The ancient mass graves in Sindh, Pakistan

Journal of Asian Civilizations, 2022

The present paper contextualizes the results of the intensive archaeological survey around the Singoor village in District Chitral, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. The survey was optimized to specifically identify protohistoric graves through walking across the landscape in the vicinity of Shah Mirandeh graves at Singoor. The survey documented eleven burial sites, including the sites of Gankoreneotek, Gankoreni village, Hindukush Heights Hotel, Chakasht 1 & 2, Mirandeh, Noghur Dhok, Lashino Dhok, Kolambi and Sinjal Graves. Later, the site of Dolamuch was discovered in a subsequent survey carried out in 2008 during the excavations of Gankoreneotek graves. Thus, a total of twelve protohistoric cemeteries, including Shah Mirandeh graves, were documented around Singoor. Of these, three graves' sites Shah Mirandeh, Gankoreneotek and Chakasht 2 have been excavated. The present systematic survey was successful as it resulted in the documentation of one of the densest clusters of protohistoric/historic cemeteries in northern and northwestern Pakistan. The radiocarbon dates obtained from cemeteries around Singoor suggest a date range from 8 th century cal. BCE to 17 th century cal. CE, indicating the existence and presence of viable historic burial traditions that were possibly like the protohistoric burial traditions and shared the same landscape contexts.

Annali. Istituto Orientale di Napoli Roma, 1983

The protohistoric graveyards of north-western Pakistan were first excavated in the 1960s, but their chronology is still debated, along with their relationship to broader regional issues of ethnic and cultural change. Recent excavation of two graveyards in the Swat Valley has provided new dating evidence and a much better understanding both of grave structure and treatment of the dead. Secondary burial was documented at Udegram, along with the use of perishable containers and other objects as grave goods. The complexity of the funerary practices reveal the prolonged interaction between the living and the dead in protohistoric Swat.

M. Taddei & G. De Marco(ed), South Asian Archaeology 1997, Rome, 2000

EVOLUTION OF TOMB ARCHITECTURE IN THE KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA PROVINCE, PAKISTAN, 2021

The earliest graves in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (abbreviated as KP) date since the Āryan advent in this area in about the middle of the second millennium BC1. Both inhumation and cremation were practised as shown by the evidence of numerous graves excavated by the Italian Mission in Pakistan and the Department of Archaeology, University of Peshawar in the Swāt and Dīr districts of this province. These graves consist merely of rectangular pits dug in the ground with masonry sidewalls in which uneven stone blocks, easily available in 1the neighbourhood, were used2. With the advent of Buddhism in this area in the 3rd century BC during the time of the celebrated Mauryan King Aśoka3, a new mode for burying the ashes of the founder of Buddhism, (Siddharta), who, after his enlightenment came to be known as Buddha, was adopted. Now the grave was built above the level of the ground, which initially looked like a small heap of earth. With the lapse of time it went on evolving and changing shape until it developed into an imposing structure comprising a lofty base under a huge, very often circular, drum which supported a dome of considerable size. These tombs like domical structures called “Stupa” continued to be built until the Ephthalite invasions in the 5th century brought about ruin and destruction4. When Muslims reached KP early in the 11th century the stupas had already decayed. The Muslims introduced an altogether new way of burying the dead. The dead body was placed in a pit dug in the ground and covered with soil forming a small rectangular 1 For the advent of Āryan tribes and their advance into South Asia, see Asko Parpola, ‘The coming of the Āryans to Iran and India and the cultural and ethic identity of the Dasas’, Studia Orientalia, vol. 64, PP. 195-302, Hel Sinki 1988. 2 Ancient graveyards found in Swat and Dir have been attributed to those incoming Āryan tribes. See G. Staccul, ‘Protohistoric graveyards (c. 1400 – 300 BC)’ and ‘Buner – Chitral Protohistoric gravyards’ in Italain Archaeological Mission, (IsMEO) Pakistan, Swat – Documentary Exhibition – 1956 –1981, PP. 16-18. Peshawar, March 1-4. 1982; A. H. Dani, Ancient Pakistan, vol. III, 1967, pp. 1-407. 3 According to the Mahavamsa, the Third Buddhist Council met in the time of Asoka at his capital Pataliputra and was presided over by the monk Moggaliputta Tissa (Upagupta in the northern texts). The Council deputed missionaries to different countries. The monk Majjhantika was sent to Gandhara and Kashmir. See R. C. Majumdar, ed., The History and Culture of Indian Peoples, Bombay. 5th edn. 1980, P. 84. 4 J. Marshall in his book, The Buddhist Art of Gandhara, (2nd. edn. Karachi, 1973, P.1) remarks “Finally, the death-blow to its (Gandhara) prosperity was given by the Ephthalites or White Huns, who swept over the country about AD 465, carrying fire and sword wherever they went and destroying the Buddhist monasteries”. mound. Enclosing this mound was raised a square room5 having, very often, domical roof. In some cases flat room is also found. This room embellished in many different ways is called tomb. It needs to be pointed out that such an ornate burial was neither recommended by Islam nor could every Muslim aspire for it. It is only the selected few among the rulers and Sufis (saints) whose dead bodies were given such an honour. How this tomb architecture developed in KP is stated in the following pages. The study is based upon an extensive field survey. The monuments reported by other writers have also been included and their labour duly acknowledge. A few words are necessary to explain the system of transliteration adopted in this work. I have not strictly followed the system of the Encyclopaedia of Islam, as it appears to be only bewildering to the general reader unacquainted with the Arabic alphabet and pronunciation. I have given the words as commonly pronounced by non-Arabs, but some of the sounds have been differentiated with the help of dots. The letter ث to a non-Arab conveys a sound identical with S in ‘sin’ and is accordingly pronounced as such. Nor, unless an Arabic scholar, does he perceive any difference between ث and ص (sad). He pronounces them all alike. But we have put a dot below S to indicate ص. Similarly, the letters ذ (Zal), ز (Zay), ض (Zad) and ظ (Zoi) convey to the non-Arab almost identical sound. He also perceives no difference between ث and ط (toi), or between the hard aspirate ح (as in A h mad) and the softer form as in Hārūn. But we have indicated ح with h. But in the case of words spelt with a ث such as hadis, I have considered it necessary to denote the Arabic pronunciation with a th. The ordinary fatha or zabar I have represented by a pronounced as u in ‘cut’ or ‘but’; the ordinary zamma or pesh by u (pronounced like u in pull; the ordinary kasra or zer with the letter i, as in gift. Long ū is represented by the u as in Hārūn, long i by ī and long a by a. Waw ق with fatha I have represented by au as in maudūd. The letter ع (áin) is represented by an inverted comma. The letter غ (ghain) is denoted by gh, ق by q, خ by kh and د by d. The rest of the letters are the same as in English. 5 Only wealthy people could afford such a burial. Common people were satisfied with a simple grave with no room to cover it.

