Foreign Yahwistic Singers in the Jerusalem Temple? Evidence from Psalm 92

Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament An International Journal of Nordic Theology ISSN: 0901-8328 (Print) 1502-7244 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/sold20 Foreign Yahwistic Singers in the Jerusalem Temple? Evidence from Psalm 92 Nissim Amzallag To cite this article: Nissim Amzallag (2017) Foreign Yahwistic Singers in the Jerusalem Temple? Evidence from Psalm 92, Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, 31:2, 213-235, DOI: 10.1080/09018328.2017.1333764 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09018328.2017.1333764 Published online: 12 Sep 2017. Submit your article to this journal View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=sold20 Download by: [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] Date: 12 September 2017, At: 23:40 Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament, 2017 Vol. 31, No. 2, 213-235, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09018328.2017.1333764 Foreign Yahwistic Singers in the Jerusalem Temple? Evidence from Psalm 92 Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 Nissim Amzallag Ben Gurion University of the Negev POB 653, Beer Sheba 84105, Israel nissamz@post.bgu.ac.il ABSTRACT: Psalm 92 is generally approached as a wisdom, royal, or hymnic song composed for the Sabbath liturgy. The present study, however, reveals that behind this ostensible meaning, this psalm alludes to the integration of foreign Yahwistic singers among the clergy at the Jerusalem temple and the opposition that it provoked among some of their Israelite peers. Though this reality remains visible in the linear reading of the psalm, its full expression emerges only after the psalm is set in a cross-responsa fashion, a mode of complex antiphonal performance that mixes two voices singing the same text in the inverse order of its verses. Key words: Psalm 92, complex antiphony, Asaphites, Ezrahites, non-Israelite yahwism, second temple liturgy 1. Introduction Psalm 92 is not considered one of the most difficult pieces of poetry in the Psalter. Its vocabulary and syntax are quite clear and its meaning is the subject of a general consensus. Apparently, the poet compares the temporary prosperity of the wicked with the durable experience of divine blessing reserved for the righteous.1 In such a context of meaning, this psalm well expresses the classical theme of confidence in divine justice and divine intervention for the righteous. 1. e.g., R.J. Clifford, Psalms 73-150 (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2003), p. 106; F.L. Hossfeld and E. Zenger Psalms II (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005), p. 436; N. Cohen, “Psalm 92: Structure and meaning,” ZAW 125 (2013), pp. 593-606, 593-597; W. Brueggeman and W.H. Bellinger, Psalms (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), p. 398; P. Van der Lugt, Cantos and Strophes in Biblical Poetry III (Leiden: Brill, 2014), pp. 38, 45. © 2017 The Editors of the Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 214 Nissim Amzallag A Psalm. A Song for the Sabbath.2 3 2It is good to sing antiphonally for YHWH, To sing praises to your name, O Most High; 3To declare your steadfast love in the morning, And your faithfulness by night, 4To the music of the lute and the harp, To the melody of the lyre. 5For you have made me glad, YHWH, by your work; At the works of your hands I sing for joy. How great are your works, YHWH! 6 Very deep are Your thoughts! The brutish man cannot know; 7 The stupid cannot understand this: That though sprout the wicked like grass 8 That flourish all vile hypocrites, They are doomed to destruction forever; 9But You are on high forever, YHWH. 10For behold, Your enemies, YHWH, For behold, Your enemies shall perish; Shall be scattered all vile hypocrites. 11My horn is exalted like a wild ox; I am flowed in fresh oil. 4 12My eyes behold my tormentors*; The doom of my counterparts* my ears have heard. 13The righteous, like a palm tree he flourishes Like a cedar in Lebanon he grows up. 14They are planted in the house of YHWH; In the courts of our God they flourish. 15They still bear fruit in old age; Ever full of sap and green they are 16To declare that upright is YHWH; My rock, and no unrighteousness is in Him. 2. The proposed translation respects the original syntax as far as possible and is circumscribed as required to examine Psalm 92 as set in complex antiphonal fashion (see below). 3. In a musical context, the verb lehōdȏt is translated as to sing antiphonally. See N. Amzallag, “Praise or Antiphonal Singing? The Meaning of ‫ להודות‬Revisited,” Hebrew Studies 56 (2015), pp. 115-128. 4. The * sign indicates double entendre that the translation cannot express. Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 Foreign Yahwistic Singers 215 Several elements, however, point to an additional and deeper level of meaning. The first is the elusive nature of both the conflict and the protagonists’ identity. The second is the lack of consensus concerning the genre of this song. Some scholars treat it as a psalm of thanksgiving, praising YHWH for defeating the wicked.5 Others classify it as a royal psalm, in which the Israelite king praises YHWH for helping him against his enemies.6 Yet others interpret it as a wisdom song instead of a composition of hymnic / thanksgiving nature.7 This indeterminacy has led some researchers to postulate a “mixed genre” for Psalm 928, and prompted others to declare any attempt to identify its genre speculative.9 The inability to frame this psalm within one of the identified genres has even been cited as evidence of its uniqueness in the Psalter.10 This vagueness originates in the singular mixing, in this psalm, of verses of praise (vv. 2-6, 9, 11, 13–16) and of condemnation of the wicked (vv. 7–8, 10, 12).11 Also unique is the intertwining of the psalmist’s personal experience (vv. 11–12) and the impersonal rhetorical questions/general considerations about divine praise and justice and (vv. 9–10, 13–14).12 The reference to the Sabbath (v. 1) is another obscure point because the text displays no clear connection with it.13 Therefore, many scholars deduce that this reference is a 5. Brueggeman and Bellinger, Psalms, p. 398. This song has been interpreted as an individual thanksgiving (M.E. Tate, Psalms 51-100 [WBC 20; Waco: Word Books, 1990], p. 464; J. Goldingay, Psalms 90-150 [Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2008], pp. 52-53) and as a confessional prayer (E.S. Gestenberger, Psalms 2 and Lamentations [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001], p. 172) on the basis of the personal view expressed in vv. 5, 11-12. 6. M. Dahood, Psalms 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1968), pp. 336-337. According to Goldingay (Psalms, p. 53), “The speaker might well be a king or governor.” 7. Van der Lugt, Cantos and Strophes, p. 45. 8. This confusing situation is illustrated by the classification proposed by A.A. Anderson (The Book of Psalms II [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972], p. 660): “This poem could be classed as a Hymn or Descriptive Praise with a didactic tone. At the same time it is an Individual Thanksgiving and it seems that the individual deliverance is set in the wider context of God’s dealings with men in general.” See also Clifford (Psalms, p. 106); Hossfeld and Zenger (Psalms, p. 436). 9.M. Girard, Les psaumes redécouverts II (Québec: Bellarmin, 1994), p. 534. 