Agricultural Innovation Systems

Inspired by innovation system theory, donors promote innovation platforms (IPs) to enhance collaboration for development. However, IP practice and impact are diverse: hence the question arises of whether and how IP approaches are able to create institutional change for the benefit of smallholders. The authors present the experience of an action research programme in West Africa and analyse the cases from a dialectic perspective on institutional entrepreneurship. The results show that a researcher-initiated open IP approach with clear principles and in-depth analysis of the value chain context is able to create reasonably effective IP coalitions for smallholder development. In a mature value chain, it may be possible to mobilize high-level actors, but IPs often start at a lower level and apply a two-pronged approach. They focus primarily on research and communication to improve smallholder technical and entrepreneurial practices, while diligently mobilizing high-level actors to attain critical regulatory and/or market support. Mobilization success is limited in contentious environments.

Agricultural knowledge and innovation system (AKIS) has a strong potential to enhance economic performance of farming and contribute to agricultural sustainability, as it may increase synergies and complementarity among actors. This paper is aimed to develop a proposed framework to strengthen AKIS in the study area based on the results of this study. This paper explores perception and views about strengthening AKIS in Dakhalia governorate of Egypt by applying a multi-actor approach. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected through face-to-face interviews and focus group discussion. This paper focuses on three structural dimensions, namely actors, interactions, and technologies, to describe the nature of innovation processes within AKIS. Results indicate that legal and regulatory frameworks, lack of infrastructure, and weak the role of intermediary organizations are the main barriers that AKIS faces. Linkages of contracting and public-private partnerships were viewed as main interactions required to strengthen AKIS. The analysis also explores the availability of innovation requirements at each actor, as well as the distributive technologies, that should be encouraged to build the capacity the agricultural sector. A proposed framework is developed based on the results of this study and the characteristics of the AKIS in the study area. This framework could be used for stimulating innovation and enhancing coordination between actors.

Climate change is expected to have adverse impacts on smallholder farmers whose livelihoods depend on rain-fed agriculture. In fact, climate change is expected to continue to pose a serious threat to agriculture in southern Africa as annual rainfall amounts are expected to decline and temperatures are expected to increase. Studies show that the impacts will depend on the extent of smallholder farmers’ adaptation in response to climate change and variability. However, despite numerous extension efforts and repeated past maize crop failures, smallholder farmers in southern Africa continue to show preference to maize over other drought resistant crops. The low rate of adoption of drought resistant crops in response to the changing climate has been blamed on the linear non-participatory manner in which agricultural research and development efforts are organised. The present study seeks to establish whether reorganising research and development in an integrated manner known as Integrated Agricultural Research for Development – (IAR4D) would contribute towards the adoption of drought resistant crops and also improve household incomes. The study used cross-sectional household survey data collected from Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Malawi to determine the local average treatment effect of adopting drought resistant crops (in this case root and tuber crops) on household income. A multistage sampling technique was used to sample 600 households from the three countries. The data was collected as part of an end-line survey in the proof of IAR4D concept from conventional, treatment and control sites in each of the three countries. Results from the analysis show that smallholders in IAR4D villages which produced and sold root and tuber crops had higher household incomes than farmers who did not produce and sell these crops. The results also show that smallholder farmers who participated in IAR4D activities adopted roots and tuber crops to militate against the effects of climate change and variability. The study concluded that IAR4D could effectively deal with institutional and technical issues that constrain smallholders from adapting to climate change and variability. Furthermore, climate change adaptation strategies could be easily promoted using an integrated agricultural research for development approach.

