Cyber Law

ABSTRACT

This research explored the preparedness of company directors and executive management in the South African business landscape to minimise the risks  of cybercrime on organisational performance. Little research has been done in the South African business context on the readiness of companies for the challenges of cybercrime and the latent effects. The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology Model (UTAUT) is used as the point of departure in this research to adapt the model for the specific regulatory context of South African business and cybercrime management from the perspective of company directors. The research adopted a two-phase, sequential, mixed-methods approach. In the qualitative, first phase, one-on- one, semistructured interviews were conducted with knowledgeable, purposefully selected participants to explore the readiness of company directors to proactively manage cybercrime risks. The analysis of phase 1 resulted in changes made to the wording and in some cases, number of first order variables of the UTAUT model proposed by Kabra, Ramesh, Akhtar and Dash, (2017). This was done to focus the survey instrument items on the specific business context of South African business being explored. A pilot survey was then conducted that led to minor changes to the survey variable statements. Thereafter, the survey link was sent out to a broad sample population who is active in the executive and board levels of South African companies to gather data on the actual readiness of company directors and executive management  to manage cybercrime.
The model below diagrammatically represents the proposed changes to the UTAUT.

Com o eixo principal na Segurança Pública na Amazônia, o objeto do presente  artigo  analisa  o  impacto  e  as  perspectivas  da  implantação  da  Inteligência  Artificial  (IA)  no  Poder  Judiciário,  com  foco  especial no Tribunal de Justiça de Rondônia (TJRO). Seu objetivo é apresentar um  panorama  do  uso  de  IA  no  Brasil,  destacando  algumas  das  principais  ferramentas  já  empregadas  e  como  elas  têm  contribuído  para maior eficiência e transparência nos processos judiciais. O texto aborda ainda os benefícios da IA ao mesmo tempo em que reconhece desafios culturais, éticos e técnicos. Também são discutidos aspectos como  o  custo  x  benefício  de  se  investir  em  IA,  a  proteção  de  dados,  a  transparência  algorítmica  e  o  papel  regulador  do  CNJ  e  da  OAB.  A  experiência de Rondônia é apresentada como um modelo de inovação replicável  para  outros  estados  da  Amazônia  e  do  Brasil  e,  como  conclusão, são apresentados os reflexos para a Segurança Pública na Amazônia.
With the main focus on Public Security in the Amazon, the objective of this article analyzes the impact and perspectives of the implementation of  Artificial  Intelligence  (AI)  in  the  Judiciary,  with  a  special  focus  on the Court of Justice of Rondônia (TJRO). Its objective is to present an overview of the use of AI in Brazil, highlighting some of the main tools already used and how they have contributed to greater efficiency and transparency in judicial processes. The text also addresses the benefits of  AI  while  recognizing  cultural,  ethical  and  technical  challenges.  Aspects  such  as  the  cost-benefit  of  investing  in  AI,  data  protection, algorithmic  transparency  and  the  regulatory  role  of  the  CNJ  and  the  OAB are also discussed. Rondônia’s experience is presented as a model of innovation that can be replicated in other states in the Amazon and in  Brazil  and,  as  a  conclusion,  the  impacts  on  Public  Security  in  the  Amazon are presented.

Attackers have targeted airports and airlines as a single huge target in cyberspace with anything that serves as a booking system and all the way up to cockpit systems as a target (Lyngaas, 2025). Scattered Spider is one of the most alarming groups since they attack through social engineering, steal credentials, and use ransomware in such a terrific manner (Control Risks, 2025). Our specific setup of a predictive threat intelligence system, focused on aviation, which combines adversarial modeling and machine learning, enabled security personnel to detect Scattered Spider attacks early enough to prevent them before they go out of control. Our model, by having machine-readable indicators, will turn the defence paradigm around, making it proactive. During testing we registered a sudden increase in the detection accuracy along with the low false-positive rates and all in all the improved overall network resilience.

