings and
errors.
Philosophy of history like scientific history deals with the general not with the particular. It is
rational (`aqli), not traditional (naqli). It is the knowledge of becoming of societies, not of their being.
And also, contrary to the case of scientific history, the use of the word `history' in. the term
`philosophy of history' should not lead us to think that philosophy of history is related to the past;
rather it means that philosophy of history is the study of a continuous stream which originated in the
past and continues to flow towards the future. Time, for the sake of study of these types of problems,
cannot be assumed to be merely a container [occupied by historical reality], but it is to be regarded as
one of the dimensions of this reality.
10 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
The study of history is useful in all of its three senses. Even the descriptive traditional history,
which deals with the lives and characters of individuals, may be useful, moving, directive, educative
and constructive. But it depends upon who the individuals whose life histories are discussed are, and
what conclusions we infer from their lives. Men are made, according to the law of imitation, under the
influence of the behavior, treatment, resolutions, moral habits, and companionship of their fellowmen.
As the lives of contemporaries serve as a lesson and example for man, and he learns manners
and customs from his fellow beings-or, according to Luqman, learns good manners even from the
ill-mannered, so that he does not commit their mistakes-the same principle is applicable to the
biographies of the men belonging to the past. History, like a film, transforms the past into the present.
The Quran itself refers to the beneficial aspects of the lives of such worthy people whom it
considers as fit and imitable models. About the Prophet (S), the Quran says:
﴾١٢﴿ًَّلَدْ ََك َن ًَ ُ ْنك ِِف َر ُسولِ اٌََّـ َِ ُب ْس َو ٌت َح َس يَ ٌة ًِ ّ َمن ََك َن يَ ْر ُجو اٌََّـ ََ َواًْ َي ْو َم ْال ٓ ِخ َر َو َذ َن َر اٌَ َّـ ََ َن ِث ًريا
‚Verily, in the Messenger of Allah you have a good example for whosoever hopes for God
and the Last Day, and remembers God much.‛ (33:21)
About Abraham (A), the Quran says:
...َُكَدْ ََكه َْت ًَ ُ ْنك ُب ْس َوتٌ َح َس يَ ٌة ِِف ا ْب َرا ُِ َمي َو َّ ِاَّل َين َم َؼ
ّ
‚You have a good example in Abraham and those with him ....‛ (60:4)
Whenever the Quran refers to the characters of persons as examples for others, it does not give
importance to their worldly positions, but always emphasizes the moral and humanistic aspects of their
personalities.
It is from this viewpoint that the Quran remembers Luqman, a Negro slave, as a wise man,
although he was neither a king, nor a wealthy man, nor a famous philosopher. He is introduced to the
world as a paragon of wisdom. The examples cited in the Quran of the true believers-one belonging to
the Pharaoh's tribe and another mentioned in Surat Yasin-also belong to the same categories.
11 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
Part 2: Pre-prophetic Period
Creation
The Light (Noor) is created
When Allah intended to create the creatures, He first created the "Noor" (Light) of Muhammad.
Al-Qastalani 1 has quoted the Prophet's traditions to this effect as transmitted through Jabir ibn
'Abdullah al-Ansari and 'Ali (a.s.). The well-known historian al-Mas'udi 2 quotes a lengthy tradition
from 'Ali (a.s.) to the effect that when Allah created, first of all, the Light of Muhammad, He said to it:
"You are My chosen one and the Trustee of My Light and Guidance. It is because of you that I am
going to create the earth and the skies, lay down reward and punishment, and bring into being the
Garden and the Fire.‚
Then the tradition goes on to speak about the Family of the Prophet, about creation of the
angels, of the souls, of the world, of the covenant taken from the souls which combined the belief in
the One God with acceptance of Muhammad's Prophethood.
This is why Ibn 'Abbas narrates saying that the Prophet said: "I was Prophet when Adam was
between soul and body (i.e. when Adam's creation was in its preliminary stages)" 3
Muhammad's Light adorned the 'Arsh (Throne) of God. When eons later, Adam was created,
that Light was put in his forehead. It continued its journey, generation after generation, through
numerous prophets and their successors till it came to Prophet Ibrahim (a.s.). From Ibrahim (a.s.), it
came to his eldest son, Prophet Isma'il (a.s.).
1
2
3
in Al Mawahibu'l-Ladunniyah, vol. 1, pp. 5, 9, 10
in his Maruju 'dh-dhahab
at-Tabarani, Al-Mu'jjam al- Kabir; Al Khasa'is al Kubra, vol.1, p.4
12 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
Family Tree of Prophet Muhammad (s)
Biography of Prophet Muhammad (s)
وثوِف ِف املديية، م570 ودل ِف مىة ػام اًفيي. خامت اًيبيني و ٔبحد ا ٔلهبياء ٔبويل اًؼزم،دمحم بن غبد هللا بن غبد املطَب بن ُامش
َ مرنّز ًا دغوث، نتابَ اًلربٓن اًىرمي يُؼدّ مؼجزثَ اًيت حتدّى هبا ا ٔلمم واًضؼوة.م/ 632 ُػ٢٢ امليورت س ية
ّ ويذهر اًتارخي بأٔهَ ظِر وحامك،ػَىاًتوحيد وماكرم ا ٔلخالق وثيظمي حيات الٕوسان
.َغسىري ِف اًوكت هفس
ملّن و ُمصَح اجامتغي وكائد
ّ
Muḥammad b. ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib b. Hāshim (b. 'Am al-Fil/570 Mecca –
d. 11/632 Medina) He is the prophet of Islam, whose mission was essentially the advancement
of monotheism and morality. He (s) was also a social reformist and a political leader. He (s) was the
last prophet of God, and his major miracle was the Qur'an.
Although the Prophet (s) was born in the polytheistic society of Arabia, he never worshiped
any idols, and avoided the inappropriate manners that were rampant in pre-Islamic Arabia. He (s) was
13 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
chosen by God as a prophet at the age of forty. Although the polytheists of Mecca persecuted him and
his followers for many years, neither he, nor his followers gave up following Islam. After thirteen years
of preaching in Mecca, he immigrated to Medina. This immigration (Hijra) marked what became the
beginning of the Islamic calendar. In Medina, he established an ever expanding community of
believers, the Muslim ummah.
Because of the efforts of the Prophet (s), the pre-Islamic age of ignorance1 ended, and the
polytheistic society of Arabia was transformed into a monotheistic society in a short time. Towards the
end of the Prophet's (s) life, almost everyone in the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. The
number of Muslims has continued to grow ever since, and Islam is now the fastest growing religion in
the world.
The Prophet (s) enjoined his followers to adhere to the teachings of the Qur'an and the Ahl alBayt (a). He designated Imam 'Ali (a) as his successor at various occasions throughout his life,
including the event of Ghadir.
Lineage, Kunya, and Epithets )َ) وس بَ نييتَ و ٔبًلاب
The Prophet's lineage is as follows: Muhammad b. 'Abdullah2 b. 'Abd al-Muttalib3 (Shyba al-Hamd,
'Amir) b. Hashim ('Amr al-'Ula) b. 'Abd Manaf (al-Mughira) b. Qusayy1 (Zayd) b. Kilab (Hakim) b.
1
Jāhilīyya (Arabic: )اجلاَُيةor the Age of Ignorance is a terminology of the Qur'an and hadiths that refers to the
lifestyle, conducts and beliefs of Arabs before the emergence of Islam in Arabia. The word "jahiliyya" is derived from
the word "jahl" (ignorance) which, along with its cognates, were used in the Arabic poetry before Islam. The word
literally means lack of knowledge, but this usage does not have such implications; rather it refers to a sort of conduct
that is so arrogant and self-centered that does not obey any power, be it human or divine, right or wrong.
ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib (Arabic: )غبداّلل بن غبدامل ُ َّط َِب,
is the father of the Prophet Muhammad (s), as the
ّ
historians had said, in the vow of 'Abd al-Muttalib to sacrifice one of his sons for Allah, his name was drawn, but at
last 100 camels slaughtered in his place. He passed away, before –or according to some narrations, a little after- the
birth of his son, the Prophet Muhammad (s). Unlike Sunni scholars, most of the Shi'a scholars believe that he was
a monotheist.
2
3
ّ
ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib b. Hāshim b. ʿAbd Manāf, (Arabic: )غبداملطَب بن ُامش بن غبد مٌاف
(b. 127 before Hijra/500 - d. 45
before Hijra/579) is the paternal grandfather of Prophet Muhammad (s), and the chief of the Quraysh tribe. He was
14 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
Murra b. Ka'b b. Lu'ayy b. Ghalib b. Fihr (Quraysh) b. Malik b. Nadr (Qays) b. Kinana b. Khuzayma
b. Mudrika ('Amr) b. Ilyas b. Mudar b. Nizar (Khuldan) b. Ma'add b. 'Adnan.
His mother was Amina bt. Wahb2 b. 'Abd Manaf b. Zuhra b. Kilab.
Al-'Allama al-Majlisi 3 has said, "All Twelver Shi'as agree that Abu Talib4, Amina bt. Wahb and 'Abd
Allah b. 'Abd al-Muttalib and all of the forefathers of the Prophet (s), dating back to the time of Adam5
(a), were believers *in God+.‚ 1
also one of the nobles of Mecca. Born in Yathrib, he migrated to Mecca when he was seven and became nobility. The
astonishing event of the Army of the elephant (the attack of Abraha) occurred during his rule in Mecca.
Quṣayy b. Kilāb b. Murra b. Kaʿb (Arabic: َص بن ِلِکة بن ُم َّرت بن کَ ْؼب
ّ َ ُ )كwas the fourth ancestor of the Prophet (s) and
the head of Quraysh in Mecca. He put an end to the dominance of the Khuza'a tribe in Mecca and boosted the
position of the Quraysh in this city. His accomplishments include digging water wells, providing services for the
pilgrims of the Ka'ba, and its reconstruction. Though he was very well known and despite his impacts, little is known
about his life, and the dates of his birth and death are not known.
1
2
Āmina bt. Wahb (Arabic: ( )بٓمٌة بًت َوُْبd. forty six years before Hijra/576), the Prophet's (s) mother and one of the
most respectful ladies of Quraysh. Amina got married to Abd Allah b. Abd al-Muttalib in fifty four or fifty three years
before Hijra (570-71). Despite the short period of their marriage, she got pregnant with Abd Allah and gave birth
to Muhammad (s) in fifty two years before Hijra (572). When Muhammad (s) was four or six, Amina passed away in
an area called al-Abwa' while coming back from Medina.
3
Muḥammad Bāqir b. Muḥammad Taqī b. Maqsūd ʿAlī al-Majlisī (Arabic: )دمحم ابكر بن دمحم ثلي بن ملصود ػًل اجملَيس
(b. 1037/1628-9 d. 1110/1699) known as al-ʿAllāma al-Majlisī (Arabic: )اًؼالمة اجملَيسor the Second
Majlisī (Arabic: )اجملَيس اًثاينwas among the most famous Shi'a scholars in fiqh and hadith.
ِ )غَبد َمٌاف بن غَبدامل ُ َّط َِب بنknown as Abū Ṭālib (Arabic: ) َابوطا ًِب,
ʿAbd Manāf b. ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib b. Ḥāshim (Arabic: ُامش
the father of 'Ali b. Abi Talib (a) and the uncle of Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah (s), was among the noblemen
of Mecca and the Tribe of Banu Hashim. After 'Abd al-Muttalib (a), his father, passed away, he took the guardianship
of Muhammad (s), his nephew, and greatly supported him during his mission.
4
5
Prophet Ādam (a) (Arabic: )اًيیب بٓدم, according to religious reports, has been the first man on earth and the father of
all human beings. God breathed of His Spirit in Adam's body, and then praised Himself for creating Adam (a).
Then, angels were ordered to prostrate before Adam (a). Adam's wife was Eve (Arabic: ) حواءand they were banished
from paradise due to eating the Forbidden Tree. Prophet Adam (a) was the first viceroy of God on earth and the
first messenger of God.
15 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
His kunyas 2 were Abu l-Qasim and Abu Ibrahim. Some epithets of his were: al-Mustafa (the chosen),
Habib Allah (beloved one of Allah), Safi Allah (chosen one of Allah), Ni'mat Allah (gift of Allah),
Khiyarat Khalq Allah (the chosen one from the creatures of Allah), Sayyid al-Mursalin (master of the
prophets), Khatam al-Nabiyyin (the last of the propehts), Rahmat li-l-'Alamin (a blessing for the two
worlds), al-Nabi al-Ummi (the unschooled prophet).
ّ
، وغبد هللا، وهؼمة هللا، وصفي هللا، وحبيب هللا، و ٔبمحد، و املميون، وا ٔلمني، واخملتار، احلَمي:َ ومن ٔبًلاب.يىن بـأٔيب اًلامس و ٔبيب إبراُمي
. وخامت اًيبيني، وٕامام املتلني، وس يد املرسَني، وخَق هللا،وخريت هللا
Birth
The exact year of the Prophet's (s) birth is not known. Ibn Hisham and some others have
written that it was in 'Am al-fil3 (literally, "the year of the elephant"), the year in which Abraha alAshram and his elephants attempted to destroy the Ka'ba. But this does not help much, since it cannot
be said for certain what year the year of the elephant was. However, taking into consideration that the
Prophet's (s) demise was in 632 CE, and that he was 63 years old at the time of his death, the year of
his birth must have been either 569 or 570 CE. 4
The date of his birth is Rabi'al Awwal - 17th according to the majority of Shi'a scholars,
and Rabi'al Awwal - 12th according to Sunnis. 5
1
Ayati, Tarikh-i payambar-i Islam, p. 42
Teknonym or Kunya (Arabic: َ) ُني َي, in Arab culture, is used for those names which begin with prefix "Ab" or "Ibn"
for men and "Umm" for women. They are generally followed by the oldest son's name which means "father of" or
"mother of" a person. Teknonym was mainly used as an honorific. However, it was also used for other reasons.
