Trail in the blizzard: Interwoven identities in Orhan Pamuk’s Snow

Literature in a globalized context Carmen González Menéndez, Daniel Santana Jügler and Daniel Hofferer (eds.) Reihe Reflexionen des Gesellschaftlichen in Sprache und Literatur. Hallesche Beiträge. Band 8 Katrin Berndt, Ines Bose, Thomas Bremer, Steffen Hendel, Andrea Jäger, Eva Kowollik, Daniela Pietrini, Sven Staffeldt, Susanne Voigt-Zimmermann (Hg.) Publikation des Promotionsstudiengangs an der Internationalen Graduiertenakademie der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg: Sprache – Literatur – Gesellschaft. Wechselbezüge und Relevanzbeziehungen vom 19. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart. Beirat: Gerd Antos, Ursula Hirschfeld, Werner Nell, Angela Richter Veröffentlicht: 2020 Das Werk unterliegt CC BY-NC 4.0 DE. Bei Zitation ist der Uniform Resource Name anzugeben: urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:2-116766 ISSN: 2194-7473 ISBN: 978-3-96670-042-9 Umschlag und Satz: Steffen Hendel ☛ Hinweis zur Navigation im PDF-Dokument: (1) Im Menü „Anzeige“ unter „Seitenanzeige“ Zweiseitenansicht mit Deckblatt wählen. (2) Mit der Tastenkombination ALT + Pfeil links springt man zurück zur letzten Position. Das ist hilfreich für die Navigation zwischen Endnotentext und Endnotenzeichen. Literature in a globalized context Carmen González Menéndez, Daniel Santana Jügler and Daniel Hofferer (eds.) 11th International Colloquium in Romance and Comparative Literature (Universities of Brno, Halle and Szeged) Contents Thomas Bremer, Carmen González Menéndez, Daniel Santana Jügler and Daniel Hofferer Preface p. 5 Peripheral identities Petr Vurm Le parvenu congolais de In Koli Jean Bofane à l’heure de la mondialisation. Entre la tradition et la (post)modernité, entre l’humour et l’horreur dans le roman Congo Inc. p. 9 Stefano Apostolo Représentations de la minorité cimbre dans l’œuvre de Mario Rigoni Stern p. 19 Natalie Mojžíšová La notion de l’exil dans La Québécoite. Roman montréalais de Régine Robin p. 29 Savita Gaur A Hungarian housemaker in India. Rózsa G. Hajnóczy’s Bengáli tűz in a globalized context p. 39 Ahmed Joudar The influence of transculturalism on writers in exile. The cross-cultural writings of Naim Kattan p. 45 Baris Yilmaz Trail in the blizzard. Interwoven identities in Orhan Pamuk’s Snow p. 55 Dávid Szőke Displacement and exile identity in Iris Murdoch’s The Flight from the Enchanter (1956) p. 65 Jaroslav Stanovský Un roman historique minoritaire. La Bataille de Kerguidu de Lan Inisan p. 75 Aesthetics in translation Daniel Santana Jügler Tourists do not enter the depths of hell. Illusion and deceit in Pedro Juan Gutiérrez’ Ciclo de Centro Habana Carmen Irene González Menéndez The chronicles of El Faro. An epistemological analysis of the concept An Aesthetic Education in the Era of Globalization by G.C. Spivak in a Salvadoran newspaper p. 87 p. 97 Anna Steinbachné Bobok Identity shifts in translation. The example of Captain van Toch p. 109 Daniel Nicolas Hofferer Rahel – La Fermosa – The Jewess of Toledo. A literary myth? p. 119 Dalibor Žila Barocité du bérénicien. Sur l’inspiration baroque du langage de Bérénice dans L’Avalée des avalés de Réjean Ducharme Saskia Germer Exploring the city of thresholds. The literary Naples in a crisis p. 129 p. 135 Baris Yilmaz Trail in the blizzard: Interwoven identities in Orhan Pamuk’s Snow Orhan Pamuk was born in İstanbul, Nişantaşı in 1952. As a writer who has a strong connection with his birthplace, Pamuk shows the spatial and spiritual reflections of this neighborhood and its surroundings in his fiction. This particular territory of Istanbul where Pamuk was born and grew up was mainly inhabited by non-Muslim communities, such as Armenians, Greeks, Jews, etc. in the Ottoman Empire era. The Turkish families that lived with them throughout the centuries acquired a peaceful co-existence feeling most, and had become tolerant to differences as being part of a multicultural community. Orhan Pamuk was born into this kind of Turkish family; secular, relatively modern and wealthy. Accordingly, it is possible to observe that not-always-peaceful multicultural context surrounding Pamuk’s fiction as a predominant sphere, along with the reckoning of his privileged, arguably serene, and erring past in comparison with other lifestyles in Turkey. Some might call this reckoning over the past – not only regarding the actual past, but also the past as told through literature – “secular blasphemies”1. I call it a secular confession, a well-measured opportunity to set a stage up for his confrontation with the faults of the Turkish ruling class, or “White Turks” (Beyaz Türkler in Turkish), as they are called since the 1990s. Christoph Ramm explains briefly the connotations of the epithets White Turk, and its opposite “Black Turk”: The stereotypical ascriptions