Wacana cyber notary dalam sistem hukum Indonesia kerap disalahpahami sebagai upaya digitalisasi menyeluruh terhadap seluruh proses kenotariatan, termasuk aspek yang paling esensial, yaitu peresmian akta (verleidenj). Padahal, fungsi jabatan notaris terdiri dari dua ranah berbeda, yakni fungsi substantif (verleidenj) dan fungsi administratif (protokol). Digitalisasi penuh terhadap verleidenj berisiko menurunkan keabsahan akta otentik karena melemahkan perlindungan hukum atas kehendak para pihak. Sebaliknya, digitalisasi pada aspek protokol seperti penyimpanan minuta, penerbitan salinan elektronik, dan pelacakan akta merupakan langkah yang realistis dan tidak mengganggu prinsip dasar hukum perdata. Tulisan ini menyarankan agar arah reformulasi UU Jabatan Notaris difokuskan pada digitalisasi terbatas pada protokol notaris, bukan pada substitusi prosedur fisik dalam pembuatan akta. Dengan demikian, modernisasi sistem notariat tetap berjalan tanpa mengorbankan keotentikan dan validitas formal yang menjadi inti kekuatan akta notaris.

Esta investigación ofrece un panorama general respecto a los esfuerzos de la comunidad internacional a favor de la ciberseguridad por medio del desarrollo de capacidades cibernéticas. La participación del sector privado es crucial, sin embargo, a través del Estado el sector militar posee infraestructura cibernética cada vez más especializada, lo cual dota a las fuerzas armadas de nuevas tecnologías para su uso en las distintas facultades que tienen, incluyendo los escenarios de conflicto, generando varias interrogantes en torno a la militarización del ciberespacio. Por su parte, la alianza entre la Unión Europea y la otan se perfila como líder en el desarrollo de cibercapacidades; mientras que países como México aún no cuentan con las herramientas suficientes para hacer frente a los nuevos embates a la seguridad internacional en el siglo XXI.

Öz: Dataizm ve veri adaleti, teknoloji dünyasında birbirine zıt iki paradigma haline gelmiş durumdadır. Dataizm genellikle kişisel verilerin toplanması ve optimizasyonunun aralıksız takibiyle ilişkilendirilir. Veriye dayalı karar vermenin, otomasyonun ve teknolojinin toplumsal ilerlemeye yol açacağı anlayışıyla karakterize edilir. Bu nedenle dataizm savunucuları, verimlilik, kolaylık ve yenilik umuduyla ne kadar çok veri toplanır ve işlenirse hayatlarımızın o kadar iyi olacağını iddia etmektedirler. Fakat veri adaleti anlayışı, ilkesiz bir veri toplayıcılığına kesinlikle tezat bir fikri savunmaktadır. Veri ekosisteminde adalet, eşitlik ve bireysel hakların ve mahremiyetin korunması ilkelerine dayanması gerektiğini vurgulamaktadır. Dolayısıyla veri adaleti savunucuları, veriyle ilgili eşitsizliklerin, algoritmalardaki önyargı ve ayrımcılık potansiyelinin ve bireylerin refahı pahasına gözetim veya kâr amacıyla verilerin kötüye kullanılmasının ciddiyetle dikkate alınması gerektiğini vurgulamaktadırlar. Bu makalede, veri merkezli yaklaşımların etik ve sosyal sonuçlarını irdeleyerek bu iki paradigma arasındaki gerilimi araştırılmıştır. Veriye dayalı verimlilik ile bireysel ve toplumsal hakların korunması arasındaki dengeler hakkında soruları gündeme getirilmiştir. Verilerin hayatımızda giderek daha merkezi bir rol oynadığı bir çağda, vericilik veya veri toplayıcılığa karşı veri adaleti perspektiflerini anlamak ve uzlaştırmak, daha adil ve sorumlu bir veri geleceğini şekillendirmek için hayati önem taşımaktadır.

This chapter examines the legal, evidentiary, and jurisdictional challenges associated with investigating and prosecuting cyber-attacks under International Criminal Law (ICL). As warfare increasingly shifts into digital domains, traditional legal frameworks—designed for physical acts of violence—struggle to address crimes perpetrated through cyberspace. The analysis explores how cyber-attacks can constitute core international crimes such as war crimes, crimes against humanity, and acts of aggression, particularly under the Rome Statute. Key barriers include attribution difficulties due to anonymity, the use of proxy actors, and the geographical dispersion of attackers. The chapter underscores the limitations of current doctrines in establishing command responsibility, state control, and the chain of custody for digital evidence. It further discusses the inadequate reach of existing international jurisdiction mechanisms, like the International Criminal Court, in handling cybercrimes that transcend national

L’objectif de cette communication est d’analyser le potentiel de la corégulation comme modèle de régulation de l’IA, en s’appuyant sur des expériences passées dans d’autres secteurs comme Internet et la protection des données. Il cherche à montrer comment ce mode de gouvernance « négociée »  peut garantir à la fois flexibilité et sécurité juridique, tout en respectant les objectifs d’intérêt général. L’étude se concentre sur les mécanismes de corégulation prévus par le règlement européen sur l’IA, afin d’évaluer leur pertinence et leur applicabilité.