Teknonym was regarded as a decent and respectful name or title in narrations, while a number of teknonyms were
regarded disliked.
3
ʿĀm al-Fīl (Arabic: ( )ػام اًفييliterally: year of the Elephant), is the year in which Abraha, the king of Yemen, started a
huge military expedition toward Mecca in order to destroy Ka'ba. As he had an army with war elephants, the year
turned to be known as the year of the Elephant. This event has been addressed in the Qur'an 105. Based on a famous
historical account, this year is the birth year of the Prophet Muhammad (s). Historians believe the year of the
Elephant was the year 570 in Garigorian calendar.
4
Shahidi, Sayyid Ja'far, Tarikh-i tahlili-yi Islam, p. 38
5
Ayati, Tarikh-i payambar-i Islam, p. 43
2
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Childhood
Muhammad (s) spent his childhood as an orphan. A few months after 'Abd Allah (his father)
married Amina, the daughter of Wahb (the chief of the Banu Zuhra family), 'Abd Allah went on a
business trip to Damascus, and passed away on his return trip in Yathrib (now Medina). Some
historians say that his death was before Muhammad's birth and some have written that he passed away
a few months after Muhammad (s) was born. Muhammad (s) spent his early childhood with a woman
from the Banu Sa'd tribe, named Halima, who breastfed him. Muhammad lived his first years with his
foster-mother and her husband in the desert.
When Muhammad (s) was 6 years and 3 months old (or 4 years old according to some
reports), he traveled to Yathrib with his mother, Amina, to see his relatives on the side of 'Abd alMuttalib's mother (i.e. Banu 'Adi b. Najjar). However, on the return journey to Mecca, she passed
away in Abwa'1 and was buried there. Amina was 30 years old at the time of death.
After the loss of his mother, 'Abd al-Muttalib, undertook the guardianship of Muhammad (s).
When Muhammad (s) was eight years old, 'Abd al-Muttalib also passed away. Since then,
Muhammad's (s) uncle, Abu Talib, took care of him.2
In the house of Abu Talib, his wife, Fatima bt. Asad 3, was so kind to Muhammad (s) that
when she passed away, the Prophet (s) said, "Today, my mother has died! ‚ 4
1
Al-Abwāʾ (Arabic: )ا ٔلبواءis a big village near al-Waddan located between Mecca and Medina. Amina bt. Wahb, the
mother of Prophet Muhammad (s) is buried there. Also the Prophet (s) attended the Battle of al-Abwa' in this region.
2
Shahidi, Tarikh-i tahlili-yi Islam, p. 38
3
Fāṭima bt. Asad b. Hāshim b. ʿAbd Manāf (Arabic: ( )فاطمة بًت ٔبسد بن ُامش بن غبدمٌافb. 55 BH/569-70 – d. 4 AH/626)
was the mother of Imam 'Ali (a) and the wife of Abu Talib. Fatima bt. Asad was the eleventh person, and the second
woman, to have converted to Islam. There are narrations from the Prophet (s) about her that show the great position
of Fatima bt. Asad. Her grave is in al-Baqi' Cemetery.
4
Ya'qubi, Tarikh al-Ya'qubi. vol. 1, p. 369; Ayati, Tarikh-i payambar-i Islam, p. 49
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First Journey to Syria and the Christian Monk's Prophecy
Historians have written that as a child, Muhammad (s) accompanied his uncle Abu Talib in
one of his journeys to Damascus. On the way, they stopped in a place called Busra, where they met a
Christian monk whose name was Bahira. He saw the signs of prophethood in Muhammad (s) and
advised Abu Talib on how to best treat him (Muhammad). He especially advised him to protect
Muhammad (s) from the Jews who were his enemies.
It is recorded that when the caravan moved away from Bahira, he asked Muhammad (s) to stay
and told him that, "By al-Lat and al-'Uzza, I command you to answer my questions!" Muhammad (s)
responded to Bahira by saying, "Don't ask me to answer you in the name of al-Lat and al-'Uzza
because I do not hate anything more than them‚1 Then, Bahira asked him to answer by the name
of Allah.
Youth
Ḥilf al-Fuḍūl2
One of the most important events in the life of Muhammad (s), before his marriage, was his
participation in an agreement called Hilf al-Fudul in which some of the youths of Mecca pledged "to
support any person under oppression and defend their rights‚3
1
Shahidi, Sayyid Ja'far.Tarikh-i tahlili-yi Islam p. 38
Ḥilf al-Fuḍūl ( ) ِح َُف اً ُفضُ ولwas the name of a pact announced between some clans of Quraysh at the Age of
Ignorance, to support the oppressed in Mecca. Banu Hashim and Banu al-Muttalib, Banu 'Abd Manaf, Banu Zuhra b.
Kilab, Banu Taym b. Murra, and Banu Asad b. 'Abd al-'Uzza b. Qusayy were the clans that followed the pact.
After Bi'tha, the Holy Prophet (s) praised this effort.
2
3
Ibn Hisham, al-Sira al-nabawiyya, vol. 1, p. 141-142
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Second Journey to Syria
When Muhammad (s) was twenty-five years old, Abu Talib told him, "The caravan
of Quraysh1 is ready to go to Damascus. Khadija bt. Khuwaylid, has given money to some of your
family members to conduct business for her and to take their shares of profit. She might accept for you
to join them, if you would like to." Then, he spoke with Khadija and she accepted. Ibn Ishaq has
written that when Khadija saw the trustworthiness and the dignity of Muhammad (s), she told him
that she would pay him a bigger share than others if he accepted to conduct business using her
money.2 After that business trip, Khadija married Muhammad (s).
Marriage
Muhammad (s) married Khadija 3 when he was twenty-five years old.4 Khadija lived with the
Prophet (s) for 25 years and passed away 10 years after Bi'tha. Khadija gave birth to a few children, the
boys of whom died in childhood. The most famous of her daughters was Lady Fatima (a).
After dimise of Khadija, the Prophet (s) married Sawda bt. Zam'a. The next wives of the
Prophet (s) were:
Aisha
Hafsa
Zaynab bt. Khuzayma
1
Quraysh (Arabic: )كریشis one of the best-known and the most important Arabian tribes in Hijaz in which
the Prophet Muhammad (s) was born. Most genealogists maintain that Quraysh was the title of Nadr b. Kinana, the
twelfth ancestor of the Prophet (s). Thus every tribe that traces back to Nadr b. Kinana is called "Qurashi" (attributed
to Quraysh).
2
Ibn Ishaq, al-Sira, p. 59; Shahidi, Tarikh-i tahlili-yi Islam, p. 39
3
Khadīja bt. Khuwaylid (a) (Arabic: ( )خَدجیة بًت ُخويدلd. 10/619), known as Khadīja al-Kubrā (a) and Umm alMu'minīn (the Mother of Believers) (Arabic: ) ٔب ّم املؤمٌني, was the first wife of Prophet Muhammad (s) and the mother
of Lady Fatima (a). She married Prophet Muhammad (s) 15 years before Bi'tha (595-6 CE) and was the first woman
who converted to Islam. Khadija (a) dedicated her wealth for expansion of Islam. Prophet Muhammad (s) did not
choose another wife during his marital life with Khadija (a). During her life and after her demise the Prophet (s)
always praised Khadija (a).
4
Shahidi, Tarikh-i tahlili-yi Islam, p. 39-40
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Umm Habiba
Umm Salama
Zaynab bt. Jahsh
Juwayriyya bt. al-Harith
Safiyya bt. Huyyay
Maymuna bt. al-Harith
Mariya bt. Sham'un known as Mariya al-Qibtiyya.1
Children
All of the Prophet's (s) children save for Fatima (a), died when the Prophet (s) was alive and his
descendants are all from the line of Fatima (a). In total, he had 3 sons and 4 daughters:
Al-Qasim2: the Prophet's (s) first child who died in Mecca at the age of 2.
'Abd Allah: born in Mecca shortly after the beginning of the Prophet's (s) mission and died
there.
Ruqayya: died in Medina, 2/623-24
Zaynab: died in Medina, 8/62 9-30
Umm Kulthum: died in Medina, 9/630-31
Ibrahim: died in Medina, 10/631
Fatima (a): died in Medina, 11/632, the Prophet's (s) progeny is continued only through her.3
Except for Ibrahim who was from Mariya al-Qibtiyya, all other six children were from Khadija bt.
Khuwaylid.
1
Ayati, Tarikh-i payambar-i Islam, p. 46-60
According to a number of historical reports, after the demise of al-Qasim, al-'As b. Wa'il called Prophet Muhammad
(s) "al-Abtar" (a person without a progeny and offspring) as he had no sons, which led to revelation of Sura alKawthar.
3
Ayati, Tarikh-i payambar-i Islam, p. 60-61
2
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Placing al-Hajar al-Aswad ()هصب احلجر ا ٔلسود
Placing al-Hajar al-Aswad (black stone) on the Ka'ba happened before the Prophet's (s)
mission began and confirmed his social status amongst people of Mecca. History has it that the Ka'ba
was respected even amongst the polytheistic Arabs of the pre-Islam, the age of ignorance. Once a flood
damaged the Ka'ba and ruined its walls, the Quraysh reconstructed the walls. When they wanted to
place the al-Hajar al-Aswad (black stone) onto the Ka'ba, an argument broke out between the chiefs of
the Quraysh's families as to which of them should do it. Each of them wanted to have the honor of
placing the stone back onto the Ka'ba. The argument was heated and they even brought a tub full of
blood and put their hands in it, which was a type of pledge that they had to fight until one of them
won. Finally, they agreed to accept the judgment of the first person who would enter al-Masjid alHaram through the gate of Banu Shayba, and to do whatever that person said. The first person who
entered was Muhammad (s). The nobles of the Quraysh said that Muhammad (s) was trustworthy and
that they would accept his judgment. Then, they told him what had happened. Muhammad (s) said,
"Let us spread a piece of cloth." They did so, and he then placed the black stone on it. Then, he said
that "The chief of every family should come and hold a corner of this cloth." They lifted up the cloth
and brought the stone to the place it should be installed, and then he lifted the stone and placed it
back onto the Ka'ba. By such a judgment, he prevented an imminent war.1
1
Shahidi, Tarikh-i tahlili-yi Islam, p. 38
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Part 3: Prophetic Period in Mecca
Bi'tha1 ()مبؼث
In the years prior to his mission, Muhammad (s) spent a lot of time in solitude,
worshiping God. He would spend a month in solitude in a cave called Hira'2, at the mountains and
would worship God there3. During that month, he (s) would give food to any poor person that asked
him. After the month was completed, he returned to Mecca and circumambulated the Ka'ba seven
times or more before returning home.
: فلال هل،خرج رسول هللا إىل حراء نٌل َكن خيرج جلوارٍ حىت إذا َكهت اٌَيةل اًيت ٔبهرمَ هللا فهيا برساًتَ جاءٍ جربئيي بأٔمر هللا ثؼاىل
[96:1]﴾مس َر ِب ّ َم َّ ِاَّلي َخَ َ َق
ِ ْ ﴿ ٕا ْك َر ِب ِاب: فلال جربائيي،» «ما ٔبان بلارئ: فلال هل.»«إكر ٔب
بُؼث اًييب ا ٔلغظم ِف ا ٔلربؼني من معرٍ ٌَرساةل
With this revelation which triggered his mission, the Prophet (s) returned to Mecca reading
these verses, which are in Qur'an 96. Upon that feeling which was new to him at that night, naturally
he returned to his house immediately. There were three people in his house that night: his
1
Biʿtha (Arabic: )بِؼثَةmeans selection of prophet by God for guidance of people. The Prophet Muhammad (s) in the
age of forty in the Hira' cave in Mount Nur (close to Mecca) has been chosen as prophet and the first verses
of Qur'an 96 has been revealed to him. The Bi'tha, according to Shiite point of view, was the beginning of Islam and
occurred in Rajab 27, 13 years before Hijra (June 28, 610)
.ذُب مضِور اًض يؼة الٕمامية إىل اًلول بأٔ ّن بؼثتَ َكهت ِف اًسابع واًؼرشين من صِر رجب
2
Ḥirāʾ (Arabic: )حراءis one of the famous mountains in Mecca where the Prophet (s) has received his first revelation,
resulting it's another name Jabal al-Nūr (the Light Mount). The mountain houses a cave known as cave of Hira'
where the Prophet (s) used to spent great deal of time every year to engage himself in solitary worshiping
before Islam (tahannuth)[1] and it was there that he was honored with prophethood.
3
Taḥannuth (Arabic: )اً َت َحيُّثwas a traditional practice among some people of Hijaz before the emergence of Islam. It
consisted in an isolation from others for a few days of the year in order to reflect on themselves. People who practiced
Tahannuth included: 'Abd al-Muttalib and Prophet Muhammad (s) before his bi'tha. They usually worshipped God in
the cave of Hira' for one month a year.
22 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
wife Khadija, his cousin Ali b. Abi Talib, and his adopted son Zayd b. Haritha.The holy Prophet
(s) first began to teach Islam to his own family and so the first people who believed in his Prophethood
were his wife from amongst the women, and Ali b. Abi Talib from amongst the men. At that time, Ali
was under the guardianship of the Prophet (s).Other people mentioned in other sources as the first
Muslims are Abu Bakr and Zayd b. Haritha.Although the initial invitation was limited, the number of
Muslims began to grow and soon they began to go out of Mecca and pray with the Prophet (s).
