The Enforced Disappearance of Migrants
Valentina Azarova2022, Boston University Journal of International Law
The international legal prohibition of enforced disappearances first developed in the context of authoritarianism. In particular, throughout the second half of the 20th century, several Latin American governments used state agents and non-state actors to disappear political opponents and other identity groups. Today, advocates and scholars are employing the same category to contest state violence in a very different context: the disappearance of migrants, through detention and/or death, under the guise of border enforcement. In this paper, we consider acts of border violence at the U.S.-Mexico Border and at the EU’s Southern and Eastern borders, including the Mediterranean Sea, imagining the potentials and limitations of labeling such practices as enforced disappearances in legal advocacy. After first exploring the doctrinal histories prohibiting enforced disappearance in international law, the paper examines two questions: first, what are the common and differing underlying assumptions in the authoritarianism and border violence contexts that make the legal category of “enforced disappearance” relevant for migrants and their families? Second, what are the practical benefits for migrant rights struggles in such a framing? Beyond simply characterizing such acts of border violence as egregious, the categorization of certain practices as enforced disappearances under international law can provide the relatives of missing migrants with concrete informational remedies and other forms of reparation, including through their rights provisioned by the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance. For countless individuals whose loved ones have gone missing on the move for reasons of State design, this legal framing could help finally uncover the truth behind the fate and whereabouts of their disappeared.
Related papers
Migrants as Victims of Enforced Disappearances
The Position of Victims in the Republic of Serbia, 2024
Triggered by various factors, migrations change people's destinies, social, economic, and cultural bre and patterns of the states and regions, but also the geo-political map of the world. In their attempts to nd a better life conditions or environment, migrants are frequently faced with insecurity, serious human rights violation and violence, including exposure and additional vulnerability to be subjected to smuggling and tra cking and other forms of exploitation. Rigid migration policies of States such as refusal of entry, pushbacks o en accompanied by violence, expulsion or detention, and the increasingly perilous journeys of migrants cause a particular risk to become victims of enforced disappearances. is paper explores and presents the reasons behind the decision of the UN Committee on Enforced Disappearances to adopt the First General Comment on Enforced Disappearances in the Context of Migration, but also elaborates on the process preceded the adoption as well as the content of the document itself. It also discusses the forthcoming steps in dissemination and implementation of the General Comment focusing on the speci c roles of other universal, regional and national human rights mechanisms, including the UN Working Group on Enforced and Involuntary Disappearances.
Deaths, disappearances, borders: Migrant disappearability as a technology of deterrence
Political Geography, 2022
This paper analyses migrant disappearances in connection to EU bordering practices and techniques. Drawing on fieldwork in various localities at Greek borderlands, I argue that death or disappearance, due to drowning, hypothermia, exhaustion, violence, deprivation of medical care, and road accidents, to name but a few examples, has become an integral part of border enforcement in the Global North. To engage analytically with such an instantiation of border violence, I propose to utilise the notion of migrant disappearability. This disappearability is a produced condition (as opposed to accidently or randomly appearing) of everyday existence that does not necessarily lead to death or disappearance but, nevertheless, exerts pressure towards certain kind of precarities and threats by limiting the horizon of possibilities racialised migrants from the Global South have ahead of them. Furthermore, the state of being disappearable is a social space one constantly enters, leaves, re-enters and leaves again; rather than being at the forefront at all times, it looms above like a ghost.