siyah Türk (black Turk) and beyaz Türk (white Turk) emerged in the 1990s, when members of the urban secular establishment in Turkey began to use these terms in order to distinguish themselves from social groups having a rural background and a religious outlook. In this view the citybased ‘white Turks’ appear as modern, educated and cultured, while the ‘black Turks’ from Anatolia are depicted as primitive, underdeveloped and parochial. Politically the label ‘white Turk’ was also applied to members of the Kemalist bureaucratic-military elite, the label ‘black Turk’ to supporters of the Islamic political movement, which increased its influence in those years and later merged into the successful Justice and Development Party AKP. 2 Yilmaz It would not be wrong to say that the foundation of this cultural divide lies in the Westernization Movement started with the Imperial Edict of Reorganization (Tanzimat Fermanı in Turkish) and proceeded with the republican regime established by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938) in 1923. Enlightened, progressive, and secular principles of the new republic did not find a response in the vast majority of the population, creating its own minority elite at the same time. Mardin points out that the extremity on the level of behaving like a Westerner has created a disintegration between the different layers of the society and its traces can be tracked in literature. 3 In another work, Mardin draws attention to the disaccord between the laicism the reformists have tried to implement and the religious concerns of the people. Atatürk awaited long to see the emergence of a new individual unchained from the religious bonds, that otherwise hold him or her in the captivation of the “idiocy of traditional, community oriented life”4. Success was impossible. Only a fraction of urban Turks evolved into the liberated individuals whom Atatürk imagined, and the conservative front managed to be alive, though mostly underground, till the Millen-nium, growing stronger and becoming more and more radicalized. The fundamental White Turk and Black Turk, the modern and the conservative, the highbrow and the philistine conflict overlapping the country’s geographical fate which dooms it to be stranded between the demanding streams of two powerful cultural poles, so to say, casts a long shadow over Pamuk’s fiction. It has a similar influence on the most mature examples of Turkish literature, namely the works of Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu (1889–1974), Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar (1901–1962), and Oğuz Atay (1934–1977). Among all Turkish writers, Tanpınar has the strongest influence over Pamuk’s authorship, as he says. Through Tanpınar’s ideas, he explains his own approach to the problematic love-hate relationship with the West exercising a significant impact on the identity confusion of Turkish intelligentsia, or even of the petit bourgeois. In Other Colours, his collection of essays, Pamuk observes Tanpınar’s faint admiration for Western culture beneath his praise for Andre Gide, which is quite similar to the cynical inclination to the West noticeable in his own writings as well: I know that I can best grasp Europe as a concept if I approach it with two contradictory thoughts in mind: first, the dislike that Gide felt for other civilizations – for my civilization – and, second, the great admiration that Tanpinar felt for Gide and through him for all of Europe. I can only express Literature in a globalized context 56 urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:2-116766 Yilmaz what Europe means to me if I fuse the contempt with the admiration, the hate with the love, the revulsion with the attraction. 5 Pamuk constructs his fictional universe based upon these ontological, paradoxical, geopolitical conflict patterns while utilizing various postmodern tools, beginning with metafiction. Putting an overt self-reflexive image of himself as an author into his stories, mainly through resonating his voice in the narrator’s voice, Pamuk obtains the opportunity “to question the very existence as well as the nature of extratextual reference”6, as it is usual in all metafictional practices in art. But, adding a historical perspective to this inquiry of representation creates a doublelayered referentiality paradox. As Linda Hutcheon argued, postmodernist historiographic metafiction plays around this complex question concerning the nature of real and its representation: “Is the referent of historiography, then, the fact or the event, the textualized trace or the experience itself?”7. Orhan Pamuk’s fiction is no exception to it. “With the writing/artist characters at the center of his fictional world, Pamuk implicitly tells his readers to acknowledge the text’s fictionality and his new role in its reconstruction.”8 This