In this paper we apply the notion of grounded innovation platforms or GRIPs3 as a tool for inclusive innovation in relation to biological resources ( the ‘bioeconomy’) to the specific issue of innovation in forest-based bioenergy in Norway. We use five
cases studied in depth as part of the TRIBORN research project4. We first review the notion of GRIPs, and propose a way of classifying them based on the work within the TRIBORN project. Using the five cases, we then discuss when is a GRIP not a GRIP?
This leads us to an analysis of forms and dynamics of GRIPs, which turn out to be quite variable. We then move on to discuss the project´s starting hypothesis that the forms of GRIP affects the outcomes, assessed in terms of the ‘triple bottom line’ of
sustainable development and issues of basic human rights around food, water, shelter and energy. Finally we open a discussion on the relationship between our findings and the debates on Inclusive innovation started within the Globelics family, and
articulated in Heeks et al (2014). We argue that this is not simply an issue for developing countries’, ‘poor’ countries, or countries of the global south. All countries of the world face growing inequalities, and the ‘disadvantaged’ are with us
everywhere. Development, properly defined as other than economic growth, and most certainly concerned with issues of inclusion and exclusion, is an issue in all countries.

The debate on future global food security is centered on increasing yields. This focus on availability of food is overshadowing access and utilization of food, and the stability of these over time. In addition, pleas for increasing yields across the board overlook the diversity of current positions and contexts in which local agriculture functions. And finally, the actual model of production is based on mainstream agricultural models in industrialized societies, in which ecological diversity and benefits from nature have been ignored or replaced by external inputs. The dependence upon external inputs should exacerbate the negative impacts on the environment and on social equity. Strategies to address future global food security thus require local innovation to increase agricultural production in a sustainable, affordable way in the poorest regions of the world, and to reduce the environmental impact of agriculture and its dependence on non-renewable resources. Ecological intensification, the smart use of biodiversity-mediated ecosystem functions to support agricultural production, is portrayed as the most promising avenue to achieve these goals.

SUMMARYInnovation Platforms (IPs) are seen as a promising vehicle to foster a paradigm shift in agricultural research for development (AR4D). By facilitating interaction, negotiation and collective action between farmers, researchers and other stakeholders, IPs can contribute to more integrated, systemic innovation that is essential for achieving agricultural development impacts. However, successful implementation of IPs requires institutional change within AR4D establishments. The objective of this paper is to reflect on the implementation and institutionalisation of IPs in present AR4D programmes. We use experiences from sub-Saharan Africa to demonstrate how the adoption and adaptation of IPs creates both opportunities and challenges that influence platform performance and impact. Niche-regime theory is used to understand challenges, and anticipate on how to deal with them. A key concern is whether IPs in AR4D challenge or reinforce existing technology-oriented agricultural innova...

The Covid 19 pandemic caused large scale disruptions to the farm sector across India. However, due to the differing context and varied challenges, its effect on the farm sector varied considerably across states. In this paper we discuss the impact of the health crisis on the farm sector of Kerala and policy measures taken by the State to tackle the challenge. With the heavy dependence on its neighbours for food commodities and declining area under food commodities, Kerala was already trying to solve the puzzle of food self-sufficiency.  Back to back floods in the past two years further ensured complete devastation of the farm sector. Thus, Kerala faces a serious challenge in food security as it has a low base in food production. Now, the Covid-19 pandemic made it sure that the vagaries of farmers would continue for a longer period. Paradoxically, farming sector is emerging as the beckon of hope for the revival of the rural economy by provision of employment as well as means of livelihood in the same context. An analysis of the policy measures like promotion of integrated farming units and fallow land cultivation coupled with multi-level interventions taken by the State government indicates that efforts are directed towards the long cherished objective of food self-sufficiency. However, the crisis underscores need for more structural changes like redesign the post-production infrastructure, strengthening of producer collectives, streamlining youth power to farm related enterprises and promotion of agri-entrepreneurship in the state.

In this keynote paper for the international Agro-Sym conference in Jahorina, Bosnia and Herzogovina, I outline a New Paradigm for Innovation, which is in stark contrast with the Old Paradigm. I argue that not only does the new paradigm offer greater hope for a sustainable and inclusive innovation and development, but it is also a necessary shift if the world is to become a sustainable place for all in social, environmental and economic terms.