10. E. Beaucamp, Le Psautier 2 (Paris: Gabalda, 1979), p. 106. 11. Gestenberger (Psalms, p. 170), asks, “What are the liturgical and theological reasons for such a juxtaposition of praise and condemnation?” 12. Cohen (”Psalm 92,” p. 594) wonders “What did the psalmist seek to achieve by interrupting the discussion of a fundamental issue with his own private experience?” 13. e.g. N.M. Sarna, “The Psalm for the Sabbath Day (Ps 92)” JBL 81 (1962), pp. 155-168, 159; A. Maillot and A. Lelievre, Les Psaumes 2 (Genève: Labor et Fidès, 1968), p. 254; Tate, Psalms, p. 468; Brueggeman and Bellinger, Psalms, p. 399. Nevertheless, a few scholars assume the existence of allusions to Sabbath theology and liturgy in Psalm 92. See P. Kahn, “The Expanding Perspectives of the Sabbath,” JBQ 32 (2004), pp. 239-244; R. Davidson, “El Sabado en los salmos y en la literatura sapiencial del antiguo testamento,” DavarLogos 10 (2011), pp. 13-48. Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 216 Nissim Amzallag post-compositional addition that specifies the insertion of the psalm into the Sabbath liturgy.14 What remains to understand, however, is why this song was selected for this liturgy and why it is the only one for which this specification is added in the heading. These unanswered questions suggest that, despite the ostensible clarity of Psalm 92, something fundamental may be overlooked. Two possible reasons for this suggest themselves: (i) the psalm was damaged in its transmission so that the relevant information has been lost for good; (ii) it has been preserved well but the poet intentionally concealed its genuine content, which remains to be discovered. Two observations invite us to seriously consider the latter possibility. The first is an allusion to a hidden dimension of meaning expressed in verse 7: “The brutish man cannot know; The stupid cannot understand this.” The second concerns the structural properties of this song. Scholars have identified verse 9, an expression of praise ("You, YHWH, are on high forever"), as the rhetorical center of Psalm 92—the pivotal verse that stresses YHWH’s supremacy and his indifference to the stratagems fomented by the psalmist’s enemies, evoked in the two verses that flank it (vv. 8, 10).15 This pivotal function of verse 9 is confirmed by its position at the exact numerical center of the song (52 words before and after) and by the central (fourth) mention among the seven mentions of the name YHWH. Furthermore, many scholars have suggested the existence of a global concentric structure in Psalm 92 on the basis of the thematic relationship between the central verse (v. 9) and the first and last verses (vv. 2, 16),16 the concentric symmetry of successive themes surrounding verse 9,17 and semantic affinities between verses symmetrically positioned relative to verse 9.18 These observations imply a good state of preservation of Psalm 92. The conjunction of literary indeterminacies and well-organized symmetry suggests that the song at issue may have been designed not for linear reading but for antiphonal performance by two choirs, each singing a different part of the song. This mode, defined as complex antiphony, generates a composite text through dialogic bonding of distant segments of verses, each sung by 14. Sarna, “Psalm 92,” p. 168. 15. Van der Lugt, Cantos and strophes, p. 41; J. Magonet, “Some Concentric Structures in Psalms,” Heytrop Journal 23 (1982), pp. 365-376, 371; Tate, Psalms, p. 467; Cohen, “Psalm 92,” p. 596. 16. Magonet, “Concentric structures,” p. 369. 17. R.L. Alden, “Chiastic Psalms II. A Study in the Mechanics of Semitic Poetry in Psalms 51-100,” JETS 19 (1976), pp. 191-200, 199; Magonet, “Concentric Structures,” pp. 369-372; P. Auffret, Voyez de vos yeux. Étude structurelle de vingt psaumes dont the Psaume 119 (Leiden: Brill, 1993), p. 311); Tate (Psalms, p. 464); Davidson, “El Sabado,” pp. 18-21. 18. J.N. Aletti and J, Trublet, Approche poétique et théologique des psaumes. Analyses et méthodes (Paris: Le Cerf, 1983), p. 87. Despite these evidences, Van der Lugt (Cantos and strophes, p. 44) concludes that “... there is no basis for construing a well-balanced concentric pattern.” Foreign Yahwistic Singers 217 Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 another voice.19 In this study, we ask whether all these considerations may help us to clarify both the identity of the psalmist and the content of his song. 2. The Protagonists in Psalm 92 2.1. The I-voice The psalmist self-identifies as a tree growing in the house of YHWH (v. 14), a detail indicating that he probably belongs to the Jerusalemite clergy. He is also involved in choral singing (vv. 2–3) and/or musical performance (v. 4). In verse 5, he states explicitly that he participates in the musical worship: “At the works of your hands I sing for joy” (bĕmaʿăśê yādêkā ʾărannēn). These observations suggest that the psalmist belongs to the community of cultic poets/singers appointed to the Jerusalem temple. The singer speaks in the first person in verses 5, 11–12 but his use of the plural in verse 14 integrates him into a group. The I-voice in Psalm 92 is therefore exemplary, gathering the psalmist with his close companions.20 In verse 14, the psalmist affirms that he and his companions have been planted (šĕtûlîm) in the Jerusalem temple.21 This metaphor reveals that the house of YHWH preexisted their coming to Jerusalem. For this reason, this description fits not the Asaphite singers, who returned from the Babylonian exile (Ezra 2,41) before the reconstruction of the temple, but rather foreign singers who integrated into the Jerusalem clergy when the temple (first or second) already existed. This foreign origin is also supported by the total absence of Israelite markers in Psalm 92. Even the mention of Zion or Jerusalem is lacking here, the psalmist evoking only “the house of YHWH.” Moreover, in v. 14, the psalmist considers the temple as being “the courts of our god” (bĕḥaṣĕrȏt ʾĕlōhēnû). In absence of any Israelite marker, it is even tempting to assume that the psalmist refers here to foreign worship of YHWH. The Opponents The psalmist constantly uses the plural to denote his enemies. Exactly as in the psalmist’s own group, vegetal imagery is used in v. 8 to characterize the 19. This mode has been identified in ancient Hebrew and Ugaritic poetry. See N. Amzallag, “The Musical Mode of Writing of the Psalms and its Significance,” OTE 27 (2014), pp. 17-40; N. Amzallag and S. Yona, “The Unusual Mode of Editing of KTU 1.65,” Ugarit Forschungen 45 (2014), pp. 35-48. 20. Gestenberger, Psalms and Lamentations, p. 172. 21. On the interpretation, in this verse, of štl as to emplant, see Dahood (Psalms 2, p. 338) and Tate (Psalms, p.463). This metaphor, especially when combined with the identification of the psalmist as a cedar in the foregoing verse, recalls the description in Ezekiel of emplanting (štl) old cedars in a new mountain by layering or cutting propagation: “Thus says my Lord YHWH: “I myself will take a sprig from the lofty top of the cedar and will set it out. I will break off from the topmost of its young twigs a tender one, and I myself will plant it on a high and lofty mountain. On the mountain height of Israel will I plant it (ʾešttŏlennû), that it may bear branches and produce fruit and become a noble cedar [...]” (Ezek 17,22-23a). Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 218 Nissim Amzallag opponents. Their rapid growth (evoked by likening them to grass—v. 8) also suggests their auspicious welfare and status. The expression baqqāmîm ʿālay mĕrēʿîm (v. 12) is generally translated as “the malignant that rise up against me.” This meaning is supported by the expression baqqāmîm ʿālay, which one would naturally associate with aggressive behavior. However, mrʿym is not vocalized here as marēʿîm, as one would expect in the hiph’il conjugation of rʿʿ (= to do evil), but as merēʿîm. It is therefore the plural of mērēʿa (= companion), a person who shares the psalmist’s status or function.22 This double-entendre suggests that the opponent group is composed of the psalmist’s peers. If so, Psalm 92 reports a conflict between two groups of cultic singers working together at the Jerusalem temple. 3. Complex Antiphony in Psalm 92 Concentric symmetry invests the text of a song with palindromic properties and, especially, the ability to read its verses in both ascending and descending order. From the perspective of complex antiphony, this property suggests that Psalm 92 was designed for dialogic performance between a “sense voice” (first choir), which sings the text in ascending order of verses, and an “antisense voice” (second choir) that responds by singing the same text in descending order. Such a pattern, already identified in biblical poetry, has been defined as cross responsa.23 All the between-verse transitions of the antisense reading of Psalm 92 display a high level of literary coherency (see Table 1), suggesting the possibility that Psalm 92 was actually designed for such a mode of performance. In Psalm 92, the pairing of corresponding verses from the sense and antisense voices yields a series of composite verses (CVs) centering on an echo performance of verse 9 (identified above as the pivotal axis), after which both the ranking and the precedence of paired verses become inverted: 2//16 → 3//15 → 4//14 → 5//13 → 6//12 → 7//11 → 8//10 → 9//9 → 10//8 → 11//7 → 12//6 → 13//5 → 14//4 → 15//3 → 16//2. If we assume that the antiphonal dialogue involves the pairing of cola rather than whole verses, it appears immediately that the cross-responsa pattern is especially well suited to the verse structure of Psalm 92. The only monocolic verse in this song (v. 9) can be paired only with itself, exactly as observed here. Furthermore, verses 8 and 10, the two tricolic verses of the song, are paired together, creating a bundle around the monocolic central verse.24 Their pairing is especially appropriate to their content: verses 8 and 10 mention the opponents of the psalmist (and, by extension, of YHWH) by the similar appellation, pōʿalêy ʾāwen, and in the similar denouement that awaits them. 22. See Judg 14,20; 15,2.6; Gen 26,26; 2 Sam 3,8; Job 6,14. 23. See Amzallag “Musical mode,” pp. 32-34. 24. Magonet, “Concentric structures,” p. 371; Auffret, Voyez de vos yeux, pp. 304, 309. Foreign Yahwistic Singers 219 Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 4. Analysis of the Composite Text If Psalm 92 was truly designed in cross-responsa fashion, all of its composite verses (CV) and the succession of their claims would display literary coherency. This point is now tested. CV1 (vv. 2//16) 2aIt is good to sing antiphonally for YHWH 16aTo declare that upright is YHWH 2bTo sing praises to Your name, O Most High 16bMy rock, and no unrighteousness is in Him The first pair of cola (2a//16a) is an invitation to perform an antiphonal song of praise of YHWH (lĕhōdȏt = antiphonal singing). It also, however, yields another meaning. In the course of singing, the letter yod at the beginning of the adjective yāšār may be spontaneously confounded with the same letter immediately preceding it (in the preposition kî). In this manner, verse 16a also affirms that YHWH sings (= šar) together with the performers. This transformation is reinforced by the musical context of the cola preceding it (v. 2a) and, especially, the dialogic performance addressed to (lehōdȏt l-) YHWH. Therefore, this opening pair expresses the belief that musical worship stimulates YHWH’s theophany.25 The second pair (2b//16b) praises YHWH as a supreme deity (ʿelyȏn , 2b) of strong (ṣûr) and indefectible nature (lōʾ ʿawlātāh) (16b). In the context of the musical performance expressed by the previous pair, the adjective ʿelyȏn evokes the singing (for YHWH) in elevated tones. In parallel, ṣûr in 16b denotes something narrow (ṣar), an especially apt allusion to the thin sound of the elevated tones evoked in 2b. Consequently, the expression lōʾ ʿawlātāh (16b) also specifies the psalmist’s ability to sing in tune even in the highest tones. This second meaning is especially relevant in Psalm 92, which uses the metaphor of the psalmist as an elevated cedar whose musical skill is unaffected even in advanced age. CV2 (vv. 3//15) 3aTo declare your steadfast love in the morning 15aThey still bear fruit in old age 3bAnd your faithfulness by night 15bEver full of sap and green they are. 25. See R.J. Tournay Voir et entendre Dieu avec les psaumes—La liturgie prophétique du second temple à Jérusalem (Paris: Gabalda, 1988), pp. 20, 39-48; and J.W. Kleinig, The Lord's Song: The Basis, Function and Significance of Choral Music in Chronicles (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), pp. 149-165. This is revealed, for example, by the first mention of YHWH’s presence at the Jerusalem temple at the moment the first choral singing begins (2 Chr 5,13-14). The same idea is expressed in Ps 47,6: “God has gone up with a shout; YHWH with the sound of a trumpet.” Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 220 Nissim Amzallag Again, the first pair affirms the musical worship of YHWH (3a) as the source of vitality for the psalmist and his peers even in their advanced age (15a). Through the combination with v. 3a, which evokes hymns of praise, the verb nwb (= to bear fruit, 15a) alludes to the composition of hymns and liturgical works. The second pair (3b//15b) reiterates the claims that the musical worship of YHWH (3b) maintains the singers’ vitality (15b). Here, however, a nuance is introduced. The first pair of colas (3a//15a) evokes diurnal performances, a probable reference to the official worship of YHWH at the temple, which justifies their appointment. The second pair of cola (3b//15b) is suggestive of nightly performances independent of the official cult of YHWH at Jerusalem. It is noteworthy that the vitality educed in 15b through the adjectives dešēn and raʿănan26 is, for the psalmist and his companions, associated with their nocturnal private performances (3b) rather than the official diurnal worship of YHWH. CV3 (vv. 4//14) 4aTo the music of the lute and the harp 14aThey are planted in the house of YHWH 4bTo the melody of the lyre 14bIn the courts of our God they flourish The third composite verse reveals the musical skill of the psalmist and his peers (v. 4), on the one hand, and their installation (implantation) in the house of YHWH, that is, their promotion to the status of cultic singers, on the other. The pairing argues that these foreign singers owe their appointment (v. 14a) to their talents as musicians (4a) and, especially, their ability to accompany their songs by playing the lyre. The vegetal imagery introduces further details about their process of integration. The replanting of a mature tree (v. 14a) involves a temporary loss of vitality. This reality is explicitly evoked in verse 4a, after ʿălêy (4a) is interpreted as the construct form of the plural of ʿāleh (= leaf). Consequently, ʿălêy ʿāśȏr also evokes the old and chlorotic leaves (= the leaf positioned after the ten first ones numbered from the apex) of replanted trees. In parallel, ʿălêy nābel also evokes leaves that wither and fall (as in Ps 1:3) due to the damaged root system. Through this simile, the first pair of cola expresses the difficult period of acclimation to the Israelite reality that these foreign poets and singers undergo. In 4b, ʿălêy is now associated with hymns the psalmist and his companions sing with the accompaniment of the lyre in the court of the temple in Jerusalem (14b). Extending the meaning of the 4a//14a pair, the poet here praises the contribution of musical performances to their acclimation to the Israelite reality. 