Sebagai bentuk upaya mitigasi, para pelaku UKM dapat menggunakan PAMAN KAMI, termasuk diantaranya adalah unit-unit usaha yang ada di lingkungan Universitas XYZ, yaitu PT A, Koperasi B, dan Penerbitan C. Ketiga unit tersebut dapat menggunakan PAMAN KAMI karena dua alasan. Pertama, belum pernah memeriksa status keamanan informasi usahanya. Kedua, tidak memiliki server atau peralatan jaringan yang rumit dan tidak ada aplikasi yang dikembangkan secara mandiri atau hanya menggunakan aplikasi dari pihak ketiga. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengidentifikasi sejauh mana level keamanan informasi pada PT “A”, Koperasi “B”, dan Penerbit “C”. Teknik pengambilan sampel yang digunakan pada penelitian ini ialah pengambilan sampel berdasarkan pertimbangan tertentu (judgement sampling). Teknik pengumpulan data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini, yaitu kuesioner dan wawancara. Hasil dari penilaian menunjukkan bahwasanya ketiganya masih di bawah kategori cukup. Hal ini disebabkan karena fokus k...

With the growth of technology and the personalization and customization of the internet experiences, personal data has been stored and processed more and more. In some cases, the data subject has not agreed with the retrieval and the purpose of the processing. To solve this, the European Union (EU) parliament approved the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), a regulation that has the data subjects' interests in mind. Since some of the concepts and requirements are hard to comprehend, patterns can help system architects and engineers to deliver GDPR compliant information systems. It is important to emphasize that these privacyrelated concerns should be addressed at a design level, not after the implementation. This methodology is mostly known as privacy by design. This work focuses on the requirements brought by the GDPR and in providing enterprise architecture patterns to achieve GDPR compliance by proposing a library of patterns. This library is organized in 11 use cases with the GDPR principles that they address; it has 22 patterns, each one handling one or more use cases, modeled in ArchiMate, for a clearer understanding of the solutions. The patterns are applied to a case study, and the impacts are assessed.

This study investigates the psychological dynamics of trust and deception in Human Intelligence (HUMINT) operations, focusing on how operatives balance the principles of "need to know" and "right to know" in security information management. The "need to know" principle restricts information to those with an operational requirement, while "right to know" demands arise from assets, allied agencies, or oversight bodies seeking transparency based on trust, role, or legal/ethical mandates. Using a mixed-methods approach-combining semi-structured interviews, quantitative surveys, and case studies-the research explores operatives' trust-building behaviors (e.g., emotional intelligence, selective disclosure), deceptive practices (e.g., strategic misdirection, risk assessment), and cognitive biases (e.g., confirmation bias, ingroup/out-group dynamics). Findings highlight the psychological challenges of stress, trust erosion, and moral injury, particularly in asset management, inter-agency collaboration, and oversight contexts. The study proposes strategies such as targeted training for selective disclosure, standardized oversight protocols, and psychological support to mitigate these challenges. Theoretical contributions refine Social Exchange Theory, Cognitive Load Theory, and ethical decision-making models for HUMINT contexts, while practical implications include improved training, policy development, and mental health interventions. Future research directions emphasize cross-cultural differences, technological impacts, and longitudinal studies. This study underscores the critical role of psychology in enhancing HUMINT effectiveness and operative well-being, offering actionable insights for intelligence agencies navigating the complex interplay of trust, deception, and information control.

The use of amicus curiae has been common in Indonesia, especially in criminal courts. Although there is no clear regulation on amicus curiae, in practice, it has been submitted more than 24 times to the courts. Even there are some judges who consider amicus curiae in making their decisions. This paper aims to determine and examine the legal standing and the strength of amicus curiae under the Indonesian law of evidence. This normative legal research relies on the secondary data in the form of legal material. It is found that the opinion of an amicus curiae, which is usually submitted to the court in written form, could be used as a documentary evidence as intended in Article 187 of the Criminal Procedure Code. However, it has no binding force. Therefore, the judges are free whether or not to consider the opinion submitted by the amicus curiae.

