Vaishnavism in Bengal

CHAPTER - THREE. Vaishnavism, in Bengal — early evidences of vaishnavism in Gupta, post-Gupta, Pala and Sena age — Krishna vasudeva — Mention of the cult of Vasudeva — Krishna as known from inscriptions — Coins and literature — Mention of shrines — temples — images and artistic representations. The earliest definite reference to worship of Vishnu in ✓ Bengal occurs in the Susunia rock insqription of Chandravarman. 1 It is engraved along with the representation of a wheel (a cakra) on the back wall of a cave at a place called Susunia in the Bankura district of West Bengal, already mentioned earlier. The inscription mentions of a king of Pushkarana, Chandravarman by name, who was a devotee of Chakrasvamin, which happens to be a name of Vishnu. Gupta Period: The cult of Bhagavatism appears to have been well estab­ lished In Bengal during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. Vaishnavism was a predominant aspect of Brahmanical religion during this Gupta age. 2 With the rise of the power of the Guptas Bhagavatism came to the foreground and had spread to remotest corners of India including Bengal. Some of th© Gupta monarchs were great champions of the Vaishnava cult. Not only the royal Guptas onwards from the time of Chandragupta had assumed the title Parama Bhagavata indicating that they were Vaishnavas in their personal religious pursuit. 48 Two epigraphic records bearing the name of the Gupta king Samudragupta refer to the dose connection that Bhagayatism with Yoga philosophy and Tantricism. One of this is dated in the year 5 of the reign of Samudragupta and was found at 3 Nalanda. The other is dated in the year 9 of the same king 4 and was found at Gaya. In both these inscriptions the name of the emperor Is found prefixed with the epithet Parana Bhagayata. But these inscriptions are held as haying been forged at some late date. In the Allahabad Pras'asti, hovjever, Samudragupta is found eulogised as Achintya Purusha. The term Achintya Purusha, howeyer, has been an epithet attributed to _ _ 5 ' Vasudeya Krishna in the Bhagayat Gita. It also appears from the Allahabad Prasastl that the royal seal of Samudragupta used to bear the representation of the mythical bird Garuda which according to the Puranic tradition was the mount of God Vishnu. This may also be taken as a definite indication of Vaishnaya affiliation of Samudragupta. Chandragupta II was a worthy successor of Samudragupta who appears to hay© furthered the cause of Vaishnayism. In a number of coins of Chandragupta II known as the Cakra Vikrama type of coins, there occurs on the obyerse a standing male figure which has been identified as the figure of god Vishnu. The worship of the god Vishnu as the wielder of the discus or Chakra was yery popular during the Gupta period. Like Vishnu his most perfect incarnation Krishna also was concelyed as Cakrabhrit. During the Gupta period Krishna was also wor­ shipped under the name of Cakrayasyamin. 49 King Kumaragupta I, son and successor of Chandragupta IX was mentioned as Farama Bhagavata in some inscriptions issued during his reign. Not only the royal princes but many common people of the age appear to have been intensely devoted to this cult of Vaishnavism. Information about erection of temples and installation of images are found mentioned in quite a number of inscriptions coming down from that Gupta age. A copper plate inscription found from Baigram in the Bogra district of Bangladesh, dated in the Gupta era 128 that is 448 A.D., apparently of the time of Kumaragupta I reveals that two brothers, Bhoyila and Bhashkara, inhabitants of villages Trivrta and Srigohali (situated about Baigram) had purchased some fallow and home­ stead lands in order to meet the expenses of repair works to the temple and for the worship of a deity named god Govindasvaminc. Govindasvami has been the name of the god Vishnu held aa one •6 and the same with Krishna. These connections can also be noticed in the Bhagavad Gita and the Narayana section of the Mahabharata. Though some of the Gupta monarchs professed the Bhagavata form of Vaishnavism, nothing can be said about the religious practices professed by the early rulers of the Gupta family from Sri Gupta, founder of the dynasty up to Samudragupta, It has been generally accepted that king Samudragupta was a vaishnava. In the opinion of Dr. D.C. Sircar Samudragupta, though a Vaishnava was apparently not a Bhagavata. There might have been some doctrinal differences between the faith of this king and Bhagavatism, professed by his successors. This 50 :- is indicated by the fact that in the inscriptions issued by his successors, the name of Samudragupta does not find prefixed by the epithet ’Parama Bhagavata* as it occurs in case of the two copper plate inscriptions referred to above and held as forged. Mention may next be made of an inscription of the time of Budhagupta found from a place called Damodarpur in Dinajpur district, now in Bangladesh. In this inscription which does not bear any date, there is mention of a gift of four Kulyavapa and seven Kulyavapa of land for the erection of two devakulas or shrines for two deities named Kokamukhasvami and Svetavarahasvami respectively. These two deities have been held as representing two different forms of the boar incarnation of the 7 god Vishnu. The fifth Damodarpur copper plate of the G-upta year 224 (543 A.D.) gives an account of the restoration and repair (Khanda phutta-pratisamskaraya) of the temple of Svetavarahasvami. It apparently refers to the.'temple that was found mentioned to above as set up in the time.of Budhagupta referred to in the 4th Damodarpur copper plate. This Svetavarahasvami was, in every possibility a form of the varaha avatara of Vishnu. However, Dr. Kamal Ray in the Indian Historical Quarterly asserted that this Kokamukhasvami was a form of the Hrisimha incarnation of Vishnu. According to Dr. D.C. Sircar the original (adya) temples of these two gods might have been situated in some hilly region of Nepal, known as Varaha chhatra (varaha kshetra) or Kokamukha 51 birtha on the river Kora, a tributary of the Sun-ko£i. The two deities were undoubtedly two different forms of the gocl Vishnu, probably two varieties of his Varaha form which had once been quite popular in those northern parts of Bengal. The temple of the deities mentioned in the Damodarpur inscrip­ tions were according to Dr. Sircar but two replicas of the original ones. These two.replicas of the original temples, (in Himavacchikhara) were enshrined with the images of the two deities bearing those names. The Vishyapati who was in charge of the kotivarsha vishaya had accorded permission for the purchase of some uncultivable fallow