The Twelve Precious Biblical Stones (in Bulgarian)

2008

The Orphic Lithica of Pseudo-Orpheus is dated most probably from the IV c. AD and is considered as an example of the Late Antiquity lapidary treatises describing the magical and therapeutic properties of about 30 'stones' (minerals, varieties, aggregates and rocks). Based on an English translation from 1865, a contemporary from mineralogical point of view interpretation of their possible identification has been listed and discussed.

2003

According to the numerous publications about the origin and distribution of the ancient Bulgarians throughout the centuries (see Tabakov, 1999), they have migrated from their primal native land located around the Pamir region in direction to the Caucases, and later on two major states have been founded, known as Volga's Bulgaria and Asparukh's Bulgaria. In the mineralogical treatise of the Medieval encyclopaedic scholar al-Biruni (XI century) are listed data, pointing out that the inhabitants of Balkh (Balkhara, Bolor, Bulur) and Volga's Bulgaria have extracted, ore-dressed and traded gem minerals and precious metals. The name balas for red spinel from Badakhshan has its origin in the ancient name of the region Balaxian (Balkh). According to data of the Armenian scholar Arakel Davrizhetzi (1669) one of the ruby varieties has been called balkhi (from Balkh -in analogy to the the colour of spinel). The coincidence of the names bulhor (Bulgarians) in the Tadjik and bullur (rock crystal) in the Persian and Arabic languages probably can illustrate forgotten traditions of population, which has been engaged exclusively from the most ancient times with exploitation and trade of gem minerals and of metals as copper, gold and iron both.

Ann. Univ. Mining and Geology, 50, Part I, Geology and …, 2007

Some names of stones have been mentioned in ancient sources, such as the 'Thracia stone' or 'spinus' ('spinos'), which are impossible to be determinated from their descriptions to which mineral species or rock they should be referred. Beside the interpretation of the 'Thracian stone' in ancient Greek and Roman sources as some sort of inflammable raw material (coal, jet etc.), a text from Pliny's 'Natural History' points out to another interpretation related to green stones (minerals, rocks) including heliotrope. This green variety of jasper (jasperoid) with red spots has been used on the Balkans since the Chalcolithic period, and in the Eastern Rhodopes mountain region on the territory of Bulgaria some artifacts made of this local prestigeos gemmological material have been found, which have been traded in different directions.

Review of the Bulgarian Geological Society, 2019

Archaeomineralogy (archaeological mineralogy, mineralogical archaeology) is an interdisciplinary science related to the study of archaeological and historical objects of a mineral and rock composition (Kostov, 2007a; Rapp, 2009). In certain cases, the achaeomineralogy is linked also to archaeogemmology as a science for the study of natural and artificial raw materials which have been used for jewellery or other decorative purposes since the dawn of humankind to modern times, to ancient numismatics as part of archaeometallurgy which studies ores, slags and alloys, to petroarchaeology which studies different rock artifacts and pottery. Archaeomineralogy can be regarded as a major part of geoarchaeology as a broader scientific field of application of all the different branches of Earth sciences during searching, prospecting and study of archaeological monuments or single artifacts. It is also a part of archaeometry as a much broader field of interdisciplinary studies in archaeology (Kuleff, 2012). As priorities for Bulgaria are considered some Paleolithic and Neolithic sites, the Varna Chalcolithic necropolis, megalithic and rock-cut sites, the Thracian Culture, as well as artifacts related to the Ancient Bulgarians in all the areas of their settlement throughout the centuries.

2010

The Preslav gold treasure (adornments from gold decorated with enamel, beads of gem minerals and pearls: diadem, bilateral necklace, medallions, several earrings and earcaps, rings, buttons, appliqués and other small finds) was found in 1978 near the town of Veliki Preslav -the second Bulgarian capital during the еnd of the First Bulgarian Kingdom. The treasure (X century) belonged to a female member of the royal family and is suggested to be of a Byzantine origin. A morphometric study and gem testing was made on all the gemmological materials -minerals and numerous pearls. Among the gem minerals are identified 40 emeralds, 12 violet sapphires, 10 reddish violet garnets, 5 rock crystals, 3 amethysts and 1 carnelian. Their inclusions and type of cut are listed. The average dimensions for the emerald polished and rounded on the edges prisms from two medallions are: length 0.48 cm and width 0.59 cm. The average dimensions for the mainly barrel shaped sea pearls from a gold medallion are length 0.40 cm and diameter 0.45 cm. The origin of the emeralds is under discussion, and they are compared with other emerald finds in Europe, including from Bulgaria, from the Antiquity and Early Medieval Period. As a probable source for the gem minerals (emerald, sapphire, garnet), according to their inclusions, is suggested an Eastern (India and Sri Lanka) origin (alternative for the emeralds -the Hindou-Kush area), and the pearls are probably from the Indian Ocean of the Persian Gulf.