26. Concerning the meaning of dešēn in Psalm 92 as luxuriant or richly growing, see J.F.D. Creach, “Like a Tree Planted by the Temple Stream: The Portrait of the Righteous in Psalm 1:3,” CBQ 61 (1999), pp 34-46, 42, 46. Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 Foreign Yahwistic Singers 221 CV4 (vv. 5//13) 5aFor You have made me glad, YHWH, by Your work 13aThe righteous, like a palm tree he flourishes 5bAt the works of Your hands I sing for joy 13bLike a cedar in Lebanon he grows up The verb prḥ (13a) is generally interpreted as to grow/develop, exactly as in Ps 92,8a and according to the parallel meaning of śgy (= to increase) in 13b. It also, however, denotes to flower (e.g., Isa 35,1-2; Hos 14,6; Hab 3,17), and this meaning fits especially the 5a//13a pairing. The date palm is a dioecious species, in which the two complementary reproductive organs (male and female) develop in distinct individuals. In the context of musical worship, the image of the blossoming date palm metaphorizes complex antiphony, in which the complementary components of the song are carried by distinct choirs that bear fruit (= produce the composite meaning) only when the separate claims are mixed with the help of wind/breath (= the voices). Following this metaphor, the divine “work” (5a) as the source of joy is none other than the spontaneous emergence of composite meanings in the course of the complex antiphonal performance. The combination of cola in the second pair (5b//13b) confirms the musical dimension of the metaphor and the ability of this mode of performance to reveal the “works of YHWH.” Even more than dates on palm trees, cones remain on the branches of the cedar for months if not years. According to the metaphoric interpretation of fruit as poems (the second composite verse), this imagery alludes to the perennating nature of their compositions. CV5 (vv. 6//12) 6aHow great are Your works, YHWH! 12aMy eyes behold my tormentors* 6bVery deep are Your thoughts! 12bThe doom of my counterparts* my ears have heard Given that the use of šûrāy as a form of šȏrerāy (= my enemies/tormentors27) in Psalm 92 is unmatched in the Bible, it is supported only by the parallel mention of merēʿîm as wicked in 12b. However, as vocalized in the MT, merēʿîm denotes the psalmist’s companions (see above), inviting us to seek another interpretation of šûrāy. As a nominative form of the verb šwr (paralleled with rʾy [= to see] in Num 23,9; 24,17 and probably meaning to behold / to look attentively at someone [e.g., Hos 14,9]),28 the locution šûrāy refers here to those who look at the psalmist and watch him with scrutiny. In the present context of antiphonal performance (CV4), this expression designates the members of the responding choir. The symmetry is encountered in 12b, 27. Hossfeld and Zenger, Psalms 2, p. 435. See also Pss 5,9; 27,11; 54,7; 56,3 and 59,11. 28. See HALOT 4, p. 1450. Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 222 Nissim Amzallag which mentions those who look at the psalmist who observes them. Such reciprocal attention fits the dialogic performance of complex antiphony, in which the members of each choir have to synchronize their claims with those of the complementary choir in order to generate coherent composite meanings. From such a perspective, the poet here relates the wonder (6a) of the self-elicited combination of complementary claims in the course of a complex antiphonal performance (12a). This interpretation is confirmed in v. 12b, in which the psalmist mentions the voice of his peers (mĕrēʿîm) which covers his own voice (baqqāmîm ʿālay) and, in this manner, generates an intertwining of claims that his ears perceive (tīšĕmaʿĕnâ ʾozĕnāy). This cola provides an accurate description, from within a choir, of the spontaneous emergence of composite deep meanings (6b) through the intertwinement of claims. CV6 (vv. 7//11) 7aThe brutish man cannot know 11a My horn is exalted like a wild ox 7bThe stupid cannot understand this 11bI am flowed in fresh oil In the context of the previous composite verse (CV5), the situation either ignored or misunderstood (v. 7) is probably none other than complex antiphony and, specifically, the riddles and subtle meanings that spontaneously emanate from this mode of performance. This context of interpretation clarifies the meaning of verse 11 and of the composite verse (7//11). First Couple (7a//11a) A parallel emerges between the psalmist, who is identified as a reʾēm (11a), a wild and impetuous animal (e.g., Ps 22,22; Deut 33,17), and the expression ʾîš baʿar (7a), which specifically designates a beasty/brutish man.29 This pairing indicates that the psalmist is not likened to something positive in 11a. If so, the locution tārem, which promotes such an “animalization” of the psalmist, probably does not reflect his expectations. Accordingly, the verb should be understood not as the hiph’il second-person singular of rwm, as the MT vocalization would suggest, but as the third-person singular of the passive form (huph’al). Consequently, instead of referring to YHWH as elevating (hiph’il) the horn of the psalmist, it probably reports the way the psalmist is appreciated (huph’al) by those ignorant of the subtleties of the art of complex antiphony.30 29. Anderson, Psalms, p. 662, Goldingay, Psalms, p. 56. 30. This reading of trm as huph'al is attested in the Septuagint, in which this verb is translated as ὑψωθήσεται (= [my horn] is elevated). Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 Foreign Yahwistic Singers 223 Second Couple (7b//11b) If verse 7b refers to people who cannot understand the riddles flowing from the combination of claims inherent to complex antiphony, we may guess that the meaning of 11b is also not as positive as it may appear at first glance. The expression šemen raʿănān (11b) is generally understood as denoting fresh/green oil, that is, freshly pressed olive oil. This unripe oil is unfit for consumption due to its bitter taste caused by hydrophilic droplets in suspension (that gradually dissipate by decantation). Therefore, the expression šemen raʿănān evokes rashness in the use of unripe oil, so that its genuine taste and quality cannot be appreciated. The metaphor clarifies: stupid men cannot appreciate this poetry (7b) because they settle for the simplest meaning and feel no need to meditate the riddles that emanate from the pairing of distant verses—the riddles by which the psalmist and his peers contemplate YHWH and his wisdom (CV5). The meaning of ballōtî in 11b has been extensively discussed. Most scholars interpret it as derived from the root bll: to moisten with oil (and, by extension, to anoint), to mix, and to confound, the last-mentioned meaning sometimes having a negative connotation (destruction / corruption).31 Really, the meaning of bll as to anoint is supported by the mention of oil in this cola. However, the MT ballōtî (qal form) is unlikely because it implies that the psalmist here anoints someone else. For this reason, scholars have interpreted it as simple passive participle32 or emended it into ballōtanî.33 The present considerations and, especially, the passive verbal form here identified in 11a suggest that ballōtî should be interpreted as a passive form and translated as I have been anointed. The meaning I have been confounded may even be more appropriate: the subtle content of the psalmist’s poems is ignored by a public that contents itself with the primary meaning only (fresh oil) and appreciates his opuses in the resulting simplistic manner. CV7 (vv. 8//10) 8aThat though sprout the wicked like grass 10aFor behold, your enemies, YHWH 8bThey flourish all vile hypocrites 10bFor behold, your enemies shall perish 31. HALOT 1, p. 134. 