land as well as some homestead lands for the purpose of erection.of two temples, one each for the two aforesaid forms of the god Vishnu along with store rooms and later again some gifts were made for the repair of one of these temples that of Svetavarahasvami. Thus it appears that the Vaishnava creed had come to gain a very wide popularity in Bengal during the time of the Gupta rule. Bengal had continued to remain a stronghold of Vaishnavism during the post-Gupta times. Many royal personages and common people of this period are known to have pursued the creed of Vaishnavism and such persons had made various gifts in honour of the cult deity. Many people of this period, as in the case of the people known from the inscriptions of the Gupta age, are found to have been known by names bearing Vaishnava affiliation. Many names found in the copper plate inscriptions of the time of Gopachandra and Dharmaditya — two rulers of 52 post-Gupta age may be mentioned in this connection which bore Vaishnava bearing. The Tipperah copper plate inscription of Lokanatha belonging to the 7th century A.D. bears reference to the worship of the deity named Ananta Narayana. This deity was none other 8 than a form of Vishnu, conceited in the post of recumbancy. The seal attached to this Tipperah grant bears an eulogy of the god Vishnu-Vasudeva. It appears that during the medieval times there had grown a close relationship of mutual understanding between the Brahmanical Hindus and persons follow­ ing the Mahayana Buddhist creed, both revering deities of both the pantheons. Lokanitha who was a person of Mahayana pursuit, appears to have had great reverence for the brahmanical god Vishnu-Vasudeva. So it may be presumed that the deity repre­ sented on the seal of this inscription of Lokanatha had come to be held as a form of the Mahayana god Lokanatha represented in the form ,of Vishnu. This seal attached to the Tipperah grant bears a relief of a figure of the goddess Laicshmi or Sri standing on a lotus pedestal, and being sprinkled by two elephants from two sides upon her head with water. This representation is known as the Gaja-Lakshmi or Abhisheka Lakshmi motif. Such representation had become characteristic of a large number of indigenous Indian coins and probably reveal Vaishnava affiliation of the persons who had issued those coins. - _ The grantee of this record, Mahasamanta Pradoshasarma 53 : expressed his pious wish that the place would one day surely turn to be a popular tirtha. Mention may here be also made of a ruler of Eastern regions of Bengal named Sridharana Rata who , 9 claimed himself to be a devout Vaishnava. The inscription bears reference to the eastern extremity of Bengal, and reveals the wise dissemination of the cult of Vishnu to remote parts of Bengal. The inscriptional evidences of the Gupta and the post-Gupta periods show that the worship of the god Vishnu in his form Ananta Narayana had come to be quite popular in different parts of India including Bengal. The Bappaghoshabata inscription of king Jayanaga, a ruler of Karnasuvarna refers to the ruler as Paramabhagavata. 10 Jaya­ naga is believed to have ruled about the seventh century A.D., probably sometime after Sasanka. Numerous terracotta seals or plaques, bearing the Vaishnavit© invocatory formula Bhagavate. Vasudevaya* parts of Bengal. 1 om namo have also been found from different Of these, references may be made to a terra­ cotta plaque with a standing figure of a four handed Vishnu found at Bajasana near Sabhar in the Dhaka district in Bangladesh. Prom a study of the Archaeological as well as literary records of the Gupta and the early post-Gupta periods, one can­ not get a clear idea about how far the doctrine of the vyuhas was known or prevalent in Bengal. However, the several Avataras of Vishnu had come to be widely known and had gained much popu­ larity during this time. The earliest images of stone of the 54 vyuhas date from the ' late Gupta period onwards. Some scholars have stressed upon the absence of any reference to1 words or terms pertaining to the Pancharatra doctrine in the Gupta records. In-this connection the views of some scholar may be discussed here. The Pancharatra cult was a distinctive pursuit in the Vaishnava tradition. Accord­ ing to this doctrine the god Vishnu is held as have manifested himself in the entitles known as Vasudeva, Sarakarshana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha, the four Vrishni heroes. According to the opinion of Dr. H.C. Raychaudhuri there was a total absence of any reference to tte such gods of the vyuha doctrine namely — Samkarshana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha, In the epigraphic records of the Gupta period. Dr. Raychaudhur thought that the disappearance of independent worship of the vyuha gods excepting Vasudeva was perhaps due to the fast grow­ ing popularity of the Avataras. According to Dr. P.C. Bagchi the creed of Bhagavatism was different from the Pancharatra cult during the Gupta period and no trace of the vyuhas can be found in the epigraphic records from Bengal of this period. According to Dr. D.C. Sircar the followers of the vyuha cult were'much influenced by the Avatara worshippers. As a conse­ quence of this the independent worship of other vyuha deities excepting Vasudeva had lost popularity during that period. A few inscriptions belonging to this period prior to the rise of the Guptas have, however, been recovered from different places of Bengal. Of these the earliest record is dated in the 55 year 509 A.D. and was found at Gunaighar in Tippera district of 11 Bangladesh. This inscription was issued during the time of a ruler named Vainyagupta who might have been a ruler belonging to the line of the imperial Guptas. The inscription records the grant of a pieoe of land to a Buddhist monastery. The record has mention of a temple dedicated to Pradyumnesvara, which is regarded as a form of the combined aspect of the gods , ^ 12 Vishnu and Siva (Hari-Hara). Mention has earlier been made of Jayanaga, known from the inscription found at vappaghoshavata in the district of Vardhaman. This king Jayanaga was a Vaishnava as would be apparent from the epithet Parama-Bhagavata used before his name. This would give an idea about the posi­ tion of the cult of Vasudeva in Bengal during the Gupta and post-Gupta age. , Condition of Vasudeva cult during the Pala age : ■ The history of Bengal before the advent of the Palas has not, however, been fully accounted for. It appears that the country was passing through a state of chaos and disorder 13 during this period. The Khalimpur copper plate inscription issued during the reign of King Dharmapala refers to this anarchical state of affairs