Analysis Disappeared Migrants and Refugees The Relevance of the International Convention on Enforced Disappearance in their search and protection
Analysis Disappeared Migrants and Refugees The Relevance of the International Convention on Enforced Disappearance in their search and protection, 2020
Deaths and disappearances on various migration routes are widely reported and yet there remains little information on the legal obligations of States in these cases. This analysis highlights State obligations with regard to disappeared migrants and refugees, as arising from the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance (ICPPED). It also points to issues that would benefit from additional interpretation by the Committee monitoring the implementation of the ICPPED. While most migrants and refugees do not disappear by way of enforced disappearance, this study examines the criteria for classifying an enforced disappearance as set out in Article 2 of the ICPPED. The Convention defines enforced disappearance as the deprivation of liberty with the authorization, support, or acquiescence of a State, followed by a refusal to acknowledge the deprivation of liberty or concealment of the fate or whereabouts of this person. In migration contexts, States at times cooperate in committing enforced disappearances or commit them in the territory of another State. The analysis proposes ways to assess State responsibility in such circumstances. The ICPPED furthermore obliges States to cooperate in investigating enforced disappearances, assist victims, and search for disappeared persons. These obligations require the undertaking of specific measures by States such as establishing competent authorities, developing cooperation agreements, and adopting specific instruments to ensure the effective participation of families from abroad. A crucial factor in the context of migration is the realization of the obligation to ensure everyone the right to report alleged enforced disappearances to competent authorities, given that this may need to occur from abroad. When there are reasonable grounds to believe that an enforced disappearance has occurred, States are under obligation to undertake an ex officio investigation. This is also the case where an enforced disappearance has been committed by another State. This study shows that the compliance with ICPPED obligations can help to prevent migrants and refugees from disappearing, and may greatly aid the search for them. One crucial mechanism to achieve this, is the cooperation between States in the measures enshrined in the Convention which are particularly relevant in the migration context.
Missing Migrants and the Politics of Disappearance in Armed Conflicts and Migratory Contexts
Ethnos, 2020
Initial Comments in View of the Committee on Enforced Disappearances' Elaboration of a New General Comment on Enforced Disappearances in the Migration Context
UN OHCHR, 2022
The submission is based on our litigation, research and legal advocacy to further the application of the international law on enforced disappearances in the migration context, and draws primarily on practices taking place in Greece and at the EU’s external borders between Greece and Turkey, as one of several locations where migrants are subjected to extreme forms of violence and where we undertake much of our relevant work. The submission is divided into four sections that comment on the following issues: a) Non-discrimination, equality and equal recognition before the law; b) The applicability of specific definitional elements of enforced disappearances in the migration context; c) Direct and indirect practices and policies of disappearance in the migration context; and d) Remedies, transnational cooperation and search and data infrastructure.
The Latin-American Flavor of Enforced Disappearances
Chicago Journal of International Law
Enforced disappearances occur when persons are deprived of their liberty by state officials, organized groups,or private individuals acting on behalf of, or with the support, direct or indirect, consent,or acquiescence of the government. The deprivation of liberty isfollowed by a refusal to disclose the fate or whereabouts of the persons concerned or a refusal to acknowledge the deprivation of their liberty. Consequently,such persons are placed outside the protection of the law. As such, the crime and the human rights violation of enforced disappearance comprise many different types of state repression. Given this multiplicity of scenarios in which enforced disappearances take place, some insist on the danger of over-using the term enforced disappearance, highlighting the need for a definition that separates the Latin American “true” cases of disappearance from those in which the term corresponds to a popular misuse. This Articledescribes this strong connection between enforced disappearances and Latin America.The framework elaborated in the casesemanating from Latin American countries grounded the evolution of the very concept of enforced disappearance and the main concerns surrounding those disappearances. Additionally, Latin America is a space where the use of enforced disappearances was (and still is in some areas) widespread, but also a place which developed the most effective responses to overcome them. The second part of the Article presents Latin Americaas an innovator of human rights norms.As such, the Article challenges traditional understandingsof the evolution of human rights. At the same time, the Latin American story shows the need to avoid a one-size-fits-all approach. This Article proposes instead to understand the Latin American influence on enforced disappearances as a normative 2transnational and internationalframework that could operate under diverse cultural and political logics, and that is necessarily conditioned by local particularities and meanings.
Enforced Disappearance: A Comparative Study of the Jurisprudence of the Inter American Court of Human Rights and the European Court of Human Rights.