32. Tate, Psalm, p. 462. 33. Van der Lugt, Cantos and strophes, p. 37. Additional solutions that maintain the qal form of bll have also been proposed. Hossfeld and Zenger (Psalms 2, p. 435) construe ballōtî as “I have poured out upon me”; T. Booij (“The Hebrew text of Psalm XCII 11,” VT 38 (1988), pp. 210-213, 212) translates 11b as “I mix my meal with fresh oil.” Alternately, the verbal form ballōtî is thought to have derived from the root blh (degradation/destruction) and interpreted as expressing the psalmist’s advanced age: S. Loewenstamm ( “Balloti bĕšämän raʿanān,” Ugarit Forschungen 10 [1978.], pp. 111-113) translates 11b as “My old age is like a fresh oil-tree.” See also Girard (Les psaumes, p. 527) and Cohen (”Psalm 92,” p. 602). 224 Nissim Amzallag Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 8cThey are doomed to destruction forever 10cShall be scattered all vile hypocrites After alluding to those who are unmindful of the subtleties of this art (CV6), the poet now devotes the next composite verse to his opponents. The first pair designates them as evildoers (rešāʿîm, 8a) and, by so doing, summarily transforms them into enemies of YHWH (10a). The expression pōʿalêy ʾāwen is generally translated as evildoers. In Ps 141,9, it is associated with the setting of snares, a malicious furtive mode of action. The very same perfidy is attributed to pōʿalêy ʾāwen in Prov 30,20. In Ps 14,4, the term pōʿalêy ʾāwen specifically evokes people who live in the Jerusalem temple and, while involved in the official cult of YHWH, are accused of corrupting it intentionally.34 Accordingly, if the opponent group refers to cultic singers working at the Jerusalem temple, it seems that pōʿalêy ʾāwen designates them as people of righteous and virtuous appearance who secretly do evil to their peers, the psalmist and his companions.35 It should therefore be translated as vile hypocrites. The appellation as pōʿalêy ʾāwen in the second and third pairs (8b and 10c respectively) reveals the nature of their misconduct: they strive furtively to discredit the psalmist and his companions in the eyes of the Israelites. If this misconduct makes them enemies of YHWH (8a//10a), their active opposition (8b) is regarded as the source of their perdition (10b). Verse 10c promises the scattering of the psalmist’s enemies. Beyond this general meaning, the hitpa’el form of prd evokes the idea of spontaneous self-dislocation of the group of opponents.36 The meaning of lĕhiššāmĕdām (the nif’al absolute infinitive of šmd) in 8c as to be made unusable (a meaning especially encountered in a cultic context in Jer 48,8 and Hos 10,8) suggests that it evokes the failure of musical endeavors of the opponents, who are also identified as poets and singers (see above).37 CV8 (vv. 9//9) 9But you are on high forever, YHWH 9But you are on high forever, YHWH Positioned between CV7 and its CV9 counterpart, the monocolic verse 9, sung in echo, introduces a contrast between the frenetic efforts of the psalmist’s enemies and YHWH’s serene indifference. This gap, which should be considered the central claim of the composite setting of Psalm 92, emphasizes the absence of a theology of retribution among the psalmist and his com34. See N. Amzallag, Esau in Jerusalem—The Rise of a Seirite Religious Elite in Jerusalem at the Persian Period (Paris: Gabalda, 2015), pp. 133-137. 35. H.J. Kraus (The Theology of Psalms [Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Press, 1992], p. 131) counsels, “[...] The translation evildoers is too weak, ‫ און‬is the (abyss of) viciousness, the dark counterpole of ‫צדק‬.” 36. HALOT 3, p. 963. 37. HALOT 4, p. 1553. Foreign Yahwistic Singers 225 Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 panions and its replacement by a theology of contemplating YHWH as the source of life, wisdom, and vitality. CV9 (vv. 10//8) 10aFor behold, your enemies, YHWH 8aThat though sprout the wicked like grass 10bFor behold, your enemies shall perish 8bThey flourish all vile hypocrites 10cShall be scattered all vile hypocrites 8cThey are doomed to destruction forever The inversion of precedence between verses 8 and 10, in CV9 introduces a new element. Now, the perdition of the psalmist’s enemies (v. 10) is revealed through the vegetal metaphor (v. 8). Since this latter is closely related to the musical worship of YHWH in the temple, we may conclude that the poet considers the rival group’s poor musical and poetic performances the most blatant evidence of their perdition. CV10 (vv. 11//7) 11aMy horn is exalted like a wild ox 7aThe brutish man cannot know 11bI am flowed in fresh oil 7bThe stupid cannot understand this Verse 11 now refers to the psalmist and his group immediately after the enemies self-destruct under the weight of their mediocre musical performances (CV9). For this reason, it has a considerably more positive meaning here than in CV6. It informs us that the opponent group valorizes the collective of psalmists by its simple attempt to rival it in musical performances. Therefore, the opponents contribute to the promotion of these foreign singers, at least in the eyes of those capable of appreciating the quality of their performances (v. 7). CV11 (vv. 12//6) 12aMy eyes behold my tormentors* 6aHow great are Your works, YHWH! 12bThe doom of my counterparts* my ears have heard 6bVery deep are Your thoughts! The inversion of precedence introduces a linkage between the opponents mentioned in CV10 and those identified as šûrāy and merēʿîm in verse 12. This means that, in contrast to CV5, the peers evoked in v. 12 now probably belong to the opponent group. The psalmist reflects on the contrast between the opponents’ evil intention and the positive outcomes of their actions (their role of faire-valoir in emphasizing the skill of the psalmist and his group, revealed in CV10), expressed in 12a as a divine wonder (6a). He instructs 226 Nissim Amzallag Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 himself (12b), every time the opponents attack the psalmist and his group (baqqāmîm ʿālay mĕrēʿîm), to remember how badly they perform (tīšĕmaʿĕnâ ʾāzĕnāy), and how YHWH frustrates their evil intentions (6b). CV12 (vv. 13//5) 13aThe righteous, like a palm tree he flourishes 5aFor You have made me glad, YHWH, by Your work 13bLike a cedar in Lebanon he grows up 5bAt the works of our hands I sing for joy CV12 becomes the conclusion of the three previous composite verses: instead of fighting the enemies with similar weapons (slander, perfidy, and so on), the psalmist and his group focus on their art and cultivate excellence in the musical worship of YHWH. This is the means by which they will not only contemplate YHWH but also, and at the same time, annihilate their opponents. CV13 (vv. 14//4) 