epitomised as Matsyanyaya. Lama Taranatha, the Tibetan historian of about the seventeenth century A.D. also mentions about this anarchical condition In Bengal. The establishment of the Pala rule brought about a state of■peace and stability in these disturbed areas'and contributed to the fostering of an epoch of economic social : 5© : - and cultural development of a very unique nature. The rule of the Palas, is known to have been occasionally disturbed by invasions from outside and also by internal revolutions as was fostered by the kaivarta chief Divya and Bhirna. In spite of such occasional disturbances there was a state of comparative peace and security in Bengal during the Pala age. Quite a few inscriptions of this are known to have records of the pursuit of Vaishnavism in Bengal during the reign of these Pala rulers who were themselves mostly Buddhist and follov^ers of the Mahayana creed. Some of the epigraphic records of this period bear evidences to the faot that Vaishnavism had been quite popular among the high officials as well as common people of the country. A large number of inscriptions, most on copper plates and on stone also bear the evidence of wide dissemina­ tion of Vaishnava cult In Bengal during this age. There are also evidences to show that the Puranic stories relating to Krishna and other incarnations of Vishnu had also been widely known to the people* Numerous images of Vishnu and his incarnations belong­ ing to the Pala period have been found from different places of Bengal. These Include, in large number of images which are to be identified as that form of Vishnu known as Vasudeva. The popularity of the cult Krishna-Vasudeva, is furthern evidenced by the sculptural representations of the Krishnalila scenes found upon the walls of the temple at Paharpur and also on the temple wall decorations of the later age* 57 :- At Paharpur in North Bengal there are to be found depiction of many Krishnalila scenes in the medium of stone and terracotta. Though the temple at Paharpur was built during the reign of the Pala King Dharmapala, many of these panels bearing Krishna stories were of earlier age and were fixed upon the outer walls in this temple, probably after this temple was erected. There are some other panels at Paharpur mostly in terracotta, which were, however, of the contemporary age. These panels are good enough to provide a very intimate idea about the extant of popularity of Krishna 3.ore during the pre-Pala and Pala period in Bengal. The Paharpur panels depicting Krishnayana scenes can be broadly classified into three distinct groups. To the first category belong such panels where one oan find representa­ tion of a couple of which the male figure can be identified as Krishna from the. dress worn by him and the peculiar arrangement of the hair. The female figures in such panels were identified as Radha by K.N. Dikshit. According to Prof. S.K. Saraswati such figures of the female companion of Krishna was not Radha, but had either been RukminI or Satyabhama, who were the two 14 favourite consorts of Krishna. To the second category belong such scenes from the life of Krishna which show him engaged in acts performed during his days of childhood at Gokula. The Krishna Lila panels found fixed upon the walls of the temple at Paharpur are of extremely interesting nature. There had been occasion earlier to refer to incidents of the 58 :- life of child Krishna whioh find elaborately describe in many Parana texts. These panels.met with here on the temple walls at Paharpur recall the traditional life scenes of child and young Krishna depicted in a very interesting manner. It may here be mentioned that such life scenes of Krishna have also been found from Mandor in Rajasthan and South India. The artistic rendering of the panels found at Paharpur deserves particular appreciation. Among these panels particular mention may be made of the following scenes: (i) Krishna killing the horse demon Kesin who was sent by Kamsa for killing him (fig. 4) Krishna lifting the Govardhana hillock (fig. 5) (ii) (iii) Krishna uprooting the twin (Yamala) Arjuna trees which were none other than a pair of cursed Gandharvas (fig. 6) Kamsa by Krishna and Balarama (iv) Killing of (v) Killing of Chanura and Mushtika, two wrestlers employed by Kamsa to kill Krishna and Balarama (fig. 7) Pralamba (fig. 8). (vi) a panel shewing Krishna killing The the third category belong some narra­ tive scenes such as (a) Vasudeva oarrying infant Krishna (fig. 8) (b) Devaki handing over the newborn baby (Krishna) to Vasudeva. The Paharpur panels depicting Krishnayana scenes possibly show that the artists of Bengal had received an Impulse from Krishna saga related in the Harivamsa and several other Puranas which had gained wide popularity in Bengal. The popularity of the stories relating to Krishna is also testified 59 :- by a study of the epigraphic records found in Bengal from this age. Though most of the Pala rulers were devout Buddhists they were not bigots. The Khalimpur inscription of Dharnapala reveals that the emperor had made a liberal grant towards the benefit of a temple dedicated to a deity mentioned as NannaNarayana. This deity was in every possibility a form of the 15 god Vishnu. The Badal pillar inscription of the time of king Narayanapala was issued by a person named Bhatta Gurava MLshr'a who had been a counsellor of the king Narayanapala. The inscription records the setting up of the pillar which was originally surmounted by a figure of Garuda. It contains a panegyrical account of Gurava Misra and his ancestors. The inscription reveals that Gurava Misra was a devoted worshipper of the god Vishnu. It is interesting to note that while Gurava Misra has been compared with Gopala Krishna, his father Parasurama and his mother had been compared to Vasudeva and Devaki the father and the mother of Krishna respectively. During the second half of the 10th century A.D. a family known as the Kambojas had founded an empire in the western and northern parts of Bengal having their capital at a place called Priyangu in north Bengal. The names of three rulers of the Kamboja dynasty, namely Rajyapala, Narayanapala .. 