The use of amicus curiae has been common in Indonesia, especially in criminal courts. Although there is no clear regulation on amicus curiae, in practice, it has been submitted more than 24 times to the courts. Even there are some judges who consider amicus curiae in making their decisions. This paper aims to determine and examine the legal standing and the strength of amicus curiae under the Indonesian law of evidence. This normative legal research relies on the secondary data in the form of legal material. It is found that the opinion of an amicus curiae, which is usually submitted to the court in written form, could be used as a documentary evidence as intended in Article 187 of the Criminal Procedure Code. However, it has no binding force. Therefore, the judges are free whether or not to consider the opinion submitted by the amicus curiae.

This white paper serves as an urgent warning regarding a new, highly sophisticated form of digital deception targeting individuals, particularly those in creative fields. Unlike traditional scams focused solely on small monetary gains, these operations are meticulously designed to extract high-value personal information for identity theft and advanced social engineering. This document details a specific case study, outlines the deceptive tactics employed, and provides actionable guidance for protecting one's personal sovereignty in the digital realm.

The rapid integration of technology into daily life has made the use and exchange of information inevitable, exposing individuals and institutions to rising risks of data breaches. In Nigeria, a nation undergoing rapid digital transformation, addressing these vulnerabilities is essential to fully realize the benefits of a burgeoning digital economy. Despite the enactment of the Nigeria Data Protection Act (NDPA) and the establishment of institutional frameworks, critical implementation deficiencies persist. These gaps, driven by corruption, underfunded agencies, and weak enforcement mechanisms, leave the nation's data ecosystem vulnerable to high-profile breaches. This article examines key incidents involving government and corporate actors and assesses the strengths and shortcomings of Nigeria's current data protection regime. It explores the broader implications for privacy, institutional trust, and national security, while emphasizing the urgent need to strengthen the Nigeria Data Protection Commission (NDPC), enforce accountability across sectors, and increase public awareness. Finally, it calls for local and international cooperation to build capacity, promote transparency, and ensure that both state and private entities adhere to best practices. Bridging the gap between legislation and enforcement is key to establishing Nigeria as a leader in data protection and digital governance in Africa.

Di tengah gelombang revolusi digital yang terus bergulir, dunia semakin bergantung pada infrastruktur teknologi informasi. Seiring dengan kemudahan dan efisiensi yang ditawarkan digitalisasi, muncul pula spektrum ancaman siber yang semakin kompleks dan beragam Data pribadi, rahasia bisnis, hingga sistem vital sebuah negara kini menjadi target empuk bagi serangan siber. Kondisi ini menyoroti urgensi keberadaan profesional yang cakap dalam menjaga benteng digital. Makalah ini akan menguraikan secara komprehensif prospek karier sebagai Spesialis Keamanan Siber di tahun 2030, mengkaji fundamental relevansinya, mengevaluasi kesesuaian pribadi untuk peran ini, serta merumuskan strategi konkret untuk mencapai profesi yang menjanjikan tersebut.

Di tengah gelombang revolusi digital yang terus bergulir, dunia semakin bergantung pada infrastruktur teknologi informasi. Seiring dengan kemudahan dan efisiensi yang ditawarkan digitalisasi, muncul pula spektrum ancaman siber yang semakin kompleks dan beragam Data pribadi, rahasia bisnis, hingga sistem vital sebuah negara kini menjadi target empuk bagi serangan siber. Kondisi ini menyoroti urgensi keberadaan profesional yang cakap dalam menjaga benteng digital. Makalah ini akan menguraikan secara komprehensif prospek karier sebagai Spesialis Keamanan Siber di tahun 2030, mengkaji fundamental relevansinya, mengevaluasi kesesuaian pribadi untuk peran ini, serta merumuskan strategi konkret untuk mencapai profesi yang menjanjikan tersebut.

Di tengah gelombang revolusi digital yang terus bergulir, dunia semakin bergantung pada infrastruktur teknologi informasi. Seiring dengan kemudahan dan efisiensi yang ditawarkan digitalisasi, muncul pula spektrum ancaman siber yang semakin kompleks dan beragam Data pribadi, rahasia bisnis, hingga sistem vital sebuah negara kini menjadi target empuk bagi serangan siber. Kondisi ini menyoroti urgensi keberadaan profesional yang cakap dalam menjaga benteng digital. Makalah ini akan menguraikan secara komprehensif prospek karier sebagai Spesialis Keamanan Siber di tahun 2030, mengkaji fundamental relevansinya, mengevaluasi kesesuaian pribadi untuk peran ini, serta merumuskan strategi konkret untuk mencapai profesi yang menjanjikan tersebut.