Public Invitation ()ادلغوت اًؼَيية
﴿ َو َبه ِذ ْر:وكد ذهر مضِور املؤرخني واملفرسين ٔبه َّ ومع اىهتاء اًس ية اًثاًثة من اًبؼثة صدر ا ٔلمر الًِٕيي هل ابلٕػالن غن ادلغوت ِف كوهل ثؼاىل
[26:214-216] ﴾ون
َ َُغ َِض َريث ََم ْ َال ْك َرب َِني* َوا ْخ ِف ْض َجٌَا َح َم ًِ َم ِن اث َّ َب َؼ َم ِم َن اًْ ُم ْؤ ِم ٌِ َني* فَا ْن َغ َص ْوكَ فَ ُل ْي ا ِ ّين بَ ِري ٌء ِ ّم َّما ث َ ْؼ َم
ّ
ّ
It is recorded that Muhammad (s) invited people secretly to Islam for three years after the
beginning of his mission. However, because of the order of the revelation of the verses of the Qur'an,
some believe that the Prophet's (s) public invitation was carried out very shortly after the first
revelation.
In the beginning, the Prophet (s) invited people to abandon worshiping multiple gods (idols)
and to begin worshiping one God (i.e. monotheism). In the beginning, prayers were in two units.
Later, it was an obligation for travelers to perform the prayers in two units and for others to perform it
in four units. At the time of prayers, Muslims would hide from others in the splits of mountains and
other faraway places in order to perform the prayers. Gradually, the Muslims began to grow in
numbers in Mecca. It is well-known that three years after the beginning of his mission, God ordered
the Prophet (s) to invite people to Islam publicly. Ibn Ishaq writes that the Prophet (s) told Ali (a), "O
Ali! God has told me to call upon the closest of my family to worship Him. So butcher a sheep and
provide some bread and a bowl of milk". Ali (a) did so and approximately forty members of family
of 'Abd al-Muttalib gathered together and ate the food, which was not enough for the number of
people present there. However, they all ate the food till they were full, which was miraculous. When
the Prophet (s) wanted to begin his speech, Abu Lahab said, "He has enchanted you all (for food!)".
Because of this, confusion spread and all the guests left.
23 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
The Prophet (s) invited them again on another occasion and told them:
"O Children of 'Abd al-Muttalib! I do not think that anyone amongst the Arabs has ever
brought anything for his people better than what I have brought for you. I have brought for you this
world and the next"
«اي بين غبد املطَب ا ّٕين وهللا ما ٔبػ م صا ًاب ِف اًؼرة جاء كومَ بأٔفضي اما كد جتتنك بَ ا ّٕين كد: مث تلكم رسول هللا فلال:و ٔبضاف اًطربي
» وكد ٔبمرىن هللا ثؼاىل ٔبن ٔبدغومك إًيَ فأٔينك يؤازرين ػىل ُذا ا ٔلمر ػىل ٔبن يىون ٔبىخ ووصيي وخَيفيت فينك؟،جتتنك خبري ادلهيا والٓخرت
«ا ّٕن ُذا ٔبيخ ووصيي وخَيفيت فينك فامسؼوا هل: « ٔبان اي هيب هللا ٔبهون وزيرك ػَيَ فأٔخذ بركبيت» ّمث كال: فأٔجحم اًلوم غهنا مجيؼ ًا فلال ػًل
. وجسي اًلصة غريٍ من املؤرخني و ٔبحصاة اًسري.»و ٔبطيؼوا
As al-Tabari writes, after the Prophet (s) declared his invitation to Islam amongst his relatives he said:
"Which one of you would help me in this [mission] to be my brother, my vicegerent
and khalifa (caliph) amongst you?" everyone became silent but Ali (a). He said:" 'O Prophet (s)! I will
be that person! ". The Prophet (s) then said: "This is my vicegerent and my khalifa amongst you!
Listen to his words and obey his orders".
This narration has been transmitted by other historians and writers of the Prophet's (s)
biography and is amongst one of the most famous hadiths too. 1
Enmity of Quraysh and Its Consequences
As the number of Muslims grew faster, the chiefs of the Quraysh became more worried about
it. They went to Abu Talib (the Prophet's (s) uncle and protector) and asked him to stop his nephew
from the mission of Prophethood that he had started. They asked him to give Muhammad (s) over to
them so that they could kill him and in return they offered Abu Talib the guardianship of Ammara b.
1
Ḥadith Yawm al-Dār (Arabic: )حديث يوم ادلارknown also as Ḥadith Yawm al-Indhār and Ḥadith al-'Ashira is
a hadith from the Prophet (s) in which he asks his kinsmen to accept his call to Islam and he declares Ali b. Abi Talib
(a) as his immediate successor. According to sources of history, hadiths and Qur'anic exegesis, the story has occurred
in the third year of his Bi'tha when he was required by verse 214 of Qur'an 26, known as the al-Indhar Verse, to call
his close kinsmen to Islam. The hadith is one of the evidence appealed to by Imamiyya scholars of theology to show
the immediate succession of the Prophet (s) by Imam Ali (a).
24 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
al-Walid who was a handsome and wise -in their opinion- young man. Abu Talib responded by
exclaiming: "Shall I give my son to you so that you can kill him and raise your son? What a task!" 1
The Quraysh could not harm the Prophet (s) because of tribal customs, and if they did, they
would enter a war with Banu Hashim and other tribes would interfere and the situation would become
too difficult to bear. Therefore, their opposition to the Prophet (s) would consist of using foul language
and causing minor injuries. However, they would harass other new Muslims, as this same type of
protection did not extend to them. 2
The conflict began to escalate. So, the chiefs of the Quraysh went to Abu Talib again and asked
him to stop his nephew from the path he was following. Abu Talib informed the Prophet (s) about
their request and the Prophet (s) said: "By God, I swear, that if the sun was given to me in my right
hand and the moon on the other, I would not abandon my mission." Abu Talib said: "Then follow
your mission, and I will not let them harm you." Thereafter, the Quraysh became more determined to
harm him and his followers.3
Immigration of Muslims to Abyssinia4 ()جهرت املسَمني إىل احلبضة
As the number of new Muslims grew, the enmity of the Quraysh towards them also increased.
The Prophet (s) was supported by Abu Talib, so the Quraysh could not harm him due to the tribal
pacts. However, they felt no limits in harming his followers because they had no protection. The
harassment and torture of his followers deeply upset the Prophet (s). In order for them to practice their
1
Ibn Hisham, al-Sira al-nabawiyya, vol. 1, p. 279; Shahidi, Tarikh-i tahlili-yi Islam, p. 45
Shahidi, Tarikh-i tahlili-yi Islam, p. 49
3
Shahidi, Tarikh-i tahlili-yi Islam, p. 49
4
Abyssinia (in Arabic: al-Ḥabasha ( ))احلَبَضَ ةwas an old region on the eastern part of Africa, including modern
countries as Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Somalia. The Misrian (Egyptians) and Himyarites dynasties ruled over
Abyssinia before the birth of Christ. In 341 C.E. Christianity was officially adopted as the state religion. Before the
Hijra of the prophet (s) to Medina, Muslims migrated to Abyssinia twice and were supported by its emperor. Several
Islamic sultanates, such as Sultanate of Ifat, were established in Abyssinia in the Islamic era. In 14th/20th century
small parts of Abyssinia gradually declared independence, and today, Ethiopia occupies the largest parts of that
region.
2
25 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
faith freely, he ordered them to immigrate to Abyssinia. He told them that, "There is a king there who
harms no one. Go there and stay there so that God frees you from the trouble here." When the
Quraysh learned of the immigration of these new Muslims, they sent 'Amr b. al-'As1 and 'Abd Allah b.
Abi Rabi'a to the king of Abyssinia to implore him to return those Muslims back to Mecca. After a
lengthy trial, when the king heard the representatives of the Quraysh and the responses of the
Muslims, he refused to submit to the requests of the Quraysh. Thus, the representatives of the Quraysh
returned to Mecca empty-handed.2
Boycott of Banu Hashim ()حصار بين ُامش
When the Quraysh saw that Islam was gaining span in Mecca, and that the king did not hand over the
immigrants, they decided to put Muhammad (s) and his followers under severe economic sanctions.
Doing so, they wrote a treaty which said nobody could marry any of the children of Hashim or 'Abd
al-Muttalib. Further, nobody could sell or buy anything from them. Then, they hung this decree in
the Ka'ba (as the sign of its great obligation). Thereafter, Banu Hashim and Banu 'Abd al-Muttalib had
to live under the boycott in Shi'b Abi Talib3.
The sanctions lasted two or three years. During this time, they lived in extreme difficulties. A
couple of their relatives would smuggle wheat or other essentials to them, so that they could continue.
One night, Abu Jahl, who was a bitter enemy of Banu Hashim, was informed of this, and
stopped Hakim b. Hazam from bringing wheat to Khadija. Others interfered and criticized Abu Jahl
ʿAmr b. al-ʿĀṣ al-Sahmī (Arabic: َ;معرو بن اًؼاص اًسِميd. 43/664) was among the most serious enemies of the
noble Prophet (s) who accepted Islam shortly before the conquest of Mecca and biographers have mentioned him
among the companions of the Prophet (s). His enmity with Imam Ali (a) and his deceptions in the battles with Imam
(a) made a despicable character of him to Shia. It is said that he had a role in many of Mu'awiya's deceptions against
Imam Ali (a) including the shirt of 'Uthman. In the Battle of Siffin, he was among the top commanders of Mu'awiya
and putting the Qur'an on spears is attributed to him.
2
Shahidi, Tarikh-i tahlili-yi Islam, p. 51-52
3
Shi'b Abi Talib (Arabic: صؼب ٔبيب طاًب,ِ Valley of Abu Talib) is a valley between the Mount Abu Qubays and
the Mount Khandama in Mecca. Seven years after Bi'tha, polytheists of Mecca declared an economic and social
boycott on the Prophet Muhammad (s), Banu Hashim and Muslims. So they lived in Shi'b Abi Talib for three years
under blockade.
1
26 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
for the severity of his actions. Eventually, some of the Quraysh felt guilty and chose to side with Banu
Hashim. They wondered why Banu Makhzum should live an easy life while the children of Hashim
and 'Abd al-Muttalib should live in difficulty. Thus, they decided to end the treaty. And some of those
that had signed it decided to tear up the treaty. Ibn Hisham narrates from Ibn Ishaq that when they
went in the Ka'ba, they saw that the treaty had already been miraculously eaten by termites and that
only the phrase "Bismik Allahumma" [In Your name O Allah] had remained of it. Ibn Hisham
narrates that "Abu Talib went to a meeting of the Quraysh and said: "My nephew says that termites
have eaten the treaty and that only the name of God remains. See for yourself, and if he is right, end
the boycott. If he is lying, I will hand him over to you'.
When they went to see the treaty, they saw that termites had indeed eaten all of it except for
the portion with the name of God. It was in this way that the sanctions against Banu Hashim
eventually ended and they left the valley."
Journey to Ta'if1 ()اًسفر إىل اًطائف
Soon after the Prophet (s) left the valley two of his close supporters, Khadija and Abu Talib,
passed away.
With the demise of Abu Talib, the Prophet (s) lost one of his prominent supporters and
protection. The polytheists used his death as an opportunity to harass the Prophet (s) and Muslims.
Ṭāʾif (Arabic: )طائِفis a city in the east south of Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Due to its high altitude from sea level, it has a
pleasant and mild climate contrary to the peninsula's hot and burning weather. Lat, one of the famous idols of Arabs
pre-Islamic period was in Ta'if and people circumambulated around it. Ten years after the beginning of the Prophet's
(s) mission, the Prophet (s) went to Ta'if and called Thaqif and other chiefs of Ta'if to Islam, but he was not
successful. In 8 AH, the Prophet (s) besieged Ta'if for twenty days in the Battle of Ta'if but no serious fighting
happened between them. In 9 AH, a delegation from Ta'if came to Medina, accepted Islam and returned to Ta'if.
Some notable people from Ta'if in the history were Umayya b. Abi al-Salt al-Thaqafi, the poem, Hajjaj b. Yusuf alThaqafi, Nadr b. Harith and Mukhtar al-Thaqafi. Ibn Abbas mosque, Adas mosque and al-Hadi mosque are historical
sites of the city.
1
27 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
The efforts of the Prophet (s) were not successful when he invited residents
around Mecca to Islam (especially Ta'if), and he returned to Mecca disappointed. 1
Immigration to Medina ()اًِجرت إىل املديية
First Allegiance of al-'Aqaba2 ( )ا ٔلوىلبيؼة اًؼلبة
In the eleventh year after Bi'tha (3 BH/620), the Prophet (s) visited six people from the tribe of
Khazraj told them about the message of Islam. They returned to Yathrib and informed the people of
their city about the invitation. Next year (2 BH/621) twelve people of Medina gave allegiance to the
Prophet (s) after the hajj pilgrimage in an area called al-'Aqaba3.
They solemnly vowed:
1
Not to ascribe or associate anyone with God
Not to not steal
Not to commit adultery
Not not kill their children
Not to not slander anyone and to obey the Prophet Muhammad (s) in his orders.
Ibn Hisham, al-Sira al-nabawiyya, vol. 2, p. 60; Tabari, Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, vol. 2, p. 344-346
2
In the first Pledge of al-'Aqaba, also known as Bay'at al-Nisa', twelve members of Aws and Khazraj converted to
Islam and took an oath of allegiance to Prophet Muhammad (s) in the time of hajj, twelve years after Bi'that/621.