Parasitic weeds such as Striga spp and Rhamphicarpa fistulosa in smallholder rice production systems form an increasing problem for food and income security in sub-Saharan Africa. In this paper we implement the Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Innovation Systems (RAAIS) as a diagnostic tool to identify specific and generic entry points for innovations to address parasitic weeds in rain-fed rice production in Tanzania. Data were gathered across three study sites in Tanzania where parasitic weeds are eminent (Kyela, Songea Rural and Morogoro Rural districts). The results demonstrate that in Tanzania, weeds in general and parasitic weeds in particular receive little attention in agricultural research, training and education curricula. Crop protection policies mainly focus on the control of (insect) pest and diseases and there is relatively little attention for weed prevention, which is essential for addressing parasitic weed problems effectively. Specific entry points for innovation include increasing awareness of parasitic weed problems among farmers, extension and crop protection officers and policymakers. In regions where awareness is relatively high, participatory research approaches can provide a basis for developing locally adapted parasitic weed management strategies. Generic entry points for innovation include enhanced collaboration and interaction between stakeholders across different levels, for example in multi-stakeholder platforms. This can provide the basis for developing and implementing coherent policy and development strategies to address structural constraints in the agricultural system, including the promotion of clean local seed systems, investments in physical and knowledge infrastructure development, adequate backstopping of agricultural extension officers, agribusiness training for farmers, quality control of agricultural inputs, timely access to agricultural inputs, and improved access to markets for farmers. Together the specific and generic entry points can strengthen the innovation capacity of Tanzania's agricultural system to address parasitic weed problems, as well as other complex agricultural problems.

Purpose: The aim of the paper is to analyse the use of Communities of Practice and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to enhance knowledge sharing between researchers and advisors. The associated research question is to what extent ICT supported a virtual Community of Practice and has been effective in counteracting fragmentation between esearch and advisory systems in terms of knowledge sharing between these two pillars of the Italian Agricultural Knowledge System (AKS).
Design/Methodology/approach: The paper uses a mixed methods approach: a questionnaire submitted to the Community of Practice participants on their experiences, observation of interaction between Community of Practice participants and data on the use of the ICT platform.
Findings: The ICT supported Community of Practice approach appears to improve knowledge sharing between researchers and advisors, and also draws in other actors of the broader Agricultural Knowledge and Innovation System in which the AKS is embedded. However, ICT based tools alone are not sufficient and need to be complemented with face-to-face (non-virtual) interactions. A clear theoretical implication of this study is that this is an iterative process in which virtual and non-virtual interaction mutually reinforce each other: ICT interaction spurs real life and face-to-face interaction, and ICT supports follow-up on real life face-to-face interaction.
Practical Implications: Communities of Practice can be a useful tool for knowledge sharing between research and advisory systems, but should have a degree of flexibility in terms of the topics they address and should accommodate new members when appropriate. ICT is supportive, but should be complemented by real life meetings.
Originality/Value: The paper connects recent frameworks of the use of Communities of Practice with literature on ICT in agriculture and adds insights on the contribution of combining virtual and non-virtual interaction in Communities of Practice aimed at knowledge sharing.

Abstract This paper makes a contribution to understanding the impact of relational trust, as embodied within bonding, bridging and linking social capital, on rural innovation. Using cases of multi-stakeholder groups who work together on shared problems it explores how social capital and different forms of trust (companion, competence and commitment) influence rural innovation processes. Looking at both the ‘bright’ and ‘dark’ side of social capital, our focus is on how social capital and trust constrain and enable the process of innovation. The study highlights both positive and negative effects of social capital in the context of three fixed term projects that were part of New Zealand's Primary Innovation programme (2012–2017). Our findings show that there was a unique composition of social capital and trust at the outset of each project and that dark social capital was a critical constraint in each case. Enabling innovation processes required committed and dedicated brokers who provided bridging social capital and embodied competence trust to enable participants' confidence. Such brokers are capable of recognising and managing different ‘shades’ of social capital and trust in pursuing desired project outcomes. A main theoretical implication of this study is that a better understanding of social capital and trust is needed to enable innovation facilitators and project managers to design and undertake fixed term rural innovation projects effectively. This is because social capital determines whether the composition of relationships within networks of actors involved in innovation projects enables innovation, or to the contrary constrains innovation. Specifically the implications and implementation of bridging social capital and competence trust are key determinants of successful innovation processes.