focal characteristic of Pamuk’s novels enables him to challenge the so-called realities narrated in the official Turkish history writing. Involved in a newer and inverted version of a historical fragment as a narrator, or even as a protagonist, Pamuk creates postmodern narratives with a transparent political content. Girding an antagonistic attitude brought Pamuk the Nobel Prize in literature, in 2006, although he had been rewarded with the famous insulting “Turkishness” case the previous year.9 As a result of accusations of insulting Turkish values, norms, and the founding fathers, especially Atatürk, and advocating the Armenian genocide, Pamuk had to face countless death threats, and eventually, had to leave the country. This trial generated serious conflicts between Turkey and the European Union with respect to the freedom of speech and concluded with Pamuk’s short-term exile in the USA, although he never admitted that he was in exile. 10 Among all Pamuk’s postmodern novels The White Castle (1985 original, 1990 in English translation), The Black Book (1990 original, 1994 in English translation), My Name is Red (1998 original, 2001 in English translation), Snow (2002 original, 2004 in English translation), and The Museum of Innocence (2008 original, 2009 in English translation) are considered the most distinguished ones. Pamuk’s historiographic metafiction is highly related to the modernization story of Turkey, which can also be interpreted as an attempt at Westernization. For the Literature in a Globalized Context 57 urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:2-116766 Yilmaz supporters of Turkish modernization, to be modern always implied following the West and its moral and institutional values. However, the imitation did not always carry an intellectual or institutional aspect. Mostly, it was performed rather as a superficial copying of Western lifestyle and culture, including clothing, behaviour, Western-style dances and music. As a result, Turkish people were struggling an unsolvable identity crisis for more than 150 years. Therefore, the principal theme in the litera-ture for the romanticist, modern or postmodern writer has been the identity struggle between the West and the East. The roots of the conflict go back to the administration of Mahmud II, a reformist sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning between 1808 and 1839, who tried to divert the course of the empire towards the West. The reason behind all this was the consecutive blows on the battlefield – in both the military and the cultural aspects. It seemed to Mahmud II and his staff that with their scientific and technical developments, the Western countries had figured out how to succeed in the race of civilizations. Following the reign of Mahmud II and his reforms, an irrevocable desire for democratic and libertarian ideas appeared. In this respect, Tanzimat Fermanı, the Les Jeunes Turcs movement, the Committee of Union and Progress, and finally Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his Republican People’s Party arose as the forefathers and organizers of the reformist, progressive, and libertarian ideologies in the late 19th and the early 20th century. 11 From then until now, the most substantial political, cultural, and ideological determiners of Turkey have been strongly influenced by the outcome of this diversion, which poised a crisis of identity. Additionally, the biggest portion of the prominent literary work of Turkish literature themed around this crisis ended up creating a dichotomy. This “dichotomy first begun in the public space, then ripped the society in two and finally installed itself into us, into individuals by deep-ening and altering its activity”12 as Tanpınar asserts. Snow, Orhan Pamuk’s first and last political novel – as he calls it – can be considered to belong to the same category. The following quotation from the novel is a persuasive example to summarize the writer’s skeptical conviction on the identity matter and the relationship with the West: ‚All I’d want them to print in that Frankfurt paper is this: We’re not stupid, we’re just poor! And we have a right to want to insist on this distinction. […] Mankind’s greatest error,‘ continued the young Kurd, ‘the biggest deception of the past thousand years is this: to confuse poverty with stupidity. […] People might feel sorry for a man who’s fallen on hard times, but when an entire nation is poor, the rest of the world assumes that all its people must be brainless, lazy, Literature in a globalized context 58 urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:2-116766 Yilmaz dirty, clumsy fools. Instead of pity, the people provoke laughter. It’s all a joke: their culture, their customs, their practices. In time the rest of the world may, some of them, begin to feel ashamed for having thought this