14aThey are planted in the house of YHWH 4aTo the music of the lute and the harp 14bIn the courts of our God they flourish 4bTo the melody of the lyre Pursuant to the metaphor of majestic and evergreen cedar and data palm, the pair 14//4 of verses no longer evokes the re-plantation of the foreign psalmist and his group. Now it alludes to their flourishing in the house of YHWH (v. 14) with the help of their musical performances (v. 4)—making the meaning of this composite verse an extension of the previous one. CV14 (vv. 15//3) 15aThey still bear fruit in old age 3aTo declare Your steadfast love in the morning 15bEver full of sap and green they are 3bAnd Your faithfulness by night Exactly as in the corresponding CV2, the dual activity of the psalmist group is specified here: their appointment for the diurnal (official) worship of YHWH in the temple (1a//3a) and their nocturnal adoration of YHWH, probably independent of it (15b//3b). After an extensive exposition on the difference vis-à-vis his opponents in musical skill and performances in the previous composite verses (CV9-CV13), the psalmist now reveals the nocturnal activity, of which the opponents are ignorant, as the source of vitality/talent. CV15 (vv. 16//2) 16aTo declare that upright is YHWH 2aIt is good to sing antiphonally for YHWH 16bMy rock, and no unrighteousness is in Him Foreign Yahwistic Singers 227 sing praises to Your name, O Most High Now that the nocturnal musical activity of the psalmist and his group has been mentioned (15b//3b), CV15 becomes a conclusive development that reveals the nature of this nocturnal worship: YHWH is praised (16a) through a series of antiphonal performances (2a) that divulge the true nature and righteousness of YHWH (16b) through the performers’ virtuosity (2b). Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 2bTo 5. Discussion 5.1. Cross-responsa in Psalm 92 Cross-responsa is identified in Psalm 92 on the basis of structural properties and confirmed by the identification, beyond the linear reading, of an antisense reading and of a composite reading issuing from the combination of the first two. The present study also reveals the literary coherency of the succession of composite verses. The first part of the composite song (CV 1-CV7) is devoted mainly to the acclimation of the psalmist and his companions, as foreigners, to the Jerusalemite reality, and to the way their art is appreciated by the Israelite audience. It ends (CV7) with local cultic singers’ virulent opposition to their presence and activity. The pivotal verse of the composite song, CV8, is surprising at first sight, by praising YHWH’s distance from the conflict occurring in his house. The second part of the composite song (CV9CV15) reveals the wonder that inheres to such a divine attitude: that the opponents choose an approach of rivalry instead of mixing with the foreigners and mastering their art emphasizes the difference in skill between them and even contributes to the foreign singers’ acclimation to their Jerusalem new environment. This second part also reveals that the foreign singers’ outstanding skill allows them to attain the musical worship of YHWH through complex antiphony, which is approached as the source of knowledge of YHWH that grows in profundity as their virtuosity improves. Such a high level of literary coherency in the composite text of Psalm 92, including chronological development throughout, is unexpected if this psalm was designed only for linear reading in successive verses. Therefore, the composite meanings of each couple of verses and the literary development of the composite text as a whole confirm that Psalm 92 was truly designed for cross-responsa performance. 5.2. The Foreign Singers as Ezrahites Conflicts between singers have been identified in the post-exilic literature, especially in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles, and the Psalter.38 Bernard Gosse noticed important theological differences between the collection of psalms of Asaph (50, 73–83) and what he defined as the KorahiteMerarite group of psalms (42–49; 84–85, 87–89). They concern especially 38. A. Groenewald, “Who are the “servants” (Psalm 69:36c-37b)? A Contribution to the History of the Literature of the Old Testament,” HTS 59 (2003), pp. 735-761, 753; Amzallag, Esau in Jerusalem, pp. 121-142. Nissim Amzallag Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 228 the status of foreigners, their access to the temple, and the legitimacy of their participation in the cult.39 In the Korahite-Merarite psalms, the worship of YHWH in Jerusalem is open to foreigners whom the Asaphite psalms describe as enemies of YHWH responsible for the destruction of Jerusalem temple.40 The mention in Chronicles of sons of Obed-Edom who are affiliated with the Jerusalem temple clergy (1 Chr 26,4–8) suggests that these foreigners were of Edomite origin.41 Further observations confirm the existence, in post-exilic Jerusalem, of a group of foreign singers collectively designated as Ezrahites, whose integration into the clergy divided the post-exilic community, and even a community of singers of post-exilic origin (identified as the sons of Asaph).42 Additional elements support the identification of the foreign singers in Psalm 92 as Ezrahites. Wordplays and Allusions Psalm 92 conceals allusions to the Ezrahite identity of the psalmist and his peers:  Terminology. The adjective raʿănān is generally associated with fresh and green vegetal material43 as well as evergreen trees.44 Encountered twice in Psalm 92, it characterizes the oil with which the psalmist is anointed (v. 11) and expresses his vitality (= skill and creative capacities) even at an advanced age (v. 15). Interestingly, in Ps 37,35 this adjective combines with ʾezrāḥ. Exactly as in Psalm 92, Psalm 37 evokes a conflict between peers, revealed in v. 35 by the enemy’s attempts to look like (hitp. ʿry = to expose oneself) an ʾezrāḥ raʿănān . And exactly as in Psalm 92, this vile attempt to replace the ʾezrāḥ (identified with the psalmist) in Psalm 37 is doomed to disappear rapidly. This is revealed in the subsequent verse: “But he passed away, and behold, he was no more; though I sought him, he could not be found” (Ps 37,36). The parallel with Psalm 92 is confirmed by the contrast between the wicked, who are expected to dry rapidly as 39. B. Gosse, “Le sanctuaire et le messie dans les psaumes Asaphites et Coréites,” Transeuphratène 47 (2015), pp. 39-46, 39, 42-44. 40. Ibid., p. 45. 41. N. Tan, “The Chronicler's ‘Obed-edom’: A Foreigner and/or a Levite?” JSOT 32 (2007), pp. 217-230, 217, 227; J.M. Tebes, “The Edomite involvement in the Destruction of the First Temple: A Case of Stab-in-the-Back Tradition?” JSOT 36 (2011), pp. 219-235, 253. 42. The integration of the Ezrahite singers (sons of Heman and of Jeduthun/Ethan of Seirite and Edomite origin respectively) into the Jerusalem clergy is reported in Nehemiah 7-11 (See Amzallag, Esau in Jerusalem, pp. 15-52, 121-144). It therefore occurred after the completion of the “house of YHWH” (Ezra 6,16). 43. Jer 17,8; Song 1,16. 