The concept of an innovation platform is increasingly used in interventions inspired by agricultural innovation systems thinking, as a way of bringing stakeholders from a sector together to enable transformative change. An essential role on such innovation platforms is thought to be that of the ‘innovation champion’, but this role has so far not been unravelled. In this paper, by applying insights from management science to analyse three innovation platforms in West Africa from the Convergence of Sciences – Strengthening Innovation Systems programme (CoS–SIS), different types of innovation champions are mapped. The authors conclude that making a distinction among different types of innovation champions can be useful in identifying members for innovation platforms, but that the specifics of agricultural innovation appear not to be adequately captured by roles attributed to existing categories of innovation champions. Further research is needed to ascertain whether other categories ex...

This study reports on action research efforts that were aimed at developing institutional arrangements beneficial for soil fertility improvement. Three stages of action research are described and analyzed. We initially began by bringing stakeholders together in a platform to engage in a collaborative design of new arrangements. However, this effort was stymied mainly because conditions conducive for learning and negotiation were lacking. We then proceeded to support experimentation with alternative arrangements initiated by individual landowners and migrant farmers. The implementation of these arrangements too ran into difficulties due to intra-family dynamics and ambiguities regarding land tenure. Further investigations to find out how ambiguities could be tackled revealed that the local actors themselves had taken initiatives towards developing institutional innovations to reduce ambiguities. However, there is still considerable scope for further development of these self-organized innovations. The article ends with a reflection on inter-disciplinary action research, where it is argued that making “mistakes” is an inherent and necessary characteristic in action research that aims to address complex social issues.

The purpose of this article is to investigate the functions of design process outputs (such as design briefs, scale models, visualizations, animations) as boundary objects in the implementation of novel agricultural production system concepts. The case study analysis of the innovation process that led to the establishment of the Rondeel poultry husbandry system reveals that the interpretative flexibility of design process outputs as boundary objects helps in creating mutual understanding among diverse actors involved in the implementation of a novel agricultural production system concept, and in mobilizing support for it. In some cases, boundary objects allow for interpretative flexibility but remain stable in shape; sometimes, however, the boundary objects themselves change as a result of the redesign process they induce. Furthermore, implementers of novel systems may prefer to maintain a rigid interpretation of the boundary
object, using such interpretative rigidity of the boundary object as both an inclusion and exclusion mechanism for actors and options in the innovation process. The results confirm that a design process
output such as a scale model can be purposefully created to serve as a boundary object and support novel agricultural system concept implementation. However, the effectiveness of a boundary object cannot be predicted and fully planned ex-ante.

This paper assesses why participation in markets for small ruminants is relatively low in northern Ghana by analysing the technical and institutional constraints to innovation in smallholder small ruminant production and marketing in Lawra and Nadowli Districts. The results show that the limitations experienced by smallholders, i.e., water shortages during the dry season, high mortality and theft of livestock, persist because of institutional constraints. These include structural limitations related to availability of arable lands, weak support systems for animal production and health services delivery, community values that are skewed towards crop production more than animal husbandry, ineffective traditional and formal structures for justice delivery, and gaps in the interaction between communities and district and national level organizations such as the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, district assemblies, rural banks, and non-governmental organizations as well as traders and butchers. Confronted with such constraints, the strategies that most smallholders have adopted to be resilient entail diversified sources of livelihood, low input use in small ruminant production, and maintaining the herd as a capital stock and insurance. Only a few smallholders (i.e., ‘positive deviants’) engage in market or demand-driven production or exhibit successful strategies in small ruminant husbandry. It is argued in this paper that for the majority of smallholders, market production, which requires high levels of external inputs or intensification of resource use, is not a viable option. The main implications of the study are (1) that other institutional constraints than market access constraints should be addressed, (2) that commercial livestock production should not be idealized as the best or only option (as is being done in many contemporary interventions that aim at incorporating smallholders into commodity value chains), and (3) that different types of small ruminant system innovation pathways should be explored by making use of local positive deviants.