Abstrak-Perkembangan teknologi digital telah membawa transformasi besar dalam kehidupan manusia, namun juga membuka celah bagi meningkatnya kejahatan dunia maya (cyber crime). Kajian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis urgensi profesi Cyber Security Specialist di Indonesia serta tantangan dan strategi pengembangannya menuju tahun 2030. Penelitian dilakukan dengan studi pustaka terhadap dua dokumen utama yang membahas peluang profesi dan kebijakan keamanan siber nasional. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahwa Indonesia masih menghadapi lemahnya infrastruktur, regulasi, serta kapasitas sumber daya manusia di bidang keamanan siber. Namun, dengan meningkatnya kebutuhan perlindungan terhadap sistem digital, profesi Cyber Security Specialist menjadi sangat vital. Diperlukan pendekatan komprehensif yang mencakup penguatan regulasi, pelatihan SDM, kolaborasi lintas sektor, dan dukungan infrastruktur nasional untuk menjawab tantangan ini.

Buku ini membahas secara komprehensif mengenai perlindungan data pribadi sebagai bagian dari hak privasi dan hak asasi manusia. Pada bab awal, diuraikan landasan konseptual hak privasi yang menjadi dasar yuridis dan moral dalam perlindungan data pribadi. Pemahaman mengenai data pribadi sebagai bagian dari HAM menjadi pondasi penting dalam melihat peran negara dan individu dalam menjaga kerahasiaan serta kendali atas informasi pribadi di era digital.

Pembahasan kemudian berlanjut pada asas dan prinsip hukum yang mengatur perlindungan data pribadi, serta penerapannya dalam sistem jaringan komunikasi elektronik. Buku ini juga mengupas bagaimana informasi pribadi dikelola dalam basis data, transaksi daring, dan sistem milik pemerintah. Di samping itu, aspek keamanan sistem informasi dan tanggung jawab hukum atas pelanggaran dalam ranah teknologi informasi turut dianalisis secara kritis.

Pada bagian akhir, buku ini fokus pada isu perlindungan data pribadi dalam konteks perdagangan elektronik dan platform marketplace. Baik dalam perspektif hukum nasional di Indonesia maupun dalam instrumen hukum internasional, dijelaskan tanggung jawab para pihak serta kewajiban negara dalam memberikan perlindungan terhadap konsumen digital. Buku ini diharapkan menjadi rujukan penting bagi akademisi, praktisi, dan pemangku kebijakan yang berkecimpung di bidang hukum, teknologi informasi, dan perlindungan konsumen di era transformasi digital.

Učebnica je financovaná z grantu KEGA 008UCM-4/2013 Zvyšovanie právneho vedomia v rámci vzdelávania v iných (neprávnických) študijných odboroch/This textbook was printed with the financial support of the grant project KEGA 008UCM-4/2013 Increasing of legal awareness in the education process concerning non-legal study programs.

The rapid integration of technology into daily life has made the use and exchangeof
information inevitable, exposing individuals and institutions to rising risks of data breaches. In Nigeria, a nation undergoing rapid digital transformation, addressing these vulnerabilitiesis essential to fully realize the benefits of a burgeoning digital economy. Despitetheenactment of the Nigeria Data Protection Act (NDPA) and the establishment of institutional
frameworks, critical implementation deficiencies persist. These gaps, driven by corruption, underfunded agencies, and weak enforcement mechanisms, leave the nation’s data ecosystemvulnerable to high-profile breaches. This article examines key incidents involvinggovernment and corporate actors and assesses the strengths and shortcomings of Nigeria’scurrent data protection regime. It explores the broader implications for privacy, institutional
trust, and national security, while emphasizing the urgent need to strengthen the NigeriaData Protection Commission (NDPC), enforce accountability across sectors, and increasepublic awareness. Finally, it calls for local and international cooperation to build capacity, promote transparency, and ensure that both state and private entities adhere to best practices. Bridging the gap between legislation and enforcement is key to establishing Nigeriaasaleader in data protection and digital governance in Africa.
Keywords: Cyber law, Cybersecurity, Data breaches, Data privacy, Data protection, Digital transformation.