3
Pledge of al-ʿAqaba (Arabic: )اًبيؼة اًؼلبةis the oath of allegiance of people of Yathrib to Prophet Muhammad (s), prior
to his emigration to Medina. The first pledge was 12 years after Bi'tha/621 and the second pledge was a year later in
year 13 after Bi'that/622, both are known as the pledge of al-'Aqaba. The first pledge is known as Bay'at al-Nisa' and
the second one is known as Bay'at al-Harab. The significance of these pledges is that both were important in the
preparation of situation for emigration of Prophet Muhammad (s) and Muslims from Mecca to Medina.
28 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
The Prophet (s) then sent one of the Muslims, Mus'ab b. 'Umayr1, with them to Yathrib in order to
teach them the holy Qur'an and to report back to the Prophet (s) with an assessment of the situation
in the city and how receptive the people were to Islam.2
Second Allegiance of al-'Aqaba3 ( )اًثاهيةبيؼة اًؼلبة
The following year (1 BH/622), 73 men and women gathered again after the pilgrimage in al'Aqaba. The Prophet (s) went to them with his uncle al-'Abbas b. 'Abd al-Muttalib4. It is reported that
'Abbas first spoke to them and said, "O people of Khazraj! Muhammad (s) is one of us and we
protected him against all harms as much as we could. Now, he (s) is going to come to you. So support
him if you can and defend him from his enemies. Otherwise, let him go now". They answered by
saying, "We have heard you now, O Messenger of God! Tell us whatever you and your God please!"
The Prophet (s) recited a few verses of the Qur'an and then said, "I accept your allegiance with the
ِ ُمص َؼب بن ُ َمعري بن
Muṣʿab b. ʿUmayr b. Hāshim b. ʿAbd Manāf b. ʿAbd al-Dār Quṣayy (Arabic: ُامش بن غَبد َمٌاف بن غَبدادلار
( )كُ ََصd. 3/625) was one of the Sahaba or companions of the Prophet (s) who attended the Battle of Badr and
was martyred in the Battle of Uhud. Mus'ab was among those who converted to Islam in the house
of Arqam and immigrated to Abyssinia. The Prophet (s) sent him to Yathrib for the propagation of Islam.
2
Shahidi, Tarikh-i tahlili-yi Islam, p. 56
1
3
The second Pledge of al-'Aqaba, also known as Bay'at al-Harb (pledge of war), took place
near Mina, Mecca (today al-Khayf mosque is located there) in the time of hajj, thirteen years after Bi'that/622. It is
said seventy men or seventy two men and two women were present at al-'Aqaba. Also al-'Abbas b. 'Abd al-Muttalib,
the Prophet's uncle was present at al-'Aqaba. People of Medina took oath of allegiance to Prophet Muhammad (s)
individually or in a group of two. Rafi' b. Malik b. al-'Ajlan was the first person who took the oath of allegiance.
Al-'Abbas said to attendants: "Muhammad is one of us, we have protected him as much as we could. If you can
support him, it is good; otherwise, leaving him to us." "We take the oath of allegiance to him and we promise that we
will fight against his enemies and befriend his friends."
4
Al-ʿAbbās b. ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib (Arabic: ( )اً َؼبّاس بن غَبدُ امل ُ َّط َِبb. 56 before Hijra/567-32/652) was an uncle of Prophet
Muhammad (s) and the ancestor of the Abbasid caliphs. During his childhood and teenagerhood, he was a playmate
of the Prophet (s). Although there is a disagreement about when he converted to Islam, he tried to support the
Prophet (s) even before his conversion to Islam. It is widely believed that he converted to Islam after the Hijra,
although he supported the Prophet (s) in the Pledge of 'Aqaba which occurred before Hijra. He died in the period
of 'Uthman b. 'Affan's caliphate and was buried in al-Baqi'.
29 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
condition of supporting me like your relatives." Representatives of the people of Medina pledged
allegiance to him and vowed to be enemies of his enemies, friends of his friends, and at war with
anyone who was at war with him. They called this pledge Bay'at al-Harb. After this, the Prophet (s)
allowed the Muslims to immigrate to Yathrib. They went to Yathrib and were warmly welcomed.
Those who immigrated to Medina were later called the Muhajirun [i.e. the immigrants] and those who
received and hosted them in Yathrib were called the Ansar [i.e. the supporters]
Dar al-Nadwa Conspiracy1 ()مؤامرت دار اًيدوت
The chiefs of the Quraysh felt that Islam posed a danger to them, especially when they
discovered that a new group had converted to Islam, leading Islam to become more established among
people. They felt further threatened by the fact that the people of Medina had pledged their allegiance
to the Prophet (s). They were terrified of the possibility that the Prophet (s) would take revenge on
them for all of the torture and harassment that he and his followers had faced at their hands. In fact,
they thought that even if the Prophet (s) did not want to wage war against them, he would still be a
serious threat to them as Yathrib was the largest city close to Mecca. The businessmen of Quraysh
would travel to Yathrib to sell their goods, and each of them had valuable customers there, important
to the success of their businesses. They would suffer a huge economic loss if they were to lose access to
that city. To prevent such a loss in profit, they concluded that they had to ignore their tribal pacts and
kill Muhammad (s). However, killing him was not an easy task because if they did so, Banu
Hashim would take revenge. So, they held a meeting in Dar al-Nadwa2 in order to find a solution for
their problem, and concluded that a group of young men from all tribes would attack Muhammad (s)
and kill him together. This way, his killer would not be one person and Banu Hashim could not take
1
Laylat al-Mabīt (Arabic: )ًيةل املبيتis the title of the night on which the Prophet (s) emigrated
from Mecca to Medina. Polytheists of Quraysh had plotted to assassinate the Prophet (s), 'Ali (a) slept in his bed, so
the assassins will not notice his absence. The verse 207 of the Qur'an 2 is revealed about the sacrifice of 'Ali (a) for
saving the life of the Prophet (s).
2
Dār al-Nadwa (Arabic: دوت
َ َ )دار اًيis a place in Mecca where the noblemen of Quraysh assembled in order to confer
and decide about various issues. Some crucial and historical decisions made at Dar al-Nadwa include: the Treaty
of Khuza'a and Banu Hashim, Hilf al-Fudul, and Quraysh's decision to murder Prophet Muhammad (s).
30 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
revenge because they could not wage war against all of the tribes in Mecca, and they would be forced
to accept a ransom instead of taking revenge.
That night, when the Quraysh attempted to carry out the assassination of the Prophet (s), he
had already left Mecca by the order of God and Ali (a) was lying in his bed instead. The Prophet (s)
and Abu Bakr b. Abi Quhafa stayed in a cave near Mecca called Thawr for three days so that those
chasing him could not find him and had to return to Mecca empty-handed. Then, the Prophet (s) and
Abu Bakr continued on their way to Yathrib.
﴿ وٕاذ ميىر بم اَّلين نفروا ًيثبتوك ٔبو يلتَوك ٔبو خيرجوك:وِف ثكل اٌَيةل ٔبوىح هللا ثؼاىل إىل رسوهل
[8:30]﴾وميىرون وميىر هللا وهللا خري املاهرين
31 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
Part 4: Prophetic Period in Medina
Arrival in Yathrib ()خروج من مىة
There is a disagreement amongst historians as to which day of Rabi' I the Prophet (s)
left Mecca and when he arrived in Yathrib. Ibn Hisham narrates that the Prophet (s) arrived
in Quba (a village in the outskirts of Yathrib) on Monday, the 12th of Rabi' I. Ibn Kalbi has written
that he left Mecca on Monday, the 1st of Rabi' I and that he arrived in Quba on Friday, the 12th of
Rabi' I. Some other historians have narrated that the Prophet (s) arrived in Quba on the 8th of Rabi' I.
More contemporary European and Muslim historians have said that it took him nine days to travel to
Quba, and he arrived there on the Rabi' I 12, 1/September 27, 622.
Later, the immigration of the Prophet (s) to Yathrib was used to mark the beginning of
the Islamic calendar. However, the month of Muharram became the first month of the calendar, and
Rabi' I is the third.
When the Prophet (s) arrived in Quba he built a mosque, existent today, and is called
the mosque of Quba1.
Imam Ali (a) stayed in Mecca for three days after the Prophet (s) departed for Yathrib. He
returned everything that people had entrusted to the Prophet (s), and then he himself traveled to
Yathrib alongside other members of the family of the Prophet (s) including Fatima (a), his beloved
daughter. They joined the Prophet (s) at the house of Kulthum b. Hadam in Quba before heading to
Yathrib together.[37] The Prophet (s) arrived in Yathrib on Friday with a group of people from Banu
Najjar. He held the first Friday prayer at the tribe of Banu Salim b. 'Awf.
When he entered the city, everyone wanted to host him in order to bring honor to their
families. The Prophet (s) said, "Wherever my camel sits, that is where my house will be." In response
to the invitation of the people, he said, "My camel is just an agent and knows where to go." The
1
Qubāʾ Mosque (Arabic: ) مسجد كباءwas the first mosque which was built by Prophet Muhammad (s). This mosque
was mentioned in Qur'an 9:108-109.
32 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
Prophet's (s) camel sat in front of the houses of Banu Malik b. Najjar where his mosque (al-Masjid alNabawi) was later built on. It was the property of two orphans who would dry fruit dates there. The
Prophet (s) bought the property from Mu'adh b. 'Afra' who was their guardian. Abu Ayyub alAnsari took the Prophet's (s) baggage and belongings to his house. The Prophet (s) stayed at his house
for a temporary time until they built a room for him. Muhammad (s) helped them in building the
mosque. They also built a suffa (stage) extension for the poor companions of the Prophet (s) to live in.
They were to become famous as companions of Suffa.
The immigration of the Prophet (s) from Mecca to Yathrib, which later became known as
the Hijra, was a significant event in the life of the Prophet (s) and in the history of Islam. After this
immigration, the city became known as "Madinat al-Rasul" (city of the Prophet) and in short
"Medina".
The Prophet (s) officially made a pact of brotherhood1 between Muhajirun and Ansar and took
Ali (a) as his own brother.[39] There were also a few people who had accepted Islam by their tongue but
did not harbor true faith in their heart, they were hypocrites (Munafiqun). Soon after the Prophet (s)
entered Medina, he established a constitution between different groups of people in the city, including
the Jews.
Hypocrites and Jews ()امليافلون واٍهيود
While most of the population of Medina was either Muslim or friends with the Prophet (s), all
of the inhabitants of the city and its surroundings were not completely in love with the Prophet
(s). 'Abd Allah b. Ubay, who was about to become the chief of the city, but was denied of this because
of the people accepting the message of the Prophet (s), was not happy, and would not remain silent.
Although he called himself a Muslim, he would secretly plot schemes against Muhammad (s) and his
followers and had a relationship with the Jews of Medina who would also plot against the Prophet (s).
1
Pact of Brotherhood (Arabic: )مؤاخاتis an agreement or pact between two Muslims to the effect that they count as
one another's brothers. The pact does not have legal consequences, such as inheritance or their family members
being mahram. Therefore, such brothers do not inherit from each other and the family members of one party (such as
their mothers or sisters) do not become mahram with the other party.
33 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
Such people were named hypocrites and they were spoken of in the first verses of the
holy Qur'an that were revealed to the Prophet (s) in Medina. This was because they were causing
problems for the Prophet (s) and the Muslims. Dealing with them was more difficult than dealing with
the non-Muslims because they called themselves Muslims, and thus the Prophet (s) could not openly
fight with them.
ُ ون كَاًُوا و َ ْضَِدُ اه ََّم ً َ َر ُس
ُ ُ ول اٌََّـ َِ ۗ َواٌََّـ َُ ي َ ْؼ َ ُ م اه ََّم ً َ َر ُس
[63:1]﴾ون
َ ُ وهل َواٌََّـ َُ ی َْضَِدُ ا َّن اًْ ُميَا ِف ِل َني ًَ َاك ِذب
َ ﴿ ا َذا َج َاءكَ اًْ ُميَا ِف ُل:كول هللا ثؼاىل
ّ
ّ
ّ
ّ
Verses of the Qur'an threatened them that God and the Prophet (s) were aware of their true
beliefs, and knew that calling "themselves Muslims" was just a plot to protect themselves.
'Abd Allah b. Ubay continued to cause troubles until his death (9/630). Although the Jews had
signed the Constitution of Medina, they were not happy living with the Muslims. They played
friendship games with Muslims. Even some of them (Jews) had outwardly become Muslims. The
reason for this discontentment, was that prior to the Islamic government, they controlled the economy
of the city and traded widely with the Bedouins and polytheists of Mecca. They (Jews) were expecting
'Abd Allah b. Ubay to become the chief of Medina so that their financial power would increase.
However, the coming of Muhammad (s) and the expanding of Islam under his command prevented
this. Moreover, they could not accept a prophet who was not of Jewish lineage. Therefore, they
expressed their opposition to Muhammad (s). Apparently, it was 'Abd Allah b. Ubay who had a hand
in provoking them.