way, and when they look around and see immigrants from that poor country mopping their floors and doing all the other lowest paying jobs, naturally they worry about what might happen if these workers one day rose up against them. So, to keep things sweet, they start taking an interest in the immigrants’ culture and sometimes even pretend they think of them as equals. […] when a Westerner meets someone from a poor country, he feels deep contempt. He assumes that the poor man’s head must be full of all the nonsense that plunged his country into poverty and despair. […] and the first Western man I met in the street turned out to be a good person who didn’t even despise me, I’d still mistrust him, just for being a Westerner, I’d still worry that this man was looking down on me. Because in Germany they can spot Turks just by the way they look. There’s no escaping humiliation except by proving at the first opportunity that you think exactly as they do. But this is impossible, and it can break a man’s pride to try. 13 It was in 2002 when Orhan Pamuk published his remarkable novel Snow and it was the same year that the AKP Party celebrated the first of many election victories to come. On the day of its foundation, this party seemed to adopt the moderate Islamist doctrine, in addition to its highly acclaimed liberal and progressive policies. Its founder beeing Turkey’s recent President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. As years passed, the table has turned and the party and Erdoğan showed his vengeful intentions to acquire more power for the sake of a radical Islam. The history of the modern Turkish Republic of dealing with the Islamist movements in the country has never been a simple, silent acceptance of the rise of proIslamist parties. One of the many military coups took place on the 28th of February of 1997. Although it was not an actual coup d’état in the sense of taking the power over the country by the armed forces, there was a particular junta that the military prepared for “an action plan against reactionary forces”. This action was later believed to have been consolidated by the Welfare Party. The Welfare Party being the precedent party of Erdoğan’s AKP, and Erdoğan being member of both Parties at a time, when AKP was the leading party in the coalition government. 14 This infamous military action was later referred to as the postmodern coup in journalist pieces. 15 Pamuk’s eighth novel Snow is indeed the postmodern narrative of this postmodern coup process upon a small scaled version of Turkey depicted as Kars in the novel. Literature in a Globalized Context 59 urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:2-116766 Yilmaz In the novel, Kars is a small city in northeastern Turkey having a cold, snowy, misty atmosphere, and a complicated history corresponding with the identity issue discussed above. Linda Hutcheon has coined the term historiographic metafiction for the postmodern fictional works that have a historiographical attribute accompanied by the self-reflexive character 16. One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967) by Gabriel García Marquez, The French Lieutenant’s Women (1969) by John Fowles, Ragtime (1975) by E. L. Doctorow, Midnight’s Children (1981) by Salman Rushdie, and The History of the Siege of Lisbon (1989) by Jose Saramago can be counted among the most well-known representatives of this genre. The same goes for Orhan Pamuk by his entire œuvre which was appreciated by the Nobel Prize in literature in 2006. Accordingly, I want to point out the feature of historiographic metafiction enabling the reliability of the nonfictional, by questioning official discourse and history books, because of their origin as deeds of the ruling state, empires, or ruling classes. 17 We can characterize Pamuk’s fiction as the sum of attempts at historiographic metafictions upon the various historical epochs or fragments of Turkey from medieval times to contemporary history: indifference to scientific and technological developments by Turks in 17th century and the East and West identities in The White Castle (1985); representing taboo and patronage issues in the 16th Century Ottoman Empire – as well as all Muslim communities of the time – in My Name is Red (1998); or a love story with the background of a class difference cliché set in the atmosphere of 1980 coup d’etat in The Museum of Innocence (2008), are just a selection of topics with which he has carefully portrayed some fragile periods or severe milestones in Turkish History. Not surprisingly, his efforts to touch the sore points, including his interviews in which he denounced Turkey for the mass killing of one million Arme-nians and thirty thousand Kurds, have irritated the people whose alliance and raison d’être were grounded on an unsullied image of the past. On one hand, the reconstruction of a particular fragment of the past previously written by some other writer ensures the questionability of historiography. 