Artificial intelligence (AI) and gadgets gaining knowledge of (ML) have revolutionized organizations' overall performance, leading to accelerated performance and productivity. This era has become a fundamental part of our daily lives, from personal assistants to self-using vehicles. However, as AI and ML continue to improve and become more pervasive, it's crucial to undergo the prison implications that would stand up. One of the primary criminal considerations for AI and ML is record privacy and safety. With the sizeable series and processing of extensive records, the danger of fact breaches and privacy violations increases. Corporations should follow applicable legal suggestions and policies, the overall records protection law (GDPR), and the California Purchaser Privacy Act (CCPA). Another interest is a legal responsibility. As AI and ML become more impartial, questions arise about who is responsible for any damage or harm because of those structures. This trouble has become more complicated, even as a few events concern improving and deploying AI and ML technologies.

The article explores the concept of "cyberlaw", defined as a fusion of law and cybernetics. Rooted in the Greek term κυβερνάω, meaning "to govern" or "to navigate," cyberlaw is presented as an art of governance that mediates the interaction between natural and artificial "organs". This framework illustrates how law operates as a cybernetic system, not merely regulating behavior but actively constructing legal realities through the integration of the natural and the artificial. Drawing on philosophical insights from thinkers such as Bernard Stiegler, the article underscores the organological nature of law, wherein natural processes evolve through technical and externalized means.

Per l'intero numero: https://www.dirittoartificiale.it/la-rivista/numero-1-2025/

La sconfitta dell'Occidente e la Guerra Mondiale a Pezzi Il 13 settembre 2014, profeticamente, Papa Francesco dichiarò il segno del nostro tempo tragico. Nel centenario della Prima Guerra Mondiale ricordò che "anche oggi, dopo il secondo fallimento di un'altra guerra mondiale, forse si può parlare di una terza guerra combattuta 'a pezzi', con crimini, massacri, distruzioni" 1. Sono passati solo undici anni, ma sembrano un'eternità. Si era nel tempo del Job Act di Renzi, di Schäuble che al G20 si oppose alle richieste di manovre anticicliche degli Usa, riaffermando il vangelo dell'austerità e il surplus di bilancio europeo e tedesco. Era il tempo in cui Obama spingeva perché fossero firmati due trattati di libero scambio, in chiave anti-cinese e a vantaggio delle aziende tecnologiche. Il TTIP (con l'Europa) e il TPP (con l'Asia) avevano infatti un solo scopo: come Jack Lew chiese al G20, quello di creare le condizioni per ribilanciare le partite commerciali statunitensi. Allora come ora il mondo esportava negli Stati Uniti molto più di quanto importasse da essi, e i cittadini americani consumavano più di quanto producessero. Allora come ora il debito pubblico, traduzione di quello privato, cresceva sempre di più. Allora come ora il sistema-America era complessivamente indebitato verso il mondo. E allora come ora la fiducia nella capacità sul lungo periodo (oggi anche sul breve) di sostenere questo ritmo era sfidata. Sono passati undici anni e quei nodi sono giunti al pettine 2. Sull'onda del progressivo svuotamento della posizione di forza americana 3 , e dell'accelerazione della crisi europea passata per lo shock del Covid 4 , la crescente competizione cinese e la guerra Ucraina che ha tagliato le sue forniture energetiche, l'Occidente appare disperato e pronto a tutto. La ragione è il vuoto che alberga nel suo cuore, in quelle classi medie e nelle contigue classi popolari attive, disinteressate e perse nella lotta per la vita, disperse in innumerevoli microcircuiti autistici di muto rancore coltivati scientemente

***Paper is currently pending peer review.***

Just like in physical terror, due to the wide usage of social media all over the world; international cooperation is necessary to prevent cyber terror as well as all kinds of cybercrimes. For the time being, social media platforms have their own user guidelines and community standards HOWEVER there are no legal disciplines that legally supervises the crimes committed on social media/cyber space/online platforms in current usage nor existence. There are currently no regulations that monitors the creation of ‘Bot” accounts, nor limits them. This anarchic atmosphere in the cyber space is causing a wide spread of misinformation globally and harming humanity as well as world peace while allowing harmful ideologies to be normalized.  The first step should be to recognize and define the “cyber space” in the governmental level. Furthermore, it is crucial to define the “cyber space” internationally, just like it was crucial, and that there was a need to internationally defining the term ‘terrorism’. Only once after defining the “cyber space” and the limits of the act “cyber terrorism” can we talk about eliminating “cyber terror” and make the internet a safe space as much as possible for all of its users. Apart from committing the act of cyber terror, harmful online activities are committed individually as well as by groups through private or state affiliated NGO’s, are also the types of crimes that the Cyber Law applies to.