The Jews would claim that "the prophet we expected is not Muhammad" and mentioned verses
of the Torah that contradicted verses of the Qur'an, saying that "what is in the Qur'an is not the same
as what is in our books." Some verses of the Qur'an were then revealed to the Prophet (s), suggesting
that verses of the Torah had been distorted over time by Jewish scholars in order to promote their
positions. Eventually, the holy Qur'an attempted to sever the relationship between
Islam, Christianity and Judaism. And just to show the Arabs that, comparing to Jews, they were a
separate nation
ون* َُا َب ُ ْهُت َُ ُؤلء َحا َج ْج ُ ُْت ِفميَا ًَ ُنك ِب َِ ِػ ٌ م فَ ِ َ م
َ ﴿ َاي َب ُْ َي اًْ ِىتَ ِاة ًِ َم ُ َحتأ ٓ ُّج
َ َُون ِِف ابْ َرا ُِ َمي َو َما ُبى ِزًَ ِت اًتَّ َورا ُت َوا ٕلجنِي ُي ٕالّ ِمن ب َ ْؼ ِد ٍِ َبفَ َال ث َ ْؼ ِل
ّ
﴾رش ِنني
ِ ْ َْصا ِه ايا َوًَ ِىن ََك َن َح ٌِي ًفا ُّم ْس َِ ًما َو َما ََك َن ِم َن اًْ ُم
ُ ون ِفميَا ًَي َْس ًَ ُنك ِب َِ ِػ ْ ٌ م َو
َ ْ هللا ي َ ْؼ َ ُ م َو َب ُ ْهُت َل ث َ ْؼَ َ ُمو َن * َما ََك َن ا ْب َرا ُِ ُمي َيَ ُو ِد ااي َو َل ه
َ ُ َحتأ ٓ ُّج
ّ
[3:65-67]
34 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
Change of Qibla1 ()ثغيري اًلبةل
The Prophet (s) prayed towards the al-Aqsa Mosque in Palestine for seventeen months after
entering Medina. During this time, the Jews harassed the Prophet by their persistent criticism. They
said: "Muhammad (s) had no Qibla until we taught him about it." These rather harsh criticisms upset
the Prophet (s) and one day, in Sha'ban 2/624, while he was performing the afternoon prayers in
the Banu Salama mosque, a verse was revealed to him commanding him to change the Qibla to alMasjid al-Haram. The Prophet (s) instantly turned his face towards the Ka'ba. Thereafter, the mosque
became known as the Dhu l-Qiblatayn mosque.
نٌل ثفيد، ىزل ا ٔلمر الًِٕيي ػَيَ ٔبجياء اًصالت ابًتوجَ حنو اًىؼبة-َكن يصًل اًظِر ِف مسجد بين سَمة– اَّلي غرف فامي بؼد بذي اًلبَتني
:الٓية املبارنة
اًس َما ِء فََ َ ُي َو ًِ ّ َييَّ َم ِك ْب َ ًةل تَ ْرضَ اَُا فَ َو ِ ّل َو ْْج ََم صَ ْط َر اًْ َم ْسجِ ِد اًْ َح َرا ِم َو َح ْي ُث َما ُن ْي ُ ُْت فَ َوًُّوا ُو ُجوُ ُ َْنك صَ ْط َر ٍُ َوا َّن َّ ِاَّل َين
َّ ﴿ كَدْ ىَ َرى ثَلََ ُّ َب َو ْ ِْج َم ِِف
ّ
[2:144]﴾ون
ُ َّ ون َبه َّ َُ اًْ َح ُّق ِم ْن َر ِ ّ ِهب ْم َو َما
َ َُبوثُوا اًْ ِىت
َ َُاّلل ِبغَا ِف ٍي َ َّمعا ي َ ْؼ َم
َ اة ً َ َي ْؼََ ُم
ُ ﴿ َس َي ُل
[2:142]﴾املغرة َيدي من یضا ُء إىل رص ٍاط ُمس تلمي
ُ اًس َفِا ُء ِم َن اًيّاس ما َو ّل ُ ُْه َغ ْن ِك ْبََهتم اًيت َكهُوا ػَهيا كُ ْي ّ ِّلل املرشق و
ُ ول
Battles before the Conquest of Mecca ()غزواث
غزوت وبٓخرون١2 فبؼضِم يؼدوهنا، وُياك اختالف ِف ػدد اًغزواث بني املؤرخني. ٔبحد واخليدق،و ٔبُه غزواث اًرسول ملسو هلآو هيلع هللا ىلص يه بدر
. غزوت١2
1
Change of the qibla (Arabic: )حتويي اًلبةلis the event in which the qibla of Muslims (direction of performing some
rituals) was redirected from al-Aqsa mosque, in Bayt al-Maqids (Jerusalem), to the Ka'ba (in Mecca). The event
occurred in Rajab, 2/January, 624, after the revelation of al-Qibla Verse. According to the majority of
historiographers, the change of qibla occurred in Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Medina in the middle of the noon prayer.
One interesting point about the redirection of the qibla is how people turned in the middle of a congregational
prayer to over 160 degrees.
35 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
Battle of Badr1
Since the Prophet (s) had made the second allegiance with people of Medina at al-'Aqaba, a
battle with the Quraysh seemed inevitable. The first encounter with the Quraysh took place in the
month of Safar in the second year after Hijra/August 623. This encounter was called Ghazwa
Abwa'2 or Wuddan in which there was no violent clash, only a minor fight. Another
encounter, Ghazwa Buwat, occurred in Rabi' I/September of the same year which just like the first one
there was no violent clash. Then, in Jumada I/November, there was news that a caravan of the
Quraysh led by Abu Sufyan had begun traveling from Mecca to Damascus. The Prophet (s) went to an
area called Dhat al-Ashira to confront with them, but the caravan had already passed it before the
Muslims arrived. Their attempt was unsuccessful because a few spies in Medina, who had become
aware of the Muslims' plans, were able to reach and inform the caravans from Mecca that there was a
threat ahead of them and that the caravans should change route or speed up to avoid them.
Eventually in the same year (2/623), there was an important battle between the Muslims and
polytheists of Mecca. This battle, called the Battle of Badr, was won by the Muslims even though they
were less in number. Many polytheists were either killed or captured and many more escaped. In this
battle, Abu Jahl and around 70 other chiefs of the Quraysh were killed and roughly the same number
captured. Only 14 Muslims were martyred in Badr. In this battle, Ali (a) made great sacrifices and
helped the Prophet (s) enormously. He also killed some bold warriors from the army of Mecca and his
valor assured the victory of Islam (36 or 37 of polytheists were killed by him).
1
The Battle of Badr is the first and most important battle between the Muslims and the polytheists of Quraysh during
the early history of Islam. It has been mentioned in the Qur'an. The Qur'an has explains about it with special
attention in a broad manner in Qur'an 8 and Qur'an 3. Although the Muslims were limited in men and resources,
but with the heavenly guidance they received and their courage, especially Ali (a) and Hamza Sayyid al-Shuhada', the
war resulted in the decisive victory of Muslims.
2
Battle of al-Abwāʾ (Arabic: )غزوت ا ٔلبواءor Battle of Waddān (Arabic: )غزوت َودّانwas the first ghazwa (battle) of Prophet
Muhammad (s) which occurred in Safar of 2/623. The battle was launched in order to overcome the threats of the
Damra tribe. When the Damra tribe learned about the Prophet's (s) presence in the area, they asked for a peace
treaty. On his way in the al-Abwa' station, the Prophet (s) made a peace treaty with them.
36 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
Battle with Banu Qaynuqa‘ ()املواْجة مع اٍهيود
The first battle with the Jews came about a few weeks after the Battle of Badr which led to the
great victory of the Muslims. The Jews of Banu Qaynuqa'1 had a castle outside of Medina. Their
business was to make objects out of golds and other precious metals. It is narrated that once, an Arab
woman went to the market to sell her goods in Banu Qaynuqa's market and sat at a jewelry store. One
of the Jews tied her clothes from behind and when she tried to stand up, her clothes were drawn to the
side and they mocked her by laughing at her. The woman cried and asked for help from the other
Muslims in the market, causing a fight. A Muslim rose to help the woman, and in the scuffle that
ensued, killed the Jewish man and the Jews killed him, causing the situation to become worse.
Later, the Prophet (s) warned the Jews about the consequences of what they were doing, and
told them that they had to surrender if they wanted to stay in the city. Banu Qaynuqa' responded to
the Prophet (s) by saying that he should not be proud about defeating the Meccans, since they were
not warriors. They claimed that if they fought the Prophet (s), they would show him how powerful
they were. Then, the following verse was revealed:
َكن ًُنك بٓية ِف فتتنيِ اًتَلَتا ِفتة ثلاث ُي ِف سبييِ هللا و ُاخرى َكفرت يروهنم
ّ غَبون ُوحترشون إىل
َ ﴿ كُي ٌّّل َين نفروا س ُت
َ ْجّن وبئس ا ِملِاد * كد
٢1-٢١ ا ٔلية: سورت بل معران،مثَهيم ر ٔبي اًؼنيِ وهللا يؤيّدُ بيْص ٍِ من یضا ُء ان ِف ذكل ًؼربت ُلويل ا ٔلبصار﴾ اًلربٓن اًىرمي
ّ
‚Say to the faithless, 'You shall be overcome and mustered toward hell, and it is an evil resting place.'
(12) There was certainly a sign for you in the two hosts that met: one host fighting in the way of Allah
and the other faithless.‚
Thus, the Muslims surrounded their castle and the Jews surrendered after 15 days. 'Abd Allah
b. Ubay implored the Prophet (s) not to kill them, and the Prophet (s) agreed, exiling them to Syria.
The siege of the Banu Qaynuqa Jews occurred in the month of Shawwal, 2/April 624.
Banū Qaynuqāʿ (Arabic: )بيو كَي ُيلاعwas a Jewish tribe who lived in Medina in early Islam. After hijra, they made a
treaty with the Prophet (s), but they broke it. Following a battle called the battle of Banu Qaynuqa', they were
besieged, surrendered, and exiled.
1
37 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
Battle of Uhud1 ()مؼرنة ُب ُحد
In 3/625, the Quraysh asked help from their allied tribes, and sent an army led by Abu
Sufyan towards Medina. Initially, the Prophet (s) wanted to stay inside the parameters of Medina, but
then decided to meet the army outside the city. The two armies met somewhere near the Uhud Mount.
Although the Muslims were initially close to victory, they ended up losing the war. This was because of
a trick played by Khalid b. Walid and the ignorance of a group of Muslims which let the Meccans
attack them from behind, killing many Muslims in the process. It was in this battle that Hamza, the
uncle of the Prophet (s), was martyred. The Prophet (s) took serious injuries during the war, causing a
rumor of his death among both sides. This was another reason that the Muslims became disheartened
at the battle. They returned to Medina dejected and sad at their loss. A few verses were then revealed
to console them.
The Battle of Uhud (Arabic: )غزوت ُا ُحدwas a famous Ghazwa of Prophet Muhammad (s) against
the polytheists of Mecca in 3/625. Quraysh marched out toward Medina, as they desired to avenge their losses in
the Battle of Badr while Abu Sufyan was the commander of the army. Prophet Muhammad (s) and senior members
of Ansar and Muhajirun planned to fight against Quraysh within Medina and never left the city; on the other hand
young Muslims and also Hamza b. 'Abd al-Muttalib, Prophet's uncle, were willing to fight outside the city. Finally
Prophet Muhammad (s) decided to accept the wishes of the latter. At first, Muslims defeated Meccans, but a part of
Muslim archers having 'Abd Allah b. Jubayr as their commander on Mount 'Aynayn on the left flank of Uhud, left
their assigned posts and faced a surprise attack from Meccans which led to defeat of Muslims. They faced a serious
defeat with approximately 70 martyred Muslims including Hamza b. 'Abd al-Muttalib who got mutilated, even
Prophet Muhammad (s) was badly injured on his face and his tooth.
1
38 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
Battles of Banu Nadir1 and Dumat al-Jandal2 ( دومة اجليدل،)غزوت بين اًيضري
In 4/625, there were a few small fights with tribes around Medina, as they did not see Islam to
their benefit. They felt that if they allied together, there was a chance that they could invade Medina.
In the two events of Raji' and Bi'r Ma'una, in which Muslim preachers were killed by the allied tribes,
there is an indication of their alliance and the Prophet's (s) efforts in preaching Islam.3
In that year, one of the most important battles of the Prophet (s) took place with one of the
Jewish tribes of Medina, called Banu Nadir4. The Prophet (s) held a meeting with them, in which they
tried to assassinate him. Later, they were forced to migrate from Medina.5
The following year, the Prophet (s) and the Muslims went to a region called Dumat alJandal which was on the borders of Syria. When the Muslim's army arrived there, the enemy had fled
and the Muslims returned to Medina. 6
Battles of Ahzab1, Banu Qurayza2, and Banu Mustalaq3 ( وبين املصطَق، بين كريظة،)غزوت ا ٔلحزاة
1
The Battle of Banū Naḍīr (Arabic: )غزوت بين هضريis one of the Prophet Muhammad's (s) battles with Jews of Medina.
This is the second battle of the Prophet (s) with Jews of Medina that occurred in the month of Rabi' I of 4 AH
(August, 625). Banu Nadir tribe, as well as the tribes of Banu Qaynuqa' and Banu Qurayza, were Jewish tribes who
lived in Medina and were the Prophet's (s) allies, but they broke their treaty with Muslims. The battle led to the
victory of the Muslims and people of Banu Nadir were then expelled from Medina.
2
Dūmat al-Jandal (Arabic: )دُو َم ُة اجليدَ لis a city in al-Jawf province in Saudi Arabia which was part of Syria territory
before. As Dumat al-Jandal is situated on the way between Hijaz, Iraq and Syria, its geographical location has made
the city highly important. A number of historical events including the Battle of Dumat al-Jandal took place in the
region which were described and mentioned in historical reports of Islam. Jawf al-Sarhan is the other name of this city
or the region where the Arbitration after the Battle of Siffin took place.
3
Tabari, Tarikh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, vol. 2, p. 538-555
4
Banū Naḍīr (Arabic: )بيو هضريis a Jewish tribe that resided in Medina until the early years of Hijra. They resided
in Medina before the emergence of Islam.
5
Waqidi, al-Maghazi, vol. 1, p. 363
6
Waqidi, al-Maghazi, vol. 1, p. 402-404; Ibn Hisham, al-Sira al-nabawiyya, vol. 3, p. 224
39 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
In 4/625, Abu Sufyan attempted to bring a group of Meccans to fight at Badr, but he changed
his mind when he was halfway through Medina and pulled his army back. This escape directly hit his
reputation with the chiefs of the Quraysh, and in order to restore it, he had to amass a great army. He
finally managed to gather an army of 7,000-10,000 people in 5/626, which included 600 mounted
warriors. This massive army headed towards Medina, and the battle that ensued was called
the Ahzab or parties, because Abu Sufyan's army basically comprised of several different tribes/parties.