18 On the other hand, an author’s self-reflexive involvement in his own narration yields the inherent notion of the representability of the real. 19 We may omit a detailed discussion of the proportion of trans/intertextuality in postmodern texts, but especially in historiographic metafiction, it is the dialogic function which can re-narrate authentically an existing historical narration by referring to its author's other fictional creations. In this respect, the self-reflexive mechanism in Pamuk’s fiction operates Literature in a globalized context 60 urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:2-116766 Yilmaz through setting the author-narrator in the center of the meta-narration and appearing as an alternate reality, in which the entirety of the characters, figures, and entities wander freely. Snow is the story of three days in the life of the poet Ka, who has just returned to Turkey from his 12 years of political exile in Frankfurt in order to attend to his mother’s funeral. In the meantime, he is addressed by a newspaper to conduct an inquiry for the upcoming election in Kars, in addition to the young female suicides investigation in town, which are related to Islamist activist working against the ban of headscarves at universities. Ka, whose name alludes conspicuously to Franz Kafka’s dazed and confused protagonist K., wanders through his investigation under a heavy snowfall and a blizzard which conceals any trace that might be connected to the suicide cases. The constant snowfall not only obscures the trails of any kind of crime whatsoever, but also buries the architectural excellence of Kars, otherwise symbol for the history of numerous nations throughout time and the leftovers of several cultures. Kars’ multicultural past and relatively less multicultural present forge an overview of the interwoven identity being discussed within the novel. Kars is a city in the northeast of Turkey and the site of the events taking place in Snow. Kars had belonged to the Armenian Kingdom for a long time and the Byzantine Empire for a short term until Seljuk Turks settled into Anatolia and captured the town. This happened in 1064, and later on, it was conquered by Georgian Atabegs, had its share from the grand Mongol Invasion, witnessed the wrath of Tamerlane, passed from hand to hand during the Anatolian beylik period until it went to the hands of Savafid Shah of Iran. Then, it experienced a constant change in its ownership between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavids, in the wake of incessant battles and subsequent agreements. From 1828 to 1918, the city was under the Russian administration and as a result of Russian occupation, a considerable number of Russian officers settled into the town. 20 Besides the remarkable architectural relics from the ancient Armenian Kingdom, Russians, too, bequeathed splendid examples of Baltic style buildings during their administration. With its multicultural structure, Kars appears a subtle choice to project Turkey’s confusing ideological predicaments. Moreover, under Kars’ foggy, obscure, snowy atmosphere, an unsolvable crime story interwoven with a political battle offers a perfectly fitting domain to make it more and more impossible to disentangle. In the Kars of the novel, there are radical Islamists, terrorists, sheikhs and cults who want to live under sharia law, besides the head-scarfed girls who are being forced to take off their head-scarves to enter the universities. Here the reader finds Kurdish guerilla Literature in a Globalized Context 61 urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:2-116766 Yilmaz fighters or terrorists, sympathizers of PKK, the Kurdish freedom party or terror organization; unemployed and idle Kurds who are torn between the state and the disruptive local dynamics. There are also rambling communists and neo-nationalists, together with ex-communists and neo-Islamists, nationalists, Kemalists, state officials, Gladio-like the-state-within-elements, soldiers and adventurers who can stage a coup d’état together with theatre players. It is impossible to detect any hint of the possible developments of the events, even though it is the weather forecast which seems to play the biggest role, since it is snowing constantly and everyone is waiting for it to stop. Ka blames himself for being born in a middle class, non-religious, relatively wealthy family, and mainly acts with a sort of guilty consciousness when he encounters the actual figures of an ideological fight. Even his exile is a result of a misunderstanding, since he has never been a strong defender of an unfavorable political view. Although he has not put any treachery into action, somehow, he finds himself there in Kars, among