16 and Nayapala were known from an inscription found at Inda. Narayanapala and Nayapala were believers in Brahmanical faith. Of these Narayanapala was a Vaishnava. The inseriptional evidence of the Kambojas testifies to this fact. 60 : - Mention may next be made of an inscription bearing information about the popularity of Vaishnavism in Bengal found from Baghaura village in the Brahmanbaria sub-division of 17 Comilla district in Bangladesh. The Baghaura image inscrip­ tion was issued during the third regnal year of king Vigrahapala II of the Pala dynasty. The inscription bears evidence to the faot that the kingdom of Mahipala I had Included the Samatata region comprising, the south eastern portions of Bengal,, The inscription was engraved under the lotus feet of a standing image representing the god Narayana. Vaishnava merchant named It records that a certain Lokadatta, the son of one Vasudatta and an inhabitant of the village Vilvakindake had installed an image of the god Vasudeva in Samatata in the Srd regnal year of king Mahipala I. It is further stated here that the said merchant had caused the consecration of the image of the god In order to gain religious merit for himself as well as his parents. There are also several other inscriptions discovered from different parts of Bengal belonging to this period, reveal­ ing that the pursuit of Vaishnavism had gained quite wide spread popularity in Bengal during this age. An image of Vasudeva found from a village named Paikpara (Betka) In the Munsigajjj sub-division (Vikrampura) of Dhaka district belonging to the time of a ruler named Govindachandra reveals the exist­ ence of the Vaishnava tradition while the Madanapara and Madhyapara copper plate inscriptions of the time of the Sena rulers Visvarupasena are not only important from this point of suty of religious history of Bengal during the post-Pala period, but these documents also reveal that the merchant community of this region, almost as a whole had become great devotees of vaishnavism. The image of Vishnu coming from Paikpara-Betka area bears an inscription incised on the pedestal of the image representing Vasudeva (form of Vishnu). This inscription bears a date in the twentythird regnal year of king Govindachandra, a scion of the family of Chandra rulers of East Bengal. It records the setting up of this image of Vasudeva by a devout Vaishnava named Gangadasa who was a merchant by profession. This image of Vasudeva has been held as a highly aesthetic accomplishment of Bengal art. The image carved in black stone is about four feet in height and stands on a pedestal in front of which a figure of Garuda (the vehicle of Vishnu) is shown. Two miniature figures, one showing the chakrapurusha and the other the sankhapurusha are placed on either side of the deity, upon the pedestal. Mention may next be made of a tortoise-shell inscription discovered from the village Vajrayogini, also in the Dhaka district. The inscription records the donors faith to both Buddha and Vasudeva, apparently a record quite unique in nature. The history of Bengal in the second half of the 11th century A.D. is the history of the gradual dismemberment of the Pala empire and the emergence of the Senas as the suzereign 62 power over Bengal. In the meanwhile eastern portions of Bengal came to be occupied by a Buddhist dynasty known as the Chandra dynasty and a vaishnava dynasty called the Varmans, in quick succession. Chandras. The Varmanas in their turn had driven away the The rulers of the Varmana dynasty, who ruled over East Bengal and who had their head-quarters at Vikramapura have been known as devout followers of the Vaishnava faith. The history of the Varmana dynasty is known from the Belava 18 copper plate inscription of Bhojavarman, Samantasar copper plate inscription of Harivarman tv IS and vajrayogini copper plate 20 inscription of Sama^tavarman* Our information about this Varmana dynasty is chiefly derived from the Belava copper plate grant of king Bhojavarman. It is learnt from this grant that the Varmanas were known as Yadavas, as they traced their origin from the epic hero Jadu. It is interesting to note that the kings and the queens of the Varman dynasty have been compared to divinities like Vishnu, Krishna and Lakshmi. The Varmanas have been described in this inscription as . having descended from the Yadava hero Krishna. Apart from having mentioned the home of Krishna, the inscription bears mention of the Varaha and Dasarathi Rama incarnations of Vishnu. » The grant gives the name of the king Bhojavarmana, with the prefix Parama vaishnava, revealing him as a follower of the Vaishnava creed. Mention may next be made of another grant of the time of Vaidyadeva belonging to the 11th or the first 63 21 quarter of the 12th century A.D. This inscription found from a place called Kamauli, was issued by Vaidyadeva who was then a minister of the Pala ruler Kumarapala, who himself was a Buddhist. Vaidyadeva, however, was a devout Vaishnava, who, it has been stated, always meditated on the feet of Vishnu.* The grant begins by invoking the'Varaha form of Vishnu. Next is found the twelve syllabled mantra »0m namo Bhagavate Vasudevaya1 which was the formula uttered at the time of worship of Vasudeva-Vishnu. The Boar incarnation appears to have been held as a very popular manifestation of the god Hari or Vishnu with the people of Bengal. of Svetavarahasvami This may remind one of the temple mentioned in the fourth and fifth Damodar- pur copper plates referred to above. The Sena rulers of Bengal were originally followers of the Saiva creed. But Lakshmanasena seems to have opted for the pursuit of Vaishnavism as the epithet Paramanarasamba used before his name in the inscriptions would reveal. Prom a study of the epigraphic records of the time of 22 the Senas and also such literary works as the Vallalacarita we come to learn that the first historical member of this royal family was one Samantasena, very probably a feudatory ruler of the time of the Palas. prom the time of Vijayasena the son and successor of Hemantasena, the small territory of the Seaa3 began to grow in extent to finally become an empire of large dimen­ sion. Both Vijayasena and his son Vallalasena were styled as Parama Mahesvara or Parama Saiva, indicating that they were worshippers of the great god Siva. The title of the next king 64 :- Lakshmanasena in some of the inscriptions has been stated as paramavaishnava and in some others as paramanarasimha. These words indicate that Lakshmanasena had turned into a follower of the Vaishnava creed and the form of Vishnu to which he owed his allegiance was Narasimha. It is probable that the Nara- simha Incarnation of Vishnu had become quite popular at this time* Other incarnations of Vishnu also appear to have retained their popularity during this age. Large number of images of Vishnu have been found from all over Bengal belonging to different ages indicating that Vishnu in his four handed form mostly as Vasudeva, had gained by far the widest possible popularity In Bengal. The mythological stories connected with Krishna had started gaining popularity already in the Kushana period. With the development of various religious systems during the Gupta period such mythological stories went