Also in this war, a group of Jews from Banu Nadir who lived in the castle of Khaybar, joined with the
1
The Battle of Khandaq (Arabic: غزوت اخليدق, Battle of the Trench) or The Battle of Aḥzāb (Arabic: غزوت ا ٔلحزاة, Battle
of the Confederates) took place in the fifth year of Hijra/627. It initially broke out by the stratagem of Banu
Nadir tribe. Quraysh tribe became united with all its allies including polytheist 'Arab tribes in order to eradicate
Islam. The number of their soldiers was ten thousand, yet Muslim army was only three thousand soldiers.
Banu Qurayza tribe had promised to be impartial in case of war; nevertheless, they violated the contract and became
confederate with the unbelievers. To take up arms against the unbelievers, Muslims dug a trench around Medina, an
idea from Salman al-Farsi. The war terminated by Muslim's victory and the army of polytheists had to withdraw.
During the battle, 'Amr b. 'Abd Wudd, eminent for his great valor and bravery, proceeded the trench along with
some other warriors and threw down the challenge that who would dare to fight with him?
Muslims remained silent, while they were overwhelmed with panic. Ultimately, 'Ali (a) volunteered and went for the
challenge with the Prophet (s)'s consent. He succeeded to take 'Amr's life. This had such a huge positive impact on
Muslim's spirit that led to them triumphing over the enemy. "'Ali's stroke was superior to any jinn's or human's
(thaqalayn) worship", said Prophet Muhammad (s).
2
The Battle with Banū Qurayẓa is the last battle of the Prophet (s) with the Jews of Medina that took place in 5/626
because Banu Qurayza violated their treaty with the Prophet (s) and became allied with the polytheists in the Battle of
Ahzab. After the battle of Ahzab, Muslims headed to the stronghold of Banu Qurayza and besieged them. After about
a month, Jews surrendered and proposed the arbitration of Sa'd b. Muadh, and the Prophet (s) accepted. According to
some reports, Sa'd b. Muadh taking the treaty between the Prophet (s) and Banu Qurayza, into consideration in one
hand, and the rules of Torah in the other hand, declared that the combatant men of the tribe must be executed, and
the children and women enslaved, and their estate forfeited. Some historians doubted about that Sa'd b. Muadh
declaring that all men of the tribe must be executed.
Battle of Banū Muṣṭaliq (Arabic: )غَ َزوٍ بَن ُم ْص َط َِقor Muraysīʿ (Arabic: ) ُم َریس يعwas among the Prophet's (s) battles with
one of the Jewish tribes in Fur' region on the way between Medina and Mecca in 5/627 or 6/628. Banu Mustaliq was
a Jewish tribe who lived near Mecca and after emergence of Islam, fought with Muslims the same way as polytheists
of Mecca. In a battle later called Battle of Banu Mustaliq, Muslims defeated them.
3
40 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
Quraysh and Ghatfan against the Prophet (s). Further, the Jews of Banu Qurayza who lived around
Medina and had previously promised not to support the Quraysh, broke their agreement and allied
with the Meccans. To confront approaching army, the Prophet (s) had only 3,000 people who were all
foot soldiers (save a few horsemen).
Unlike the Battle of Uhud, the people of Medina accepted to take defensive positions and
stayed inside Medina. In order to defend the city from an onslaught, the Prophet's companion, Salman
al-Farsi, proposed the strategy of digging a trench in front of the city. Since Medina was surrounded
and protected by palm gardens and buildings except on one side, the enemy could not invade the city
from those sides. Thus, digging a trench on the only open side where an attack was possible in the
north, would keep the city safe from attacks. Before the Meccan army arrived in Medina, the trench
had already been dug. The enemy was shocked when they arrived, since they had not anticipated or
seen such a blockade before. Mounted soldiers could not jump over the trench, and if they tried to
approach it, Medinan archers would prevent them from coming any closer.
'Amr b. 'Abd Wad1 and 'Akrama b. Abi Jahl decided to jump across the trench. Audacious as
he was, 'Amr was killed by Ali (a). At the first glance, it seemed like Medina was going to be defeated.
What could the little army of Muslims do against the massive army that was ready to attack their city?
First, the Prophet (s) wanted to separate the tribe of Ghatfan from the Meccan army. So, he (s) sent an
offer to them that one third of the crops of Medina would be theirs if they didn't help the Quraysh.
The Ansar of Medina asked the Prophet (s): "Is this treaty a revelation?" When he replied in the
negative, they said: "Then, we would not accept that. Even in the past, when God had not yet guided
us, we would not accept such a belittlement. How can we belittle ourselves today, when God has saved
us by you?" Therefore, the treaty was not made.
But, very few people who did not reveal being Muslims, associated with Banu Qurayza and
Ghatfan at the same time and made the two tribes distrustful about each other. Divine help arrived and
ʿAmr b. ʿAbdiwudd (Arabic: َ)معرو بن غَب ِد ُو ّدor ʿAmr b. ʿAbdiwadd (Arabic: َ)معرو بن غَب ِد َو ّدwas among the best warriors
of Quraysh who was killed in the battle of Ahzāb (also called Khandaq) by Imam Ali (a). According to some hadiths,
the Prophet (s) mentioned Imam Ali's (a) strike at 'Amr better than the worships of all humans and jinns. Ibn
Taymiyya, the Sunni scholar and the founder of Salafism, rejected the existence of 'Amr b. 'Abdiwudd. Some
researchers considered his motive to be rejecting the merits of Imam Ali (a).
1
41 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
a strong cold storm began, making the situation even more difficult than it was for the Meccan army.
Abu Sufyan ordered the army to withdraw to Mecca, and so Medina was relieved after 15 days of being
under siege.
The outcome of the Battle of Ahzab was a very positive one for the Muslims, but it was fatally
tragic for the Meccans. It became clear that the Meccans had lost any prospects for business in Medina
forever. In addition, Medina was in a strategic location and served as an obstacle in the path that the
Meccans traveled on from Mecca to Syria. So, the Quraysh businessmen could no longer continue their
businesses easily.
Abu Sufyan's leadership was weakening in Mecca day by day, and the Quraysh had been
disgraced in the face of other tribes. The unexpected victory of the Muslims in the Battle of Ahzab had
attracted Bedouins to Islam, as they believed that an extraordinary power had supported the Muslims.
After this, the situation became favorable for the Muslims.
After the Battle of Ahzab, the Prophet (s) tried to solve the problem of the Banu Qurayza.
According to the Constitution of Medina that they had signed soon after the arrival of the Prophet (s)
in Medina, these Jews would be protected unless they rose against the Muslims. However, since they
had allied with Muslims' enemies in Battle of Ahzab, the constitution no longer applied. Further, it was
obvious that their threat was not minor at all. So, the Prophet (s) went to them and surrounded them,
keeping them under siege for 25 days, after which they surrendered. The tribe of Aws, who had been
allied with the Banu Qurayza told the Prophet (s): "The Banu Qurayza are allied with us and they
regret what they have done, so, treat our alliances the same way as you treated the Khazraj's1 alliances
(Banu Qaynuqa'). [We ask you this] since we saw you forgave those Jewish captives and handed them
to the one they were allied with, 'Abd Allah Ubay." The Prophet (s) left the judgment of the captives of
Banu Qurayza up to Sa'd b. Mu'adh2, who was the chief of the tribe of Aws; and Banu
1
Aws (Arabic: )اوسand Khazraj (Arabic: )خزرج, are the two important Arab tribes from Yemen, who migrated
to Medina long before Islam. After emigration of the Prophet (s) to Medina they became named as Ansar (the
helpers). The role of these two tribes is significant in the history of Islam, especially in hijra and in battles.
2
Abū ʿAmr Saʿd b. Muʿādh (Arabic: ( )ابومعرو سؼد بن ُمؼاذd. 5/627) was one of the companions of the Prophet (s) and
the chief of Aws tribe who became Muslim after the first 'Aqaba by Mus'ab b. 'Umayr in Medina and after him all his
clan became Muslim. He fought in the battles of Badr and Uhud and was one of the close friends and delegates of the
42 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
Qurayza accepted. Sa'd said, "My opinion is that we kill their men and capture their women and
children." So, this was done.
However, some historians are skeptical over this story. In fact, Shahidi has said that:
It seems as though the story of Banu Qurayza has been distorted and narrated by a person
from the tribe of Khazraj several years after the event when the population that was present at the time
of the siege no longer existed. By narrating this story, that person wanted to show that the tribe of Aws
was not respected in the eyes of the Prophet (s) as much as the tribe of Khazraj was. And this was why
the Prophet (s) did not kill the allies of the tribe of Khazraj, but let the allies of the tribe of Aws die.
Further, the narrator also wanted to imply that the chief of the tribe of Aws did not regard their
alliances.
In the year 6/627, the Muslims conquered the Banu Mustalaq tribe who were gathering forces
against the Prophet (s).
Battle of Khaybar1 ()مؼرنة خيرب
The last war occurred before the Conquest of Mecca and after the Treaty of Hudaybiyya was
the Battle of Khaybar. In 7/629, the Prophet (s) conquered the Jews of Khaybar who had allied with
his enemies several times before. Khaybar which was a castle near Medina was seized by the Muslims.
Prophet (s). During the betrayal of Banu Qurayza and after their defeat from Islamic army, Sa'd was chosen as their
judge. During the Battle of Khandaq, he was wounded which led him to death. It is narrated from the Prophet (s)
saying, "A thousand angels participated in his funeral." In Sunni sources, it is mentioned that his death shook the
Divine Throne.
1
Battle of Khaybar (Arabic: )غزوت خيربwas a battle or ghazwa by the Prophet Muhammad (s) against Jews
of Khaybar region that began in Muharram of 7/628 and ended with the victory of Muslims in Safar of the same year.
The battle started because Jews in Khaybar had given refuge to Jews who were expelled from Medina and incited
some Arabian tribes against Muslims. Muslims won the battle and according to a treaty between Jews and the Prophet
(s) they were to leave the region with their families; in the second treaty the Prophet (s) agreed that they stay in the
region and continue their agriculture but pay half of their benefit to Muslims instead.
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After the victory, the Prophet (s) agreed that the Jews could continue farming in the region;
however, they were to give a part of their crop to the Muslims every year.
In the battle of Khaybar, capturing one of the castles was very difficult. The Prophet (s) first
sent Abu Bakr and then 'Umar to attempt to seize the castle, but they failed. Then the Prophet (s) said
that,
»حيب هللا ورسوهل وحيبَّ هللا ورسوهل
ّ «وهللا ٔلغطني اًراية غد ًا رج ًال
"Indeed, tomorrow I will give this flag to a man, in his hands is the victory, who loves God and his
Prophet (s) and God and His Prophet (s) love him."
The next day, he called Ali (a) and cured Ali's (a) eyes (which were infected at the time) with
saliva from his mouth and told him, "Take this flag and proceed, may God give you victory." Ibn
Ishaq narrates from Abu Rafi' that, "Ali went near the castle and fought with the Jews. When his shield
fell after one of the Jews had hit it, he took a door of the castle and used it as his shield until victory
was achieved and he dropped it [the door] when war was finished." Abu Rafi' says, "Seven people and
I tried hard to lift the door, but we could not! ‚ 1
1
Ayati, Tarikh-i payambar-i Islam, p. 410-411
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Treaty of Hudaybiyya1 ()صَح احلديبية
Many events in 6/627 ended favourably for the Muslims, like the Battle of Ahzab, the
surrender of the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, and two or three other battles that they won. Further,
the bring-backs of war which they had collected raised the status and respect of Islam in the eyes of the
population to the extent that many tribes became Muslim or signed peace treaties with Muslims.
Therefore, it was an opportune time for the Prophet (s) to show the glory of Islam to the
people of Mecca and to call them to Islam. In Dhu l-Qa'da, 6/April 628, the Prophet (s) along with
1,500 people from Medina went to Mecca in order to perform the pilgrimage. The Quraysh prepared
to stop the Muslims from the pilgrimage when they became aware of this. First, they sent Khalid b.
Walid and 'Akrama b. Abi Jahl to prevent them from coming to Mecca. The Prophet (s) arrived
in Hudaybiyya2, a place marking the beginning of the Haram (sacred land), and sent a message to the
Meccans that "we have come for pilgrimage not war." It was a humiliation for Quraysh to see their
enemies enter Mecca and perform Hajj. But on the other hand they could not prevent anyone from
entering Mecca to perform Hajj, as Mecca was the free land of God. Finally, a peace treaty was agreed
upon and signed between the Prophet (s) and the representatives of Mecca. According to the treaty,
they would not engage in warfare with each other and allies of each other for the next ten years.
However, the Muslims could not enter Mecca that year, but the following year, the Quraysh would
leave the city for three days and the Muslims would be permitted to enter to perform the pilgrimage.
1
Ḥudaybīyya Peace Treaty (Arabic: )صَح احلُدَ يبيَّةwas a treaty which was signed in Hudaybiyya region in 6/628 between
the Prophet (s) and the polytheists of Mecca and was addressed in Qur'an 48 in the Qur'an. This treaty was signed
when Muslims went to Mecca to perform hajj rituals but encountered the prevention of polytheists of Quraysh.
Tensions and negotiations following this event finally led to signing a ten year treaty between Muslims and the people
of Mecca.