44. Deut 12,2; 1 Kgs 14,23; 2 Kgs 16,4;17,10; Isa 57,5; Jer 2,20; 3,6.13; 17,2; Ezek 6,13. It specifically designates an olive tree in Jer 11,16; Ps 52,10, and a cypress in Hos 14,9. Foreign Yahwistic Singers Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017   229 grass ("For they will soon fade like the grass and wither like the green herb,” Ps 37,2), and the righteous, who are associated with the evergreen (ʾezrāḥ raʿănān).45 If ʾezrāḥ in Psalm 37 represents the Ezrahite singers in the generic, the designation of the poet group as raʿănān in Psalm 92 reveals their identity as Ezrahites. The vegetal metaphor. In biblical Hebrew, the root ṣmḥ connotes both active vegetal development and radiance.46 By implication, the vegetal metaphor of the psalmist and his companions indirectly defines them as powerfully radiant (= zrḥ ) people.47 Furthermore, the verb ṣwṣ denoting the enemies’ (paltry) vegetal growth (Ps 92,8) is closely related to the verb nṣṣ (= to shine). This parallel is especially interesting here: the choice of the root ṣwṣ for the opponents’ grass simile associates their (meager) light with shining (reflection of an existing light), whereas zeraḥ (=radiance) evokes the production of light by the Ezrahites (= the sons of Zerah), who are identified with majestic trees.48 The double meaning of qeren. Through the parallel between qeren (= radiance)49 and zeraḥ, the locution qārnî (v. 11a, my radiance) evokes not only a horn, but also the psalmist’s association with the sons of Zerah. Yahwistic Background The psalmist, though being a foreign singer, considers himself a fervent Yahwist. What is more, the lack of Israelite markers in Psalm 92 suggests that his Yahwistic background is independent of the Israelite theology. This singularity is explained by identifying the psalmist as an Ezrahite. The Bible mentions three clans of sons of Zerah: Judahite (Num 26,20; 1 Chr 2,4; 27,11), Simeonite (Num 26,13; 1 Chr 4,24), and Edomite (Gen 36,13 and 1 Chr 1,37) but scholars assume that all these clans have a common origin in 45. It is noteworthy that ʾezraḥ, in Ps 37,35, is generally translated as tree (and even as cedar from Lebanon in the Septuagint)— a feature that reinforces the parallel with Psalm 92. 46. See S. Morag, “Psalm 37:35,” Tarbiz 50 (1981), pp. 1-23, 2-4. This parallel was already identified by many medieval grammarians and exegetes, including Saadia Gaon and Abraham Abulafia. 47. The same parallel is expressed in biblical Hebrew by the noun ʾȏr designating light (e.g. Gen 1,3) whereas ʾȏrāh designates grass (e.g. 2 Kgs 4,39). Morag (”Psalm 37:35,” 4) also signals that this parallel between vegetal growth and radiance is also encountered in Akkadian, where nabâṭu designates both to germinate/to grow and to illuminate, and in Aramaic, where ṣemaḥ designates light and radiance, instead of plant in biblical Hebrew. 48. This is another subtle way to incriminate those who oppose imitating the Ezrahites’ poetical works, a feature explicitly indicated by the accusation, in Ps 37,35, of the wicked disguising himself (mītʿāreh) as an ʾezrāḥ raʿănān. 49. See qeren in Ex 34,29-30.35. Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 230 Nissim Amzallag Seir/Edom.50 A cult of YHWH in Edom is only elusively mentioned in the Bible.51 However, the origin of YHWH in Seir/Edom is stated outright (Seir: Deut 32,2; Judg 5,4; Teman/Paran: Hab 3,3), independently of Israelite Yahwism and even preceding it. In Psalm 92, the wicked are expected to fall not by divine intervention but as an unavoidable consequence of their evil nature.52 Thus, whereas the psalmist and his group are identified as trees, likening their enemies with herbs stresses their inability to reach groundwater (a probable metaphor of knowledge of YHWH and wisdom). They are inevitably condemned to dry at the end of the rainy season and lack all merit for divine involvement. The second half of the composite text (CV9-CV15) confirms that this passiveness should in no way be considered as an inability to intervene on YHWH’s part; instead, it reflects his “wondrous” mode of action. Therefore, the theology in Psalm 92 centers on contemplating YHWH as the source of life instead of calling for divine intervention in favor of the righteous.53 It is noteworthy that such a representation of passiveness of YHWH corresponds to the central motive of accusation formulated in Psalm 14 against the Ezrahites, whose theology is caricatured by their opponents through the slogan “There is no God” (Ps 14,1).54 Musical Skill The psalmist and his companions express the superiority of their art at length. This is a better fit for the Ezrahite singers, who were appointed in Jerusalem for their musical competence, than for the Asaphite singers, who are noted in Ps 137,2–4 for the loss of their musical skill during the Babylonian exile.55 Additional considerations link specifically the Ezrahites with complex antiphony, a mode of performance that the psalmist praises. In the musical context of meaning, the term maśkîl (probably derived from the verb śkl: to bond/ to cross) apparently denotes complex antiphony.56 In Psalm 14,2, a 50. R.H. Pfeiffer, “Edomitic Wisdom,” ZAW 44 (1926), pp. 13-25, 14-15; E.A. Knauf, “Zerah,” in D.N. Freedman, G.A. Herion, D.F. Graf and J. D. Pleins (eds.) The Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 6 (New York: Doubleday, 1992), pp. 1080-1081. 51. L. Haney, “YHWH, the God of Israel ... and of Edom? The Relationships in the Oracle to Edom in Jeremiah 49:7-22,” in: J. Goldingay (ed.), Uprooting and Planting —Essays on Jeremiah for Leslie Allen (New York: T & T Clark, 2007), pp. 78-115; J. Blenkinsopp, “The Midianite-Kenite Hypothesis revisited and the Origin of Judah,” JSOT 33 (2008), pp. 131-153, 149-151; J. Kelley, “Towards a New Synthesis of the God of Edom and YHWH,” Antiguo Oriente 7 (2009), pp. 255-280. 52. Goldingay, Psalms, p. 57; Cohen, “Psalm 92,” p. 604. 53. Cohen (”Psalm 92,” p. 604) notices that Psalm 92 “[...] lacks the tension, pain and anger that are generally concomitant with the discussion of the painful and frustrating issue of retribution theology.” 54. Amzallag, Esau in Jerusalem, pp. 134-135. 55. Ibid., pp. 66-74. 56. See N. Amzallag and S. Yona, “What does maśkîl in the heading of a psalm mean?” ANES 53 (2016), pp. 41-57. It is even likely that the well-known meaning of Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 Foreign Yahwistic Singers 231 song that expresses vehement opposition to the Ezrahites, the latter are collectively called maśkîl, indicating that this group of singers was specifically associated with this mode of performance in post-exilic Israel.57 Here again, this superiority of the musical traditions of the psalmist and his companions fits their identification as Ezrahites because the sons of Zerah were apparently reputed among the Israelites for their cleverness and wisdom (1 Kgs 5,11)58 and, consequently, for their ability to craft poetic riddles. Their musical tradition is also very ancient. According to Gen 4,19–22, poetry and music are rooted in the lineage of Cain, itself closely related to Edom/Seir.59 This is why the Ezrahite musicians and poets may deem themselves to be carriers / trustees of the musical and poetic traditions of Canaan. All these considerations help to identify the psalmist and his companions with the Ezrahite singers who insinuated themselves into the clergy at the Jerusalem temple in the Persian period. 