on developing. This tendency was noticed in Bengal also as the records of the Guptas, Palas, the Senas and other contemporary dynasties found in from different parts of Bengal. Post-Sena period; It has already been stated that the spread, as well as popularity of Vaishnavism in Bengal in the medieval times were mainly due to the good offices of the Vaishnavite rulers such as the Guptas, Jayanaga, the Varmans, the Batas and the Lakshmana sena and his successors. There are evidences to show that the royal personages of some other minor dynasties and chieftains also worked for the furtherance of Vaishnavism in Bengal and : 65 its neighbourhood* :- Apart from receiving allegiance and patronage from patrons of royal families, many ministers and high officials of such non-Vaishnava rulers as the Palas and also from wealthy and affluent merchant community of the region also contributed to the spread of Vaishnavism in Bengal. Most of the images of the deity found from all over the region bear evidence to the patronage that was received from persons of wealthy disposition who could spare quite substantial amounts of money for the execution of such inages and also of suitable temples which at one time had enshrined these images# Krishna tradition in image: The earliest Vishnu image so far known from Bengal happens to be the free standing four handed figure of the deity which was found from a village known as Hankril in Malda district of Bangladesh now preserved in Varendra Research Society Museum in Rajshahi (Pig. 1). Its lower right and upper left hands hold a lotus and conch-shell respectively and its ornaments consist of kirita and yajnopavita. mukuta, Kundalas, hara, angada Stylistically this image has been found to have close proximity to the Kushana age* An image of Vishnu of almost the seventh century A.D. was found from Lakshmankati in Bakarganj now in Bangladesh (Pig. 11) • It is one of the most interesting varieties of Vishnu. Images and bears considerable artistic excellence and iconographic importance. This Image is described in detail at a later state. 66 : - Images of Vishnu are generally classified into three varieties namely standing, seated and reclining technically known as sthanaka, isana and sayana varieties of images. Here mention may be made of a few images of Vishnu found from different places of Bengal. This will show how these images, commonly known as Vasudeva images, were widely produced in Bengal from a fairly early age. An im§ge of a four-armed standing Vishnu made in black basalt was found from Chaltanpur, it is now In the Indian Museum, Calcutta. This can be mentioned as a piece of sculpture bearing significant characteristics. The central figure is almost fully in the round, its head and shoulders resting on the background of a siraschakra and the right and left back-hands connected with the top of the gada, shown above the figure of the Chakrapurusha respectively. The front right hand of the deity holds a lotus and the front left carries a conch-shell. the usual variety. The figure is shown with ornaments of The neck has the usual hare and vanamala. Large number of Vishnu images of this four handed variety show­ ing the god in a majestically conceived standing posture executed in different medium such as wood, stone, shell, metal etc. were produced in Bengal and were installed in shrines of befitting height and proportions. Here have been reproduced a few typical examples of such standing Vishnu images of Bengal. Figure to represents a typical standing four-handed figure in stone found from Bangarh. The figure is shown standing on a lotus pedestal holding the conch-shell (broken) wheel, mace and lotus mark in the four hands. On his proper right stands 67 :- Lakahral and proper left Sarasvatl with a Vina. The back slab shows elaborate ornamentations with two flying Gandharvss and the usual Kirtimukha on the top. An extremely rare variety of extremely delicate workmanship of this four handed standing Vishnu was found from Sonarang in Dhaka district and is now preserved in the Art section collection of the Indian Museum (Fig. 14). A partially damaged stone Vishnu image from Vardhamana appears to be identifiable as being a form known as Hrishlkesa according to the Padma Purana. There is a unique image of seated four handed bronze figure of Vishnu in the collection of the Bangiya Sahitya Parishad Museum, originally hailing from Sagardighi, in the district of Murshidabad(Plate 17). The gada and chakra shown in the back hands are placed on full blown lotus flowers. A beautiful standing image of Vishnu was found in the district' of Rangpur in Bangladesh, now In the Varendra Research Museum. It is of great Iconographlc interest because of the presence of the figure of Vasumatl or _22 Bhumi in place of Sarasvati Qn its side. Varieties of asana (seated) and sayana (reclining) images of Vishnu are rather rare in Bengal, where the sthanaka or standing variety of images are most numerous. The Lakshmana- kathi stone Vishnu and the Sagardighi bronze Hrlshikesha can be said to belong to the asana variety. The images of Vishnu refer­ red to earlier and found from Bakhargunj is shown as sitting In lalitasana pose. rence. But such Images of Vishnu are of rare occur­ 68 : - In some images of Vishnu the deity Is shown seated with figures of Bakshmi by his side. Here is illustrated an Image of this variety now in the Dhaka Museum. known as Lakshmi-Narayana images. 23 Such images are Several such images have bee found from different parts of Bengal showing that this variety of image had gained considerable popularity. These types of images showing Vishnu seated with Lakshmi bear a close sirellarity to the Uma-Mahesvara images which have been found from different parts .of Eastern India including Bengal. A very interesting example of Lakshmi-Harayana figure bearing all the usual characteristics of the Lak3hml-Sahita image illustrated here (fig. 10) was discovered at a village called Basta in Dhaka district and is now in the collection of the Dhaka 24 Museum. Garuda sits beneath the couple kneeling upon his right leg and holding his hands in a folded posture. Vishnu sits to the proper right in Lalitasana pose dangling his right leg and Lakshmi is shown seated upon the folded left leg of Vishnu. The divine couple are shown In a highly graceful pose and relaxed attitude. The famous wooden image of Vishnu worshipped at Dhamrai in Dhaka district of Bangladesh under the name of Yaso-Madhava is known to have a series of legends connecting it with a ruler _ 25 named Yasa-Pala. Unfortunately the image had been painted with a thick layer of paint, hiding all traces of its features. A unique image of Vishnu in greyish black stone about 