Pledge of al-Riḍwān (Arabic: بيؼة اًرضوان, literally: pledge of satisfaction) or Pledge of the Tree (Arabic: )بيؼة اًضجرتwas a
renewed pledge of some Sahaba of the Prophet Muhammad (s) which occurred in 6/628 near Mecca before
the Hudaybiyya Peace Treaty. The Quran 48:18, refers to this event. The titles, "Pledge of the Tree" and "Pledge of
Satisfaction" (al-Ridwan) come from this Quranic verse.
2
Ḥudaybīyya (Arabic: )حديبيةis a village about one station (about 24 km) away from Mecca and 9 stations away
from Medina. A part of this village is inside the sanctuary of Mecca and a part of that is outside the sanctuary and its
name is adopted from the name of the Well of Hudaybiyya or a tree called Hadba' which existed in that region.
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Another article in the peace treaty was that if a Meccan man were to come to the Prophet (s),
the person would have to be returned to Mecca. However, if someone were to go to Mecca, they would
not have to return them. Further, the treaty permitted that other tribes were free to ally either with the
Quraysh or with Muhammad (s).
Some of the companions of the Prophet (s) were angry about the contents of the treaty and
considered it to be a failure for the Muslims, since they could not understand its importance and
benefits. However, the signing of this treaty was a great victory for Muslims because the Meccans had
completely disregarded the Prophet (s) and his companions until then. They had intended to kill all of
them, and in this treaty, they finally recognized the Muslims on an official basis and dealt with them as
equals. Moreover, it was written in the treaty that tribes were free to ally with the Prophet (s) or the
Quraysh. So, the treaty would be broken if either the Muslims or the Quraysh waged war on their
allies. Later, the Quraysh broke this condition, and the Muslims conquered Mecca. A short time after
signing the treaty, a Meccan who had become Muslim was going to be returned to Mecca (as per the
treaty). However, he escaped on the way and instead of going back to Medina; he hid himself in a
place which was on the path that the Quraysh's caravan took while traveling to Syria. Gradually, some
of the Muslims of Mecca joined him at this spot and became a threat to the caravans of the Quraysh as
they lay in wait. Since it was not appropriate here for the Prophet (s) to return them to Mecca, the
Quraysh were forced to ask him to call them back to Medina, and so, the issue of returning refugees
was cancelled. More importantly, when the Quraysh violated one of the articles of the treaty, the
Meccans were forced to submit to the Muslims.
Inviting the Rulers of Neighboring Countries
In 7/629, when the Prophet (s) was no longer occupied by the troubles of the Quraysh
(because of the Hudaybiyya peace treaty), he decided to invite rulers and kings of neighboring
countries to Islam. Thus, he wrote letters to the East Roman Emperor, King
of Persia, Negusä of Abyssinia, Ghassanid king of Syria, and the Emir of al-Yamama.
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Pilgrimage to Mecca ()معرت اًلضاء وزايرت بيت هللا احلرام
In Dhu l-Qa'da of 7/629, the Prophet (s) went to Mecca for pilgrimage, as was agreed upon in
the Hudaybiyya peace treaty. The glorious arrival of the Prophet (s) and the Muslims into Masjid alHaram, their performing of the 'Umra, the glory of their rituals, and the great respect that Muslims
paid to the Prophet (s) was magnificent in the eyes of the Quraysh. It became clear to them that they
would not have the power to resist the Prophet (s), and those who were smarter realized that the
former system was collapsing, and a new door had opened for the people. Therefore, two of their
chiefs, Khalid b. Walid and Amr b. 'As, rushed to Medina and became Muslim.
Conquest of Mecca1 ()فتح مىة
According to the Hudaybiyya peace treaty, all tribes were permitted to ally either with the
Muslims or the Quraysh, as they wished. The tribe of Khuza'a allied with the Prophet (s) and Banu
Bakr allied with the Quraysh. In 8 AH, Banu Bakr fought the tribe of Khuza'ah, and the Quraysh
supported Banu Bakr in this battle. In this way, the Quraysh had broken the Hudaybiyya peace treaty
since they had fought against one of the Prophet's (s) allies. Abu Sufyan then realized that such a
violation would have consequences, and rushed to Medina to attempt to renew the treaty, but he could
not.
In the month of Ramadan in 8/629, the Prophet (s) went to Mecca with 10,000 Muslims. He
began his trip while nobody knew of it. When they arrived, they stayed in a place called Marr alZahran. Abbas, the Prophet's uncle went out of his tent at night, and searched for some Meccans in
order to tell them to inform the Quraysh about the Prophet's (s) trip to Mecca. This was so that they
could come to the Prophet (s) before he arrived in Mecca and a battle occurred. However, he suddenly
saw Abu Sufyan, sheltered him, and took him to the Prophet (s). Abu Sufyan then became a Muslim.
1
Conquest of Mecca (Arabic: )فتح مىةis the event of conquering Mecca by Muslims led by the Prophet (s) in 8/630 as
a response to Quraysh's breaking Hudaybiyya treaty. One of its results was that the polytheists of Arabian
Peninsula turned to Islam in the following years. Chiefs of the polytheists of Quraysh such as Abu Sufyan became
Muslim before Muslims entered Mecca. The Prophet (s) called, "Al-Yawm, yawm al-marhama" ["Today is the day of
mercy"] and granted an amnesty for all.
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The following day, the Prophet (s) ordered Abbas to make Abu Sufyan stand in a place where
he could see the Muslims accompanying the Prophet (s) passing by. When Abu Sufyan saw their glory
and the massive number of Muslims, he told Abbas, "The kingdom of your nephew has grown!" Abbas
said, "This is the prophethood, not the kingdom!" Abu Sufyan replied,"Yes, Indeed!" Then Abbas went
to the Prophet (s) and told him that "Abu Sufyan is the type of person that wants to have privilege."
The Prophet (s) said that "Everyone [in Mecca] who goes to his house and shuts their door will be
safe. Also, anyone who is sheltered in Abu Sufyan's house will be safe as well. Anyone who enters
Masjid al-Haram will also be safe." The great crowds of Muslims entered Mecca. Ibn Hisham narrates
from Ibn Ishaq that Sa'd b. 'Ubada, the chief of the tribe of Khazraj had come to Mecca that day and
said, "Today is the day of massacre! Today is the day of disrespect and the violation of sanctity." He
wanted to take revenge on the Quraysh and the 'Adnani families and sought revenge for the people of
Medina. To avoid the misconception that the Islamic victory would be a form of tribal revenge, the
Prophet (s) sent Ali (a) and told him, "Take the flag from Sa'd for today is the day of mercy." There
was no fight between the Meccans and Muslims, save for a few arguments.
.ٍ وُزم ا ٔلحزاة وحد،ٍ وهْص غبد،ٍ صدق وػد. ل اهل ٕالّ هللا وحدٍ ل رشيم هل: وطاف بـاًىؼبة مَبي ّا بػ،مث دخي رسول هللا املسجد
"There is no god except Allah alone, He has no partner. True is His promise and He helps His servant
and defeats the factions alone."
People abandoned every tribal claim except for the positions of serving the Ka'ba and giving
water to the pilgrims. The Prophet (s) stayed in Mecca for two weeks and arranged for different jobs to
be done. Among these, was sending some people around Mecca to destroy any idols or idol houses,
and further, to destroy the idols that were in the Ka'ba.
The noble way that the Prophet (s) treated the Meccans showed the glory of Islam and the
nobility of the Prophet in front of the former opposition to Islam. The Quraysh, who did not hesitate
to harass the Prophet (s) and his followers in every possible way for twenty years, feared the
punishment that they would face. When they heard the Prophet (s) say, » فأٔهُت اًطَلاء،" «اذُبواI free all of
you!" they became determined to fight against the infidels instead of fighting against Islam.
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Battles after the Conquest of Mecca
Battle of Hunayn1 ()غزوت حٌني
No less than 15 days after the Prophet (s) had come to Mecca, a few large families from around
the Arabian Peninsula who had not yet become Muslim, allied against him. So, the Prophet (s) left
Mecca with a large army. When they arrived at a place called Hunayn, the enemies ambushed them
using surrounding valleys and began to shoot arrows at the Muslims. The shooting was so intense that
the Muslims' retreated, and only a few remained. However, those who retreated then returned,
attacking the enemy and eventually defeating them.
Battle of Tabuk2 ()غزوت ثبوك
Among the most important events of 9/630 is the Battle of Tabuk. The Prophet (s) was
informed that the Romans had gathered a great army at Balqa' and were planning to attack the
Muslims. However, because the summer was scorching and extremely hot, and the season of ripe fruits
had arrived, people wanted to stay at home and relax. In fact, the treasure house was half empty. The
Prophet (s) did not use to aim at certain targets before campaigning, however, in the Battle of Tabuk,
1
The Battle of Ḥūnayn (Arabic: )غَزوت ُحٌَنيoccurred after the conquest of Mecca in 8/630 in the area
of Hunayn between Muslims under the commandership of the Prophet (s) and the tribes of Hawazin and Thaqif who
resided in the area of Ta'if. At the beginning of the battle, the Islamic army was unstable because of the polytheists'
camisado and the presence of some soldiers from Mecca, who were recent Muslim converts, such that the Prophet
(s)'s life was in danger, but the Muslims could finally win the war and gain a lot of booties.
Ḥunayn (Arabic: ) ُحٌَنيis a valley in northeast of Mecca, between Wadi l-Sharayi' and Wadi Yad'an
2
The Battle of Tabuk (Arabic: )غَ َزوت ثَبوكis the final ghazwa of the Prophet (s). It took place
During Rajab and Sha'ban of the 9/630 in the region of Tabuk. As the Prophet (s) was heading toward Tabuk to fight
Romans, some of the companions, specifically Munafiqun (hypocrites), refused to join the army or tried to weaken
the morale of the army. Before the expedition, the Prophet (s) appointed Imam 'Ali (a) as his successor in Medina in
his absence. After a short tarriance of few days, the army of Islam came back to Medina from Tabuk without any
actual confrontation with Romans. Some verses were revealed about Munafiqun exposing them and their secret
intentions and plans.
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he announced that they were going to go to war with the Romans because of the difficulties that they
had on the way.
A few complained about the prospect of war and said: "It is summer and it is hot! Don't go
now!" They were bitterly reproached in the Qur'an:
[9:81]﴾ُون
َ َِ﴿ َوكَاًُوا َل ث َي ِف ُروا ِِف اًْ َح ّ ِر ۗ كُ ْي انَ ُر َ َْجّنَّ َ بَصَ ُّد َح ارا ً َّ ْو ََكهُوا ي َ ْفل
…and they said, 'Do not go forth in this heat.' Say, the fire of hell is severer in heat, should they
understand. [9:81]
The soldiers of the Muslim army numbered 30,000 and this was the highest number of soldiers
in the Muslim army from all of the battles of the Prophet (s). It was also perhaps the highest number
for an army in the Arabian Peninsula till that day.
In this war, the Prophet (s) left Ali (a) in Medina to take care of its affairs. The hypocrites used
the situation to say that the Prophet (s) didn't want Ali (a) to accompany him on this tri p. When Ali
(a) became upset and complained about this to the Prophet (s), the Prophet (s) told him:
َ ِ هت ورايئ فاخَُ ِفين ِف ٔب ًُِل َو ٔب
ُ َوًىٌّين خََّف ُتم ملا تَر،« َن ِذبُوا
ون ِم ّين
َ ُكل ٔبفَال تَرىض اي ػَ ًّل ٔبن ت ُى
.»ُارون ِمن ُموىس ٕالّ ٔبه ََّ ل َّهيب بؼدي
َ بِمزن ِةل
"I appointed you as my vicegerent, since to me; you are like Aaron to Moses,
except that there is no prophet after me.‚1
1
Ḥadīth al-Manzila (Arabic: )حديث املزنةلis among the most famous hadiths narrated from the Prophet (s) which has
been agreed upon by both Shi'a and Sunni scholars. This hadith introduces the position of Imam 'Ali (a), with
regards to the Prophet (s) and his primacy over other companions. It is a frequently-narrated hadith (mutawatir) in
the view of Shi'a scholars and among the proofs for Imam 'Ali's (a) right to the caliphate after the noble Prophet (s).
This hadith has been narrated from the Prophet (s) in different occasions, most important of which has been in
the Battle of Tabuk. One of the most famous versions of its narration is that the noble Prophet (s) addressed Imam
'Ali (a) and said, "To me, you are like Aaron to Moses, except for there is no prophet after me."
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The army suffered extreme thirst on the way, and when they arrived in Tabuk, they were
informed that the news of the Romans gathering against them had not been true, then with no conflict
they returned.
The Battle of Tabuk was the last confrontation (or attempt) between Muslims and nonMuslims in the lifetime of the Prophet (s). After that, all of the Arabian Peninsula submitted to the
Muslims. It was after this battle that most tribes sent a representative to the Prophet (s) to inform him
about their conversion to Islam and their obedience to him. This period later came to be known as
the Sanat al-Wufud (the year of delegations/guests)
Sanat al-Wufud1 ()س ية اًوفود
After the Battle of Tabuk, Islam began to spread all over the Arabian Peninsula. Delegations
from different tribes came to Medina and became Muslim. In fact, the Prophet (s) stayed inside of
Medina for all of 10 AH (called Sana al-wufud) and received various delegations.
In the same year, the Prophet (s) signed a treaty with the Christians of Najran2 and then went
on the Hajj pilgrimage. On his return trip from the pilgrimage in a place called Ghadir Khum1, he
announced that Ali b. Abi Talib (a) was to become the guardian of the Muslims after he passed away.
1
Sanat al-wufūd (Arabic: )س ية اًوفودor 'Ām al-wufūd (Arabic: )ػام اًوفود, or the Year of Delegates is the 9th year
after Hijra/(630). This is called so because after the conquest of Mecca (fath al-Makka), many delegates from different
Arabian tribes went to the Prophet (s), and expressed their commitment to Islam, and were kindly received by the
Prophet (s).