5.3. The Poetic Struggle Psalm 92 is not the only biblical poem in which the Ezrahites reference their enemies in the post-exilic community. Briefly expressed scorn by the Ezrahites against their opponents is already identified at the end of Ps 112, the song which, together with Psalm 111, was apparently composed (again, in complex antiphonal fashion) for their new investiture as cultic singers at the Jerusalem temple60: The wicked man sees it and is angry; He gnashes his teeth and melts away; The desire of the wicked will perish! (Ps 112:10) The contrasting situation (Asaphite singers attacking the Ezrahites) is also identified in the Psalter. In Psalm 14, for example, the opponents (here, the Ezrahites) are called vile hypocrites (pōʿalêy ʾāwen), mainly because they are accused of exploiting their new status of cultic singers in the Jerusalem temple for the secret promotion of their own theology at the expense of the Israelite one while having been appointed and supported by the post-exilic community.61 śekel/maśkîl (cleverness / intelligent) originally evoked the intellectual qualities that were needed to clarify the meaning of the composite text. 57. Amzallag, Esau in Jerusalem, pp. 131-133. 58. This is confirmed by the association of wisdom with Edom in Jer 49,7 and Obad 8. 59. R. North, “The Cain Music,” JBL 83 (1964), pp. 373-389; J, Day, “Cain and the Kenites,” in G. Galil, M. Geller and A. Millard (eds.), Homeland and Exile: Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Honour of Bustenay Oded (Leiden: Brill, 2009), pp. 335-346, 343. 60. Amzallag, Esau in Jerusalem, pp. 195, 207-210. 61. Ibid., pp. 66-74. Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 232 Nissim Amzallag Do they not know, all the vile hypocrites Who eat up my people and eat [his] bread And do not call upon YHWH? (Ps 14,4) The multiple references to the psalmist’s foreign traditions and theology in Psalm 92 indicate that the accusation formulated in Ps 14,4 is far from unfounded. The verbal violence in this conflict reaches its climax in Psalm 137, a song of Asaphite obedience that explains the reason for appointment of the foreign (Ezrahite) singers in the Jerusalem temple (the loss of musical tradition of the Israelite singers in exile, as noted in vv. 1-6) and immediately afterwards expresses their bitter detestation of the Edomite people, with whom these foreign singers are identified (vv. 7–9): Remember, YHWH, the children of Edom [on] the day of Jerusalem, How they said, “Lay it bare, lay it bare, down to its foundations!” Vassal of Babylon [=Edom] doomed to be destroyed, Blessed shall he be who repays you with what you have done to us! Blessed shall he be who takes your little ones And dashes them against the rock! These quotations reveal the inclusion in the Psalter of songs reflecting violent conflicts surrounding the question of integrating foreign (Ezrahite) singers in the Jerusalem temple. In this retaliation, the most efficient weapon is probably the ability to compose songs that carry a concealed meaning too subtle to be understood by members of the opponents’ group. By this device, poets may express their superiority, articulate their closeness to YHWH, and mock their opponents. Such a stratagem seems to be fully in action here. Psalm 92 is a conflictive poem disguised as a piece of liturgy composed for official worship in the temple. This characteristic is implied by the mention of musical worship of YHWH (in v. 2 and, especially, the daily musical service in v. 3a), the musical instruments that serve this cause (v. 4), the use of oil for anointing (v. 11), the mention of the court of the house of YHWH (v. 14), and even a sentence that has the appearance of a liturgical formula (v. 16b). Beyond appearances, attentive examination of these verses reveals that their content does not really fit the context of official liturgy, as confirmed by the absence of markers of the Israelite identity in this song. If the title of the psalm dates from the time of its composition, we may assume that it represents an ultimate stratagem. Disguising this conflicting poem as a psalm devoted to the Sabbath liturgy is a subtle way of inducing its author’s opponents to perform it every week without understanding its genuine content and implications. Indeed, a situation of people devotedly singing a sentence such as “The brutish man cannot know; The stupid cannot understand this” (v. 7) without understanding that it refers specifically to them is a comic demonstration of the rightness of the psalmist who claims his art to be Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 Foreign Yahwistic Singers 233 superior to that of his opponents and rivals. The insertion of this song into the Psalter, and even the preservation of the reference to the Sabbath liturgy in the title, reveals the repeated success of such a stratagem, generation after generation. The present findings, together with the identification of foreign singers in the Jerusalem temple and the conflicts they fomented, suggest that other songs in the Psalter that mention persecution, perfidy, and other torments may also reflect the conflict between the Ezrahites and their opponents over authority in the musical worship of YHWH at Jerusalem in the Persian era. In this struggle, poetic riddles and double-entendre claims misunderstood by the rivals are exploited as signs of superiority and, as a consequence, of closeness to YHWH. This feature urges us to reconsider our approach toward these songs of conflict if we wish to avoid being systematically identified with the group mocked by their authors. 234 Nissim Amzallag Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 Table 1: Cohesiveness of the pairing of cola from successive verses of Psalm 92 in inverse order Transition First segment Second segment Literary meaning 16b → 15a There is no unrighteousness in him They still bear fruit in old age The singer’s advanced age does not affect his musical ability and his capacity to sing in tune 15b → 14a They are ever full of sap and green They are planted in the house of YHWH The psalmist remains vigorous because he works in the house of YHWH 14b → 13a They flourish in the courts of our God The righteous flourish like the date palm The psalmist involved in musical worship is likened to the date palm 13b → 12a and grow like a cedar in Lebanon My eyes have seen the downfall of my enemies The psalmist beholds his enemies from a great height (the crown of a towering cedar) 12b → 11a My ears have heard the doom of my evil assailants But you have exalted my horn like that of the wild ox The psalmist is indifferent to his enemies’ attack because YHWH has blessed him 11b → 10a I am flowed in fresh oil For behold, your enemies, YHWH The enemies of the psalmist are the enemies of YHWH 10c → 9a all evildoers shall be scattered you, YHWH, are on high forever The enemies’ temporary success is contrasted to YHWH’s eternal prestige. 9a → 8a but you, YHWH, are on high although the wicked sprout The enemies’ temporary success is Downloaded by [Ben Gurion University of the Negev] at 23:40 12 September 2017 Foreign Yahwistic Singers 235 forever like grass contrasted to YHWH’s eternal prestige. 8c → 7a they are doomed to destruction forever The brutish man cannot know The brutish are ignorant of the ways of divine justice 7b → 6a the fool cannot understand this How great are your works, YHWH! The stupid are ignorant of YHWH’s mode of action 6b → 5a Your thoughts are very deep! Therefore, you, YHWH, have made me glad by your work Contemplation of YHWH is the source of the psalmist’s joy 5b → 4a at the works of your hands I sing for joy to the music of the lute and the harp The psalmist accompanies his songs of praise with stringed instruments 4b → 3a The melody of the lyre to declare your steadfast love in the morning The musical melody, and not only the words, glorifies YHWH 3b → 2a Your faithfulness by night It is good to sing antiphonally for YHWH Antiphonal songs performed at night reveal the divine essence (faithfulness in 3b and name of YHWH in 2b)