all other traitors of the state. As an intellectual having contact with the West, he is seen as a good opportunity to inform the West about the anti-democratical actions in Turkey and its oppression upon Islamists, Kurds, Communists, women, and so on. As a matter of fact, Pamuk, as a novelist, fulfils the demand, which Ka as a poet has tried and failed in the fictional narration in Snow. The passage quoted earlier conveys the main idea that it is about repositioning yourself and reinventing your identity against Europe or the West. At the end, every identity issue is tangling at the point of an invention, a fiction; nothing more than a story. Modern Turkey’s biggest struggling dates back to the reign of Mahmut II, who was a reformist Sultan of the Empire and fancied to make it a modern country. All his successors saw the country’s salvation in a radical process of Westernization. But from the beginning of the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, for a significant amount of the population, the imitation of the West has been abnormal, unacceptable, and not necessary. To them, the real salvation lies in embracing Eastern identity, the religious and moral sublimity of Islam, and conserving the high cultural values by accepting the inheritance of the Ottoman Empire. Thus, this struggle can be told as the summary of modern Turkey, whilst Kars, with its transcultural structure haunted by the ghosts of the past, can be seen as a small-scale projection of Turkey. The coup d’état which is executed by the theatre players and local army commanders taking advantage of the blocked road owing to the blizzard is the narrative simulation of the postmodern coup d’état, which is nothing more than a simulacrum as well. Literature in a globalized context 62 urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:2-116766 Yilmaz Endnotes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Erdağ Göknar: Secular Blasphemies. Orhan Pamuk and the Turkish Novel In: NOVEL A Forum on Fiction. 45 (2012), 2nd issue, p. 322. Christoph Ramm: Beyond ‚Black Turks‘ and ‚White Turks‘. The Turkish Elites’ Ongoing Mission to Civilize a Colourful Society. In: Asiatische Studien - Études Asiatiques. 70 (2017), 4th issue, p. 1356. Although it might be needless to say, I still would like to indicate that this party was founded by Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (1954–), the current president of the Republic of Turkey, and it has been leading the country as the sole ruling power since 2001. Şerif Mardin: Tanzimat’tan Sonra Aşırı Batılılaşma. In: Türk Modernleşmesi. 4 (2000), pp. 40–41. Şerif Mardin: Religion, Society, and Modernity in Turkey. Syracuse 2006, p. 213. Orhan Pamuk: Other Colours. Essays and A Story. [Übersetzt von Maureen Freely]. New York 2007. Linda Hutcheon: A Poetics of Postmodernism. History, Theory Fiction. London 1988, p. 153. Ibid. Semra Saraçoğlu: Self-Reflexivity in Postmodern Texts. A Comparative Study of the Works of John Fowles and Orhan Pamuk. Ankara 2003, p. 38. Erdağ Göknar, Secular Blasphemies (see endnote 1), p. 301. However, The Telegraph published a news about Pamuk’s escape to the USA and about his concerns on his life with the title Turkish novelist flees to US ‚in fear for life‘, see Damien McElroy: Turkish Novelist Flees to US ‚in Fear for Life’. In: Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1542686/Turkish-novelist-flees-to-US-in-fear-for-life.html [01.02.2020]. In the meantime Pamuk stated that he did not consider himself in exile, vgl. Orhan Pamuk Not in Exile. In: Bianet. https://bianet.org/english/politics/96893-orhan-pamuk-not-in-exile [01.02.2020]. Carter V. Findley: Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire. The Sublime Porte, 1789–1922. Princeton 1980; M. Şükrü Hanioğlu: A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire. Princeton 2010. Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar: Yaşadığım gibi. Istanbul 1996, p. 24. Orhan Pamuk: Snow. [Übersetzt von Maureen Freely]. New York 2005, pp. 275–276. For broader information about the rise and fall of the Islamist movements in Turkey see: William Hale and Ergun Özbudun: Islamism, Democracy and Liberalism in Turkey. The Case of the AKP. London 2009. Cengiz Çandar: Postmodern Darbe [Postmodern Coup]. In: Sabah. (28.06.1997). Linda Hutcheon, A Poetics of Postmodernism (see endnote 8), p. 5. Ibid., p. 55. On questioning the factuality of historiography, see Hayden White: Metahistory. The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe. Baltimore 2014. Linda Hutcheon, A Poetics of Postmodernism (see endnote 8), p. 22. The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica: Kars. In: Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Kars [01.02.2020]. ◄ Literature in a Globalized Context 63 urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:2-116766