To meet multiple environmental objectives, integrated programming is becoming increasingly important for the Global Environmental Facility (GEF). Integration of multiple environmental, social and economic objectives also contributes to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in a timely and cost-effective way. However, integration is often not well defined. This report therefore focuses on identifying key aspects of integration and assessing their implementation in natural resources management projects. To that end, we draw on systems thinking literature, and carry out an analysis of a random sample of GEF integrated projects and in-depth case studies demonstrating lessons learned and good practice. We identify numerous challenges and opportunities of integrated approaches that need to be addressed in order to maximise the catalytic impact of the GEF during problem diagnosis, project design, implementation and governance. We highlight the need for projects to ide...

Purpose An Agricultural Innovation System (AIS) is a collaborative governance (CG) arrangement which brings together several actors in the agriculture sector forming an innovation platform (IP). This study presents findings of CG dynamics obtained from an IP. Design/Methodology/Approach : A qualitative study used focus group discussions, key informant interviews and desk study to collect data. Findings Establishment of an IP is the first step in the realisation of CG in an AIS. There is a varied range of governance dynamics which affect the functionality of an IP. Actors in an IP choose when and in what circumstances to apply CG, in order to increase their beneficial effect. The differences among actors in terms of their sizes, resources, visions and missions contribute to how the CG works out. Practical implication : Paying attention to CG dynamics is as important as forming IPs. Failure to address governance dynamics makes actors follow an individualistic, linear approach to exten...

Parasitic weeds such as Striga spp and Rhamphicarpa fistulosa in smallholder rice production systems form an increasing problem for food and income security in sub-Saharan Africa. In this paper we implement the Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Innovation Systems (RAAIS) as a diagnostic tool to identify specific and generic entry points for innovations to address parasitic weeds in rain-fed rice production in Tanzania. Data were gathered across three study sites in Tanzania where parasitic weeds are eminent (Kyela, Songea Rural and Morogoro Rural districts). The results demonstrate that in Tanzania, weeds in general and parasitic weeds in particular receive little attention in agricultural research, training and education curricula. Crop protection policies mainly focus on the control of (insect) pest and diseases and there is relatively little attention for weed prevention, which is essential for addressing parasitic weed problems effectively. Specific entry points for innovation inc...

Increasingly, value chain approaches are integrated with multi-stakeholder processes to facilitate inclusive innovation and value chain upgrading of smallholders. This pathway to smallholder integration into agri-food markets has received limited analysis. This article analyses this integration through a case study of an ongoing smallholder dairy development programme in Tanzania. Value chain upgrading and innovation systems perspectives were combined in an analytical framework to interpret the findings, which show that multi-stakeholder processes enhance horizontal and vertical coordination but limit process and product upgrading. The main conclusion is that, although such processes may catalyze smallholder market inclusion, their effects are largely bounded by existing value chain structures (e.g. production system, fragmented markets), timeframe and how prevailing institutional constraints are addressed, which may constrain the intentions of such collaboration action. This calls ...

A recently implemented research and development (R&D) programme in New Zealand is attempting to implement co-innovation principles throughout the country's agricultural sector. It is based on an agricultural innovation systems (AIS) approach, using five innovation platforms (IPs) based in the leading industries, plus a national-level I P. This paper presents and analyses the emerging challenges of operationalizing transdisciplinary research connected to co-innovation in the context of the programme. The main challenges relate to managing the complexity of a multi-stakeholder network, aligning the formal procedures for research funding and IPs with a co-innovation approach that requires flexibility, and changing participants' framing of innovation from linear to interactive models. Our conclusion is that ‘learning by doing’ is essential in operationalizing co-innovation. Its practical implications still need to be translated into institutional changes in the national R&D stru...