In order to prove that the disappearance had actually occurred as a result of state action, the commission pointed toward the systematic practice of enforced disappearance by the Honduran government. It was their assertion that this practice sufficiently proved that the disappearance of Mr Velasquez could be linked to the state. The commission called upon a variety of evidence to demonstrate such a practice existed including witness testimony and media extracts, which indicated as many as 160 people were victims of state colluded disappearance between the years 1980-1983. The evidence pointed towards a distinct modus operandi: they used automobiles with tinted glass… without license plates and sometimes used special disguises, such as wigs, false mustaches, masks…The kidnappings were selective, the victims were placed under surveillance, then… kidnap[ed]... Some were taken from their homes; others were picked up in public streets The Court held that the evidence presented sufficiently proved that: “That there existed in Honduras from 1981 to 1984 a systematic and selective [practice] of disappearances carried out with the assistance or tolerance of the government; That Manfredo Velásquez was a victim of that practice and was kidnapped and presumably tortured, executed and clandestinely buried by agents of the Armed Forces of Honduras …” This aspect of the decision is crucial for two reasons. Firstly, the Court decided that the pattern of behaviour by the Honduran government was relevant to the case at hand and secondly, that the enforced disappearance of Mr Velasquez could be ‘presumed’ as being attributable to that state practice. Referring to existing international law that indicates that courts have the power to weigh evidence freely, the court concluded that the disappearance could be linked to the Honduran government through ‘circumstantial or indirect evidence or by logical inference’ As a result, the burden of proof required to show that a disappearance had occurred, was lowered to less than a reasonable doubt. In explaining the rationale for this change, the court stressed the need to avoid “confusing the protection of human rights, with criminal justice” (an area which is accustomed to fulfilling the higher evidentiary requirement). The judgement went on to state that: “the objective of international human rights law is not to punish those individuals who are guilty of violations, but rather to protect the victims” . This approach would go on to exemplify the victim-centric jurisprudence of the IACHR that makes every effort to ease the facilitation of justice. The benefit to the claimant stemming from this aspect of the decision cannot be overstated as it assists the process of linking the disappeared to the actions of the state.
Non-State Actors and Enforced Disappearances: Defining a Path Forward
International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights, 2021
Migrant deaths in the name of law
Security Dialogue, 2024
While many studies have investigated the problem of migration deaths, to our knowledge attention has never focused on how political actors appeal to law to legitimize these deaths. In our empirical enquiry, we interrogated how the European Commission legitimizes its role in migrant deaths in the Mediterranean through appeals to law. One compelling function of law in this legitimization process is that it presents a narrative as logical and objective. A second aspect of legitimization through law is related to its moral function. Instead of regretting not being more active in saving migrant lives, the European Commission inversed the moral charge, presenting itself as guarantor of law and order that saves migrants if they respect legality. We argue that political actors do not simply submit passively to laws but that laws can also be a resource for the legitimization of what might seem at first glance immoral-in this case an implicit 'right' not to protect.
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The international legal prohibition of enforced disappearances first
developed in the context of authoritarianism. In particular, throughout the
second half of the 20th century, several Latin American governments used
state agents and non-state actors to disappear political opponents and other
identity groups. Today, advocates and scholars are employing the same
category to contest state violence in a very different context: the
disappearance of migrants, through detention and/or death, under the guise
of border enforcement. In this paper, we consider acts of border violence at
the U.S.-Mexico Border and at the EU’s Southern and Eastern borders,
including the Mediterranean Sea, imagining the potentials and limitations of
labeling such practices as enforced disappearances in legal advocacy. After
first exploring the doctrinal histories prohibiting enforced disappearance in
international law, the paper examines two questions: first, what are the
common and differing underlying assumptions in the authoritarianism and
border violence contexts that make the legal category of “enforced
disappearance” relevant for migrants and their families? Second, what are
the practical benefits for migrant rights struggles in such a framing? Beyond
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simply characterizing such acts of border violence as egregious, the
categorization of certain practices as enforced disappearances under
international law can provide the relatives of missing migrants with concrete
informational remedies and other forms of reparation, including through
their rights provisioned by the International Convention for the Protection of
All Persons from Enforced Disappearance. For countless individuals whose
loved ones have gone missing on the move for reasons of State design, this
legal framing could help finally uncover the truth behind the fate and
whereabouts of their disappeared.
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A. The Emergence of Enforced Disappearances and Their
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