6*“4!l in height was found from a place called Lakshmankathi in 69 P.S. Gaurandi, district Backergunj in Bangladesh, It was dis­ covered in a big tank at Atak, situated immediately to the south of the village haksmankathi. of preservation. The image is in a perfect state Garuda, the vehicle of Vishnu is shown as kneeling on one leg with folded hands on a lotus pedestal. Vishnu sits upon Garuda with his right leg pendant. The god has the chakra in the normal right hand, which he holds not by a handle as In the images ordinarily met with but by the rim. The figure of chakrapurusha is depicted in miniature form in the centre of the discus,- as if turning round and round. Th© upper left hand holds within its palm the miniature representa­ tion of a female figure, evidently Gada devI. of the remaining two hands are also unique. The attributes The right hand holds the stalk of a lotus upon which sits the goddess Kamala with crossed legs in a boon-granting pose with her open right hand. There are two elephants on her eigher sides; these are shown as pouring water over the figure of Lakshmi from pitchers held by their trunks. This would remind one of the Abhisheka Lakshmi figures referred to earlier. The left hand of the god similarly holds another lotus by its stalk upon which sits the goddess SarasvatT playing on her Vina. The vina in the hands of the images ordinarily met with, has a straight shape. But here the vina is a boat shapped instrument, exactly like the vina which is found as being played upon by Samudragupta depicted on his coins on the lyrist type. This is an image of unique artistic value, the £ac<§ Shown in a highly composed meditative appearance, the firm.- and well shaped torso, 70 : - gracefully shaped yet powerful arms and legs add a varitable serenity and grace to the figure of unparaleled nature. The semicircular shape of the top of the stela ornamented with well shaped lotus car-vings and two flying gandharvas, use of personal ornaments which include only a pair of ear-rings, a jewelled upavita, one pair of bracelets and one pair of armlets on every arms and the usual vanamala reveal a date of the image not later than the seventh century A.D. The most unusual character of the image rests in the' display of a miniature four-handed male figure seated in meditative pose adorning the front facet of the high mukuta crown of the figure (Elate 11). Two vidya- dharas appear on either side of the crown of the god. The Srivatsa and Kaustabha marks are not prominent, as they invariably are in ordinary images. In fact these jewels can hardly be distinguished on the present image. Two devotees, one male and the other female are depicted on either side of the pedestal. couple. These may be taken as representing the donor The stone here is not as highly polished as in case of the Images in black basalt ordinarily found in Bengal„ image appear to be a very old piece of sculpture. The The simpli­ city of the design, the extraordinary character of the attri­ butes, the total absence of ornamentation, the unconventional method of depicting the discus and the lotus pedestal, the antique shape of the vina on Sarasvati1s hands are all indica­ tions that this image was of a fairly early age and may be ascribed to the pre-Pala period. In simplicity of design it is strongly reminiscent of sculptures of the Gupta idiom. Instances 71 :- of such images of Vishnu, presence of Garuda below, are ■very rarely known, nob only in Bengal but also in the whole of Northern India. Mention may next be made of images showing some of the incarnatory forms of Vishnu found from Bengal. Several of the ten incarnatory forms of Vishnu have also been discovered in large number from different parts of Bengal. The figures of all ten avataras, may be found carved in a row on stone slabs. Such slabs commonly known as Dasavatara panels and have been found from different sites, which might have originally decorated some Vaishnava shrines. Of individual figures of avatara, images of Vishnu, three of such forms as Varaha, Narasimha and Vamana (Trivikrama) had become quite popular in Bengal. Figures of two other avataras, namely the Matsya and Parasurama forms have also been known. Here are being illustrated a few forms of these avataras found from different parts of Bengal (The image of Nrisimha — Fig. ) shown here is from Vikrampur in Dhaka and is now in the Dhaka Museum. An image of varaha form of Vishnu reproduced here was found at a village called Jhilli in the district of Murshidabad (Plate Fig. )* The god is shown having a human body and the head of a lion being engaged in tearing open the entrails of the demon king Hiranyakasipu. century A.D. This image can be dated in the twelfth It may be pointed out here that the Sena ruler Lakshmanasena during whose reign this image might have bean : 72 installed was a great devotee of Vishnu conceived in the form of Narasimha. The image of Vamana illustrated here (Plate Pig* ) was found in the village Joradeul in the Dhaka district of Bangladesh. Images of the god in his varaha , a form usually shows him with a human body and the head of a boar. 'The earth goddess Prithivi is shown as placed on the left shoulder of the god. The Narasimha images, though not numerous as the varaha are depicted in the manner usually adopted In other parts of India. A figure of the deity in his Narasimha form found from Paikor in Birbhum shows the head of the demon Hiranyakasipu placed on the left thigh of Narasimha while the rest of. his body seems to be hanging. The god is shown as piercing the belley of the demon with his nails. There are some reliefs found from Vikrampur in the Dhaka district. The figure of Nrisimha shown here has six hands, the front pair of these hands are shown as thrust into entrails of the demon; the middle pair aro taking hold of the head and legs of the demon and the back hands are shown in two poses, abhaya and tarjani. A very remarkable representation of the god in the Matsyavatara aspect was found from vajrayogini in Dhaka (Plate Pig* )° Though the rulers of the ?ala dynasty were by and large Buddhist in their religious belief, the period during which they had exercised their power, a very large number of Vaishnava 73 images appeared to have been executed in Bengal. The Krishna - lila scenes found attached upon the walls of the temple at Paharpur also testify to the popularity of the Krishna theme in Bengal. Quite a large number of the images of Vishnu can be identified as that of Vasudeva form of Vishnu, from the arrangement of the implements in his four hands. This form indicates that it was Krishna known as Vasudeva who was the object of veneration. The mantra for the worship of the deity in this