SUMMARYInnovation Platforms (IPs) are seen as a promising vehicle to foster a paradigm shift in agricultural research for development (AR4D). By facilitating interaction, negotiation and collective action between farmers, researchers and other stakeholders, IPs can contribute to more integrated, systemic innovation that is essential for achieving agricultural development impacts. However, successful implementation of IPs requires institutional change within AR4D establishments. The objective of this paper is to reflect on the implementation and institutionalisation of IPs in present AR4D programmes. We use experiences from sub-Saharan Africa to demonstrate how the adoption and adaptation of IPs creates both opportunities and challenges that influence platform performance and impact. Niche-regime theory is used to understand challenges, and anticipate on how to deal with them. A key concern is whether IPs in AR4D challenge or reinforce existing technology-oriented agricultural innova...

Climate change is a major development challenge affecting developing countries that rely on rain-fed agricultural production for food and income. Smallholder farmers in these countries are using multiple adaptation practices to manage the effects of climate change. This chapter examines household and community-level factors that influence smallholder farmers’ level of adaptation to climate change in the Hwedza District in Zimbabwe. Data for this study were collected from 400 randomly selected smallholder farmers, using a structured questionnaire, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. The study used a multilevel modeling approach to examine the factors that influence smallholder farmers’ level of adaptation to climate change. Results from the study show that smallholder farmers’ level of adaptation to climate change is conditioned by access to extension services, access to remittances, family labor, household education  (household level factors), and linking capital (community-level factor). This
chapter therefore concludes that smallholder farmers that have higher levels of adaptation to climate change are those that are well linked to external organizations and have access to agricultural extension services. The chapter recommends that adaptation to climate change can be enhanced by improving access to agricultural extension services and promoting linkages with external organizations that provide information on agricultural adaptation practices.

This paper introduces Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Innovation Systems (RAAIS). RAAIS is a diagnostic tool that can guide the analysis of complex agricultural problems and innovation capacity of the agricultural system in which the complex agricultural problem is embedded. RAAIS focuses on the integrated analysis of different dimensions of problems (e.g. biophysical, technological, socio-cultural, economic, institutional and political), interactions across different levels (e.g. national, regional, local), and the constraints and interests of different stakeholder groups (farmers, government, researchers, etc.). Innovation capacity in the agricultural system is studied by analysing (1) constraints within the institutional, sectoral and technological subsystems of the agricultural system, and (2) the existence and performance of the agricultural innovation support system. RAAIS combines multiple qualitative and quantitative methods, and insider (stakeholders) and outsider (researchers) analyses which allow for critical triangulation and validation of the gathered data. Such an analysis can provide specific entry points for innovations to address the complex agricultural problem under study, and generic entry points for innovation related to strengthening the innovation capacity of agricultural system and the functioning of the agricultural innovation support system. The application of RAAIS to analyse parasitic weed problems in the rice sector, conducted in Tanzania and Benin, demonstrates the potential of the diagnostic tool and provides recommendations for its further development and use.

The world is largely ruled by ideas. Ideas are approved or rejected because they are held to be good or bad. Ideas are not a mere intellectual conception, but contain the dynamic power to move individuals and nations. Institutions and entire societies could be changed by certain ideas. Agricultural Innovation System is one of these transformative ideas because it promises to improve the ways in which agricultural knowledge is generated, exchanged and utilized, thereby catalyzing the emergence and diffusion of ideas that transform rural livelihoods. Based largely on its strategic geopolitical location, the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula was selected to the idea reflections. Even more important is the fact that it proposes an improved and more profitable relationship among the institutions, the for-profit and not-for-profit organizations, the producers and other stakeholders engaged in agricultural development.