2
Mubāhala (Arabic: ) ُمباُ ََةلmeans cursing and damning each other. Two people or two parties, who believe they are
right, supplicate before God and ask Him to curse the liar so that everyone knows who is right. Thus, the Prophet
(s) suggested Christians of Najran to do mubahala and they accepted; however, on the day they had agreed before,
they refused to do mubahala since they saw that the Prophet (s) came with closest members of his family, who were
his daughter Fatima al-Zahra (a), his son-in-law Imam 'Ali (a), his grandsons Hasan (a) and Husayn (a) and thus
they understood his truthfulness. This way the Prophet (s) became victorious in this event.
The occasion of the Prophet's (s) mubahala with Christians of Najran is not only a sign for the truth of the Prophet's
(s) claim [i.e. inviting to Islam] but also showing the position of his family members since he introduced them alone
among all his companions and relatives. Therefore, that event is among the merits of the Ahl al-Bayt (a). The
encounter of mubahala happened on 24th of Dhu al-Hijja 10/632. However, some have reported it on 25th.
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Last Hajj of the Prophet (s)2 and Event of Ghadir Khum3 ()جحّة اًوداع وغدير مخ
The Prophet (s) went for his last pilgrimage in Dhu l-Qa'da, 10/February 632. He taught the
rulings of the Hajj in this Hajj journey.
The Quraysh had saved some privileges for themselves, the same privileges that they had
before the advent of Islam. In addition to key-holding, managing, and giving water to the Hajj
1
Ghadīr Khumm (Arabic: )غدير مخis the name of a pond located in Khumm on the road from Mecca to Medina. In
this place, on Dhu l-Hijja 18,10 (March 19, 632), the Prophet (s) announced Imam 'Ali (a) as his successor. This
event is known as the event of Ghadir.
2
Ḥajjat al-Wadāʿ (Arabic: ; َح َّجة َاًوداعmeaning: farewell hajj) was the only hajj journey of the Prophet
(s) after Hijra that occurred in 10/632. After Hijra, the Prophet (s) went to Mecca for 'umra three times; but,
according to historians and hadith scholars, he (s) only once attended hajj rituals and it was few months before he (s)
passed away. Since, this hajj took place in the last year of his life, the Prophet (s) made farewell to people and it
became known as Hajjat al-Wada' (Hajj of Farewell). According to Shi'a beliefs, on return from this hajj, the Prophet
(s) publicly announced the imamate and guardianship of 'Ali b. Abi Talib (a) in Ghadir Khumm, following the order
of God and requested people's allegiance with Imam 'Ali (a); therefore, this hajj is very important for Shi'a.
Another name of this hajj is Hajjat al-Balagh (Arabic: ) َح َّجة اً َبالغ, since the al-Tabligh Verse was revealed to the
Prophet (s) on return from that journey. Another name of that hajj of the Prophet (s) is Hajjat al-Islam, since it is the
only hajj of the Prophet (s) during the rule of Islam and its rituals were practiced according to Islamic law.
3
The Event of Ghadīr (Arabic: )واكؼة اًغدير, according to Shi'a beliefs, is among the most important events in the
history of Islam, in which on his return from Hajjat al-Wida', the Prophet (s) introduced Imam Ali (a) as
his vicegerent and people's guardian after himself at a place called Ghadir Khum, where everyone including
greatest companions pledged their allegiance with Imam Ali (a).
This introduction was according to divine command in al-Tabligh Verse which was revealed a little earlier than Dhu
l-Hijja 18, 10/March 19, 632 commanding the Prophet (s) to communicate to people whatever has been revealed to
him and if he does not, it is as if he has not fulfilled his mission. Subsequently, al-Ikmal Verse was revealed saying:
"Today I have perfected your religion for you, and I have completed My blessing upon you, and I have approved
Islam as your religion."
The Infallibles (a) have referred to al-Ghadir Sermon and many poets -from the time of Imam Ali (a) onward- have
composed poems about this event. Among the most prominent works about the Event of Ghadir and al-Ghadir
Sermon is al-Ghadir fi l-kitab wa l-sunna wa l-adab by al-'Allama al-Amini. The Prophet (s) and other infallibles (a)
have called this day "Eid" (Holy Day) and Muslims, especially the Shi'a, celebrate it.
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pilgrims, they regarded themselves as separate from and superior to the other tribes in doing rituals. In
this last Hajj journey, the Prophet (s) negated the privileges that the Quraysh had held for themselves,
and deprived others from.
Among the things abolished was the purchase of clean clothing for the pilgrimage permitted
only through the Quraysh. There was a custom that the clean clothes required for the pilgrimage could
only be bought from the Quraysh, and if they were not, they had to circumambulate the Ka'ba naked.
Another practice abolished was that the Quraysh moved out from Muzdalifa, as opposed to 'Arafat as
all other Hajj pilgrims did. They believed this to be an honor for themselves, but the Qur'an nullified
this privilege:
﴾﴿ ُ َّمث َب ِفيضُ وا ِم ْن َح ْي ُث َبفَ َاض اًيَّ ُاس
Then stream out from where the people stream out… [2:199]
The Muslims saw that Muhammad (s) was from Quraysh, but that he was moving out from
'Arafat like all of the others. It was in this journey that the Prophet (s) told the people,
"O people! I don't know if I will see the next year. I ignored all of the blood that was
spilt before the advent of Islam. [From now on], your blood and your other possessions are forbidden
for each other until you meet God."
In a region called Juhfa where the peoples of Egypt, Hijaz and Iraq split up to travel to their
own regions, is a place called Ghadir Khum. Here, on the Prophet's (s) return to Medina, before
everyone split in different directions, he received an order from God to appoint Ali (a) as his successor
and who would direct the Muslim community towards a specific goal. In the massive crowd of
Muslims, approximated at 90-100,000, the Prophet (s) said:
ُ من ُن
َُ َ اٌَِ َُم َوالِ َم ْن َوالا ٍُ وػَا ِد َمن ػَادَا ٍُ و َبحب من َب َحبَّ َُ و ٔبب ِغض من َببغَض.ٍيت َمول ٍُ فَ َؼ يًل َمول
ُ َْص ٍُ و
ُ احلق َمؼ َُ َح
.يث دَار
َّ اخذل َمن َخ َذ َ ُهل و ٔب ِدر
َ َ واه ُْْص من ه
"Ali (a) is the guardian of anyone that I am the guardian of. O Allah! Befriend anyone who
befriends him and be enemies with whoever is his enemy. Abominate whoever abominates him, help
53 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
whoever helps him, defame whoever disrespects him, and support him with the truth wherever he
goes. Deliver these words to those who are absent.‚
After returning from the Hajj, when the glory and power of Islam had grown, the Prophet (s)
became sick. Nevertheless, he had prepared an army under the leadership of Osama b. Zayd in order
to respond to the Muslims' defeat in the Battle of Muta1. However, before this army left for the battle,
the Prophet (s) passed away and left this world to meet his Lord. He passed away at a time when he
had established unity throughout the entire Arabian Peninsula and had brought Islam to the gates of
the two great empires of Rome and Iran.
Demise ()رحيي
In the beginning of 11/632, the Prophet (s) became sick and passed away. Before he passed
away, when he was very ill, he gave a farewell speech to the Muslims and advised them to be kind to
one other. He also said "If I owe anything to anyone, they should come to me to ask for it or else, they
should disregard it. If I have annoyed anyone, I am ready to be punished in retaliation for it‚ 2
The Prophet (s) passed away on the Safar 28/May 28 or on Rabi' I 12/June 10 of 11/632 at the
age of 63. It is mentioned in Nahj al-balagha that at the time of his death, the Prophet's (s) head lay on
the chest of Ali (a).3
At the time of his death, none of his children were alive except for Fatima (a). All of his other
children had passed away, including Ibrahim, who was born one or two years before the Prophet's (s)
death. Ali (a), with the help of some others, as per the Islamic tradition, washed the Prophet's (s) body,
and shrouded and buried him in his house, where it is now located in Masjid al-Nabi.
1
The Battle of Mu'ta (Arabic: )رسية مؤثةwas one of the major Sariyyas (military expeditions) in the early Islamic period
in 8/629 between the Islamic army and the Roman army. The commanders of the Islamic army were,
respectively, Ja'far b. Abi Talib, Zayd b. Haritha, and 'Abd Allah b. Rawaha, all of whom were martyred in this war.
After the martyrdom of all of their commanders, and because of the greater number of Roman soldiers, Muslims
retreated to Medina under the leadership of Khalid b. Walid.
2
Muhammad b. Sa'd, al-Tabaqat al-kubra, vol. 2, p. 255
3
Nahj al-balagha. Khutba. 202, p. 237
54 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
Successor of the Prophet (s) ()موضوع خالفة رسول هللا
ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib (Arabic: ( )ػًل بن ٔبيب طاًبb. 23 before Hijra/600 - d. 40/661) is the
first Imam of all the branches of the Shi'a, a companion, cousin, and son-in-law of the Prophet (s), and
the fourth caliph of the Rightly Guided Caliphs in Sunni Islam. He was the husband of Lady Fatima
(a), and the father of the rest of the Imams of the Shi'a. He was also the first convert to Islam and
a scribe of the Qur'an. According to Shi'i historians and many Sunni scholars, he was born inside
the Ka'ba.
Based on evidence from the Qur'an, hadith, and history, the Shi'a believes that 'Ali (a) was the
divinely designated successor of the Prophet (s). According to Shiite and some Sunni sources, roughly
three-hundred verses of the Qur'an were revealed with regards to his virtues, including
his infallibility and purity. When the Quraysh plotted to assassinate the Prophet (s), it was 'Ali (a) who
slept where the Prophet (s) used to sleep, and thus helped the Prophet (s) to secretly leave for Medina.
In the pact of brotherhood in Medina, the Prophet (s) chose 'Ali (a) as his brother. Except for
the Battle of Tabuk when he stayed in Medina as the deputy of the Prophet (s), 'Ali (a) was with the
Prophet (s) in all the battles.
Contrary to what the Prophet had explicitly stipulated (nass), a group of people
pledged allegiance with AbuBakr in Saqifa immediately after the Prophet's (s) demise. Although Abu
Bakr became the caliph and 'Ali's (a) right to the caliphate was usurped, he kept silent for 25 years.
After the assassination of the third caliph, 'Uthman b. Affan, 'Ali (a) accepted the caliphate at the
overwhelming insistence of the Muslims. During his short rule, he was faced with three rebellions and
was ultimately assassinated by one of the Kharijites while praying in the Mihrab (the prayer niche) of
the Great Mosque of Kufa, and was then secretly buried in Najaf.
During the time of the first three caliphs, 'Ali (a) never hesitated to advise them in ways that
he felt would benefit the Muslim nation. In fact, he was the one who suggested that the Hijra (the
immigration of the Prophet (s) to Medina) could be used to mark the beginning of the Islamic
calendar. However, his enemies fabricated many hadiths in order to curse him and damage his
reputation. For a long time during the Umayyad era, they would curse him on all pulpits at the order
55 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
of Muawiya. Further, 'Ali's (a) followers and admirers were constantly imprisoned and killed. The
general population was even banned from naming their children 'Ali'.
He is considered as the father of many Islamic sciences including Arabic literature,
Islamic theology, jurisprudence, and exegesis. Scholars of different sciences have tried to trace back the
chain of their hadiths to him. Nahj al-balagha is a selection of his speeches and letters.
He was physically powerful and courageous, and at the same time he was patient, humble, and
merciful. He confronted those who would flatterer him harshly, reminding them of the mutual rights
between the people and their government. He constantly and actively sought justice.
While Ali b. Abi Talib (a) and the Banu Hashim were washing the corpse of the Prophet (s) as
per Islamic tradition, a few influential Muslims decided to choose the next leader for the Umma-disregarding what the Prophet (s) had said just two months prior to his demise (see: Event of Ghadir
Khum). A number of people from Mecca (the Muhajirun) and Medina (the Ansar) gathered in a place
called Saqifa Banu Sa'ida1. They wanted a ruler to be chosen for the Muslims as soon as possible.
However, an argument erupted over who should be chosen for such a position and finally they gave
allegiance to Abu Bakr.
This effort was dedicated to our guide, our divine leader, Hazrat Imam Mahdi (atfs)
Rabi al-Awwal 1440H
Event of Saqīfa Banī Sāʿida (Arabic: َ)وك َؼة َسلي َفة بَين سا ِػدَ تrefers to the allegiance pledged by some Muslims to Abu
Bakr as the caliph after the Prophet Muhammad's (s) demise. No one from Banu Hashim and Ahl al-Bayt (a) was
present in the event, and Ali b. Abi Talib (a) who was already announced by the Prophet (s) as his successor was
taking care of the Prophet's (s) corpse when the event of Saqifa was taking place. Some Muhajirun (Muslims who had
migrated from Mecca to Medina) gathered in order to announce Abu Bakr as the caliph and some Ansar gathered
there in order to announce Sa'd b. 'Ubada as the caliph.
1
The event took place in 11/632 in Saqifa Bani Sa'ida. The allegiance to Abu Bakr remained subject to controversies
and disputes in Medina for a while; it was refused by some Sahaba. The Shiites (followers) of Imam Ali (a) considered
Abu Bakr's caliphate to be against the Prophet's (s) commands and will in Ghadir al-Khumm; thus they took it to be
a usurpation of Imam Ali's (a) right to the position of caliphate. According to Shiites, the allegiance to Abu Bakr is a
deviation from the right path of Islam.
56 | I s l a m i c H i s t o r y – P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ( s )
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