form was Om namo bhagayate vasudevaya. This Vaishnavism had been basically a cult in which Krishna-Vasudeva, who had come to be one and the same with Vishnu was the main object of worship. Towards the close of the Tala rule Bengal had witnessed the rise of several powers who had asserted to free themselves from the control of the Pala rule. Of these the Senas gained upper hand to assert full control over wide areas in Bengal which they had wrested from the hands of the Palas. The Sena rulers upto Ballalasena were Saivas, but Lakshmanasena became an adept in Vaishnava pursuit. Towards the end of the 12th century A.D., Bengal was again thrown into a state of political crisis. that period took the A few feudatory rulers of opportunity of the weakness of the Senas and had gained courage to proclaim themselves as rulers. After the rule of Kesavasena or possibly after Madhusena both of whom were probably the rulers of the Sena dynasty towards the closing days of this period, Bengal had witnessed the rising power of a new family of rulers known as the Devas. 74 There were as many as four Kings in the Deva dynasty, one Madhumathana De-va was according to the Chittagong plat© the 26 founder of the dynasty. The names of these Deva rulers have been known from inscriptions found at Mehar in Comilla district from Chittagong, and from Adabari in the Dhaka district, all in present Bangladesh, The Mehar grant describes Purusottama- deva as a ruler of this dynasty, though it does not ascribe 27 any royal title to him. Dr. R.C. Majumder thought that Madhumathana Deva . was the real builder of the Deva kingdom,. Like the Varmans and also like Lakshmanasena the Devas were also adherents of the Vaishnava faith. The official seal of the Devas contained the figure of Vishnu riding on Garuda. The Adabadi copper plat© issued by king Dasaratha Deva, another ruler of the family records that he obtained the __ __ kingdom through the grace of god Narayana. better known as Danuja Madhava. eg This ruler was It may be found that at this time when Bengal was overwhelmed by Turking onslaught, there had become an upsurge of Vaishnavism among the ruling families about this area. Krishna in literature: .... . - ...... ......... " ’ ..... Apart from the archaeological material traced above, notice may also be taken of quite a few literary texts which also evidence the existence of Vaishnava cult in Bengal. The RamacarItam written by Sandhyakaranandl dealing with the reign of Ramapala, a ruler of the Pala dynasty Is a source of •: 75 :- considerable importance in this respect. Tetrawan inscription dated in the 42nd regnal year of Ramapala also provides informa- __ g9 tion about the eventful reign of this ruler Ramapala. Rama- charitam may be held as a unique historical document which supplies a long narrative of the history of Bengal for about three quarters of a century (from 1070-1145) covering the reign periods of Ramapala as well as his immediate successors. The.book also gives a glimpse of the religious condition of contemporary Bengal. From a study of the Ramacharitam it becomes clear that various Brahmanical deities including Vishnu Vasudeva were widely worshipped in the Varendri region. Vishnu was represented as a four-armed deity, and Garuda was his vehicle. Various incarnations of Vishnu such as Vamana, Varaha, Narasimha, RamarDasarathI, Balarama and Krishna are also found mentioned in this text. This work refers to the erection of a beautiful temple of Lord Vishnu by Ramapala which was adorned with jewels. It is stated that towards the end of his life he had become a devout Vaishnava. It is interesting to note that various legends connected with Krishna saga were known to the poet Sandhyakaranandi. It appears that Sandhyakaranandi was well conversant with the incidents of the early life of Krishna so popular in artistic representation of the Gupta, and Pala times. Of the Ramacaritam it may be observed that the Varendri region which contained s some large cities like Ramavati, Skandanagara, Sonitapura and Jagaddala were adorned with many beautiful temples. The city of Pundravardhanapura is said to have-been studded with temples 76 :- enshrining deities like Vishnu, Balabhadra (Balarama), Siva, Skanda, Brahma and Chakrapani. Now Buddhist Sanskrit litera­ ture had received a great impetus during this period. There had appeared a host of literary output in Bengal during the reign of the two kings, namely Vallalasena and Lakshmanasena. This literature had been particularly ritualistic and lyrical in character. Sources dealing with literary figures belonging to this period mention the names of eminent poets like Jayadeva along with others like Umapatidhara Sarana, Govardhana and Dhoyi. All these poets are known to have gained eminent posi­ tions in the imperial court of the Senas. govinda had gained a very wide acclaim. Jayadeva1s GitaSoon after it was composed, the Gita-Govinda had come to be known and sung over distant parts of India. Manuscripts of Gitagovinda have been discovered from as far northwest as Kashmir, as far west as Gujarat, and as far south as Kerala revealing the very wide popularity that Gita-Govinda had gained. It happens to be a collection of songs written in the form of a dialogue between Krishna and Radha revealing the love between the two and also their devine aspect.. It had become an extremely favourite theme with the adherants of the Vaishnava cult in which Krishna and Radha had become the principal objects of worship. Umapati­ dhara was a contemporary of the three successive kings of the Sena dynasty from Vijayasena onwards. Though a Saiva, Umapati­ dhara is also known to have composed poems eulogising the Matsya and Nrisiraha incarnations of Vishnu as well as various aspects of the life of Krishna. 