2010

Studies of prehistoric (Neolithic to Chalcolithic period) artefacts from the territory of Bulgaria during the past decade revealed a lot of specific gem and decorative minerals and materials: nephrite, malachite, serpentinite, turquoise, jadeite, jet, carnelian, agate and jasper (including heliotrope). Nephrite artefacts in Bulgaria, as well as in some other countries on the Balkans, are widespread during the Neolithic and rare during the Chalcolithicthe nephrite sources are under discussion. A Balkan "nephrite culture" is introduced, which is supposed to be the earliest in the world, compared to the well known Chinese "nephrite cultures". The Varna Chalcolithic necropolis (middle of the V mill. BC) is known with the earliest and largest amount of gold artefacts in the world, including also some copper objects from the copper mines near Stara Zagora. A large amount of beads are also identified as made by malachite (in rare cases with azurite), serpentinite, carnelian, agate, coal (jet), marble and shells. Some of the carnelian beads from Varna display 16+16 facets along their elongation, which is the first record for a constant and complex faceting of hard mineral known so far. An early prehistoric weight system links mineral beads and gold artefacts (the weight unit "van" is introduced, 0.4 g = 2 carats). The first report of turquoise beads for SE Europe is related to the Orlovo prehistoric site (Haskovo district). The "Thracian stone" in ancient sources is identified also as heliotrope, which is known since the Chalcolithic in the Eastern Rhodopes. Some of the artefacts are masterpieces of art and as stage of perfection, thus pointing to the Balkans as a cradle of prehistoric gemmology.

2008

Among the metal (gold and copper) and non-metal (minerals, rocks, pottery, pigments, bioobjects) artefacts in the Chalcolithic graves from Varna in Bulgaria are numerous beads of chalcedony (carnelian and agate) composition. To the three morphological types of beads already described (type 1 -elongated barrel-shaped; type 2 -elongated with trapezohedral facets; type 3 -short cylindrical; , a rare forth type -elongated cylindrical, has been added. Measurements of almost all the chalcedony beads have been performed including weight and size. Mean values of weight and size are given for beads of all the studied graves as well as for the whole necropolis. The detailed study confirmed the complex "constant" number of 32 facets among the morphological type 2 carnelian and agate beads (16x16 on both sides on the elongation of the bead; the form is a truncated 16-fold trapezohedron). This is considered as the earliest complex type of faceting on a hard mineral as quartz (chalcedony is 6.5-7 on the Mohs scale). The mean weight of the type 1-2 carnelian and related beads is 0.4 g (or 2 carats), in close correspondence to the mean value of the gold short cylindrical beads -thus a Chalcolithic weight unit has been introduced called van (from Varna necropolis) supposedly relating mineral and metal artefacts in an early weight system. The position in the graves and all the processes of manufacture (including tumbling) of the faceted chalcedony beads were shortly discussed as part of the archaeogemmological analysis.

2005

According to recent mineralogical determinations of prehistoric (Neolithic and Eneolithic) artefacts from Bulgarian museums a lot of nephrite objects have been identified (mainly represented by small axes and chisels, ritual scepter and zoomorphic amulets as well as some decorations). Their distribution on the territory of Bulgaria has been traced, together with data on some neighboring countries on the Balkans and in other European regions. A description has been made of the colour varieties, microscopic features and the possible methods of working of some of the nephrite artefacts. The lack of up to now known nephrite occurrences on the Balkans puts the question about the origin of nephrite and the more detailed study of places with ultrabasic rocks. Because of the large number of nephrite objects found, which have been aged since the Early Neolithic, as well as of their significance in the history of human civilization, a Balkan "nephrite culture" has been introduced, which is considered earlier in time (VII-VI mill. BC) in respect to the well known Neolithic "nephrite cultures" in China (Hemudu, Hongshan, Liangzhu, Longshan) and the Russian Federation (Kitoi, Glaskovo).

2013

Nephrite-yielding prehistoric cultures in Europe have been using nephrite artifacts usually as axes or as ritual objects (including amulets). The nephrite artifacts are traced in largest number known from Maurach. For certain prehistoric sites, the source of nephrite is not yet known. Archaeomineralogical studies are suggested to be made in this respect for tracing prehistoric trade routes and nephrite outcrops. Nephrite occurrences in Europe are known and reported from (in alphabetical order)(European part of the Russian Federation), Spain, Switzerland, Turkey (Turkish Thrace) and Ukraine. Almost all of the nephrite occurrences are of the serpentinite metasomatic genetic type and only in a few cases -of the dolomitic marble genetic type (Val Malenco, Italy; Scortaseo, Switzerland). Rare secondary glacier-related type nephrite finds in the northern part of Europe are also reported.

2010

A review of the genetic classifications of jasper based on mineralogical data outlines three main types of jasper and related rocks: 1 -jaspers; 2 -jasperoids; 3 -jasper-like rocks. True jasper has a quartz composition and is of metamorphic or metasomatic origin. Related in different colour and density to jasper other rocks of sedimentary or igneous origin can be found usually having a dominantly chalcedony-quartz and feldspar-quartz composition (jasperoids and jasper-like rocks). Main mineral impurities which cause the colour of the described rocks are listed.