2024

Chitral is an important district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan. Its rich archaeological heritage has attracted researchers especially those interested in the Protohistoric era or Iron Age. The most important Iron Age cemeteries reported in the region include Chakast, Shahmirandeh, Parwak, Gankoriniotek and Thamuniak Broze. Of these, the Iron Age cemetery of Thamuniak Broze located in District Lower Chitral has been excavated recently by the team of archaeologists from

2010

The funerary memorials constitute the most important buildings in the domain of Islamic architecture. There is an endless variety of tombs and mausoleum throughout the Islamic world. Besides one can find in them almost all the aspects forming part of Islamic edifices, such as, domes, mehrabs, arches, pendentives, squinches, iwans , peshtaqs, minarets and various forms of ornamentation. In the province of Sind and Balochistan of Pakistan there are a very peculiar type of funerary memorials known as 'Chaukhandi Tombs' (16-18 th centuries A.D), some 29 kilometers on the left of National Highway (Karachi-Thatta-Hyderabad). According to a rough estimate, the number of such graveyards ranges between 200 to 300. The 'Chaukhandi graveyard near Landhi town of Karachi city was brought within pale of Ancient Monuments Preservation Act 1904 in the year 1922, but soon after it fell in oblivion. So it was actually sometime in 1953 the Chaukhandi Tombs were rediscovered. These stone built tombs are generally pyramid in shape and are embellished with beautiful carvings depicting both geometrical and floral motifs. Some of the graves contains human and pictorial representations in the form of hunting scenes, jewellery, arms and amour etc. Because of the beautiful and peculiar style of funerary architecture of 'Chaukhandi Tombs' many known archaeologists and historians have shed the light of their research work. As these tombs have attracted many researchers, notably, sheikh Khurshid Hasan former director general of Government of Pakistan's Department of Archaeology, Kaleem Lashari ,a very known archaeologist, a German archaeologist Salome Zajadacz Hastenrath and many others. But the most sound work to date has been done by Shaikh Khurshid Hasan in his book 'Chaukhandi Tombs in Pakistan. Now I have attempted to do some further research over this very unique and marvelously carved and designed architecture in of funerary art. Some articles on the structural developments of stone carved graves have also been written by Mr Kaleem Lashari, and has given very constructive aspect of it, and later on a detailed study by Shaikh Khurshid throwing the light on the origin, their style of architecture, the history of the people lying buried there, the system of burial, the various forms of figural representation and decorative motifs, their social life and above all their profession, as it shows from their depiction that mainly they were warriors, craftsmen.