77 : - Sarana was a court poet of Lakshmanasena. He was most probably identical with Sarana Sarahadatta and Chirantana Sarana whose verses have been quoted in the Saduktikarnamrita. He dealt with the love dalliances of Krishna and other Gopis of Vrajabhumi. Chirantana Sarana had also composed a verse eulogizing the Kurraa incarnation of Vishnu. Dhoyi was a famous poet who had composed the Pavanadutam held as a kavya of considerable beauty, it is learnt that the poet was a Vaishnava by faith (bhakiir-Lakshmipati-caranayorastu janmantarepi). tion of Vishnu* He was devoted to the Vamana Trivikrama incarna­ The Pavanadutam of DhoyT bears clear evidence to show that the Raghukulaguru i.e* Rama-Dasarathi (one of the incarnations of Vishnu) was also worshipped on the banks of the Bhagirathi. it indicates that the worship of Rama- Dasarathi was also in vogue in Bengal. The kavya also mentions of the existence of a very lofty and highly majestic temple at Triveni which was dedicated to the god Murari that is Vishnu. Acharya Govardhana was an important luminary in the court of Lakshmanasena. His Arya saptasati a kavya of great beauty acknowledges a Sena king, evidently Lakshmanasena as his patron. According to Jayadeva this erudite poet Govardhana was a great adept in composing erotic verses. The Arya Sapta- sati composed in the model of the Gatha Saptasati of Hala In Prakrit, begins with invocations to both Siva and to Vishnu. The work shows the adherence of the poet to the Vaishnava faith. He composed many verses in order to sing the glory of 78 god Vishnu as well as his oonsorts and other incarnatory forms of the god. His verses dealing extensively with the amours of Vishnu and Lakshmi as well as of Krishna and the gopis including lidha are held to be of high poetic merit. The Saduktikarnamrtam of Sridharadasa is a famous Sanskrit anthological work which was composed in Saka 1227 (1205 A.D.) corresponding to the 27th regnal year of Lakshmanasena. It is clear that Sridharadasa belonged to an orthodox Vaishnava family. His father Vatudasa was a close friend as / well as a high official of Lakshmanasena. _ Sridhara was a devout worshipper of Vishnu in his Adivaraha form but showed his predilections for Krishna, the most perfect incarnation of x_ Vishnu. There are verses attributed to Sridhara on the ten avataras of Vishnu, various exploits of Krishna, achievements of Narayana etc. This indicates that Krishna had become very widely popular In Bengal during the time of the Sena rule. All these evidences stated above give a very clear perspective of the pursuit of Vasudeva Krishna cult in Bengal all through a period from the time of the rule of the emperors of the Gupta dynasty upto the time of the close of the rule of the Senas and the Devas. In this pursuit as it could be discovered from inscriptional evidences, from actual images of the deities worshipped and also from literary sources, the god Vishnu had come to gain a very wide following In Bengal. At the same time it has been pointed out that it was Krishna who was held as the principal manifestation of Vishnu who had 79 : - come to hold the highest acclaim as the principal object of veneration. Though popularly held as Vaishnavism, it wae in actual case a pursuit in which Krishna came to be held as the same as Vishnu and had come to gain allegiance as the all god. Truly it was the cult of Krishna adored as the highest form of deity commanding respect and veneration in the most extensive manner. The above mentioned evidences would bear out a broad outline of the gradual diffusion and extension of the cult of Vasudeva and Krishna cult in Bengal along the course of time. Notes : 1. Susunia Rock Inscription — Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XII, p. 3l7f« 2. Allahabad Prasasti — Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarurn, Vol, III, pp, 66 also Troc. I.H.C., 1957, pp. 91-93 and Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 42, 1961, pp. 163-69; also see Sircar, D.C., Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. 4, pp. 181-82. 3. Inscription found at Nalanda — Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXV, pp. 52f. 4. Inscription found at Gaya, ibid. 5. Fleet, C.I.I., Vol. 3, pp. 2f. (Allahabad Prasasti). 6. Bhagavat Govindasvaminah devakulam — Baigram Copper Plate, Ep. Ind., Vol. XXII, pp. 81f. 7. Boar incarnation of the god Vishnu. Kokamukhasvamin and Svetavarahasvamin were two different- forms of the varaha contd • • • p .80 80 :- avatara of Vishnu thus equating Kokamukha with KokaVaraha. — Sircar, D.C., Studies in Geography of Ancient and Medieval India, pp. 217ff., also ffiukherjee, S.C., Ibid., p. 17; H.C. Raychaudhury, B.C. Law Volume, Part I, 1946, p. 88f. and Studies in Indian Antiquities (2nd edition, 1956, Calcutta), pp. 207-08; D.C. Sircar, Indian Culture, Vol. 5, p. 532ff.; Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. 21, p. 56ff. 8. The Tipperah Copper Plate Inscription of Lokanatha — Sp. Ind., Vol. 15, pp. 301ff. 9. Devout Vaishnava — Kailan plate of Sridhara Rata, Vangiya Sahitya Parisat ^atrika, Vol. 53, 3-4 issue, pp. 41ff, 10. Parama Bhagavata — Bappaghoshavata inscription of Jayanaga — Ep. Ind., Vol. 18, pp. 60f. 11. Gunaighar inscription of Vainya.Gupta, Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. VI, pp. 40ff. 12. Pradyumnesvara, combined aspect of the gods Vishnu and' Siva (Hari-Hara), which is regarded as a form of the combined aspect. — J.A.S.B., 1922, pp. 439-43; 1878, p. 91, District Gazetteer, Bogra, pp. J.A.S.B., 156-59; Karatoya Mahatmya, V.R.S. Monographs, No. 2, pp. 9-10; I.H.Q., 1933, p. 725. 13. Khalimpur inscription of Dharmapala, Ep. Ind., Vol. 4, p. 243ff.; 14. A. Maitreya — Gauda Lekhamala, p. 9ff. Two favourite consorts of Krishna — Bikshit, N.K. — Excavations at Paharpur, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, No. 55, Text and Plates, p. 7; contd ... p. 81. : 81 : -■ Saraswati, S.K., Early Sculpture of Bengal, Journal of the Department of Letters, Calcutta University, Vol. 10, p. 34ff. 15* Badal Pillar, Ep. Ind., Vol, 2, p, 160ff,; op. 16* A. Maitreya, cit., p. 70ff* Irda Copper plate of the Mamboja ruler Narayanapala, ed* N.G. Majumdar, Ep* Ind., Vol. 22, p. 150ff. and also Vol, 24, p, 43. 17. Baghaura image inscription of the 3rd year of Mahipals. •— Ep. Ind., Vol. 18. 17, p. 355. Belva copper plate inscription of Bhojavarman — Ep. Ind., Vol. 12, p. 37ff; J.A.S.B., N.S., 1914, p. 121ff., Ins­ criptions of Bengal, Vol. 3, p. 150ff. 19. Samantasra copper plate inscription of Harivarman — M.N. Vasu, Vanger Jatiya Itlhasa (in Bengali), Vol. 2, pp. 215-17; Bhattasali, N.K. ■— Bharatvarsa, Magha, 1344 B.S., pp. 169-71. 20. Majrayogini copper plate inscription of Samalavarman, Modern Review (English monthly), November, 1932, p. 52ff.; Bharatvarsa, Karttik, 1340 B.S., pp. 624ff. 21. Kamauli grant of Vaidyadeva, Ep. Ind., Vol. II, pp. 350f« 28. Vasumati in place of Sarasvati, Majumder, R.C., History of Bengal, p. 44; Vasumati Saraswati, A.S.I., 26. Bhattasali, N.K. — (PTC, XXIII, 176), 2 or ' 1911-12, pp. 157-58, Catalogue of Buddhist and Brahmanical Images In Dacca Museum —a-^« 16 82 24. 3A (i) b Ibid., PI. --- jy*—, PI. XXXIV. 25. Bhattasali, U.K., op. 26, Chittagong Copper plate of Damodara Deva (1165 Saka), * 3A. (i 1 q cit., PI, -- ----- Majumdar, N.g., Inscriptions of Bengal, Vol. Ill, pp. 158f . 27. Mehar Copper plate of Damodara Deva, Ep. Ind., Vol. XXVII. 28, Adabari copper plat© of Dasarathadeva, Majumdar,•N.G., Inscriptions of Bengal, Vol. Ill, pp. 181f. 29, 'letrawan Copper plate of Ramapala, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal (Letters), Vol. IV, pp. 390ff„