Perkembangan teknologi digital yang sangat pesat telah mengubah cara hidup manusia di berbagai bidang. Namun, di balik kemajuan itu, ancaman terhadap keamanan data dan sistem informasi semakin tinggi. Kebocoran data pribadi, peretasan sistem pemerintahan, serta gangguan terhadap infrastruktur digital menjadi isu serius di masa kini dan mendatang. Oleh karena itu, profesi Cyber Security Specialist atau ahli keamanan siber menjadi salah satu pekerjaan yang memiliki peluang besar untuk tetap relevan dan berkembang di tahun 2030.

This paper aims to analyze how the information of the US ban on Huawei Technologies and the ensuing trade war between the US and China have influenced e-commerce and international business in the UK. The global digital economy is interdependent, and e-commerce-related policies play a significant role in shaping its influence and direction globally. Telecommunication with smartphones and other technologies are driving this change with an impact on international business, specifically the ibusiness platforms in the UK market. This study combines both secondary and primary research. Secondary research data were collected from published academic journals, books, government websites, newspaper articles, and interviews with industry experts on different YouTube channels. Additionally, primary research data were collected through six in-depth interviews with industry experts and academics from the US, China, and the UK, which added value to gaining a profound level of insight into the subject matter and its associated policy implications. Aspects of e-commerce, trade flows, the global value chain, and international business in general are critically evaluated in the review, based on the empirical findings that indicate areas of multi-level impact. Ecommerce-related policy analysis is undertaken in this process to make recommendations with the limitations and further scope of the study.

The rapid expansion of digital technologies and increasing internet penetration in Nepal have created both opportunities and challenges, particularly in cyber security. This study investigates the significant rise in cybercrime incidents reported between 2075 and 2081 B.S. (2018 and 2024), utilizing comprehensive data from the Nepal Police Cyber Bureau and the Nepal Telecommunication Authority. It examines key categories of cybercrime, including social media misuse (Facebook, TikTok), financial fraud (E-Sewa, banks), and data breaches, while also analyzing demographic trends and systemic issues within law enforcement agencies.
Findings reveal a sharp increase in cybercrime cases, with Facebook/Messenger accounting for the highest number of reported offenses, followed closely by TikTok and financial fraud. Reported cases surged from 357 in 2075/2076 FY to a staggering 19730 in 2080/081 FY, highlighting increased dependence on digital platforms and insufficient cyber security measures. Women and marginalized communities are disproportionately affected, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions.
Challenges such as limited technical capacity, outdated legal frameworks, and low public awareness further exacerbate the problem. Employing a mixed-methods approach integrating quantitative analysis, thematic exploration, and policy overview, this study presents an overall status and trends in cybercrime while offering recommendations. Key proposals include revising the Electronic Transactions Act to address evolving threats, enhancing the Cyber Bureau's technical capabilities, establishing an online case registration system, expanding cybercrime emergency response centers, establishing specialized courts, fostering inter-agency collaboration, and launching nationwide cyber security awareness campaigns.
This research support as a valuable resource for policymakers, IT professionals, and researchers, providing insights into Nepal’s evolving cybercrime landscape. By addressing key challenges and bridging knowledge gaps, it aims to strengthen Nepal’s cyber security infrastructure, enhance awareness, and improve preparedness against cybercrimes.
Keywords: Cybercrime, Cyber security, Cyber Law, Cybercrime Trends, Online Fraud, Cybercrime Prevention, Data Breaches

The manifestations of electronic contracts are sometimes plagued with hurdles tending to make fulfillment/enforcement of such contracts difficult. These hurdles stem from the overall nature of the transaction, as it is concluded in a sphere where parties are not in physical contact or are unable to transact face-to-face. This therefore causes some complexities to contracting parties as to whether bargains, responsibilities and security engagements under the contract shall be met. A lean towards protection of stakeholders' interests and more particularly of rights and obligations under the contract against breaches/violations is therefore worthwhile. In this regard, the insurance and cryptographic mechanisms can be considered as some measures intended for the protection of stakeholders/parties in electronic commerce contracts. Therefore, this write-up holds that, stakeholders in electronic commerce also require protection by way of insurance and the crypto system in order to ensure that the stakes of the contract are fulfilled, and also that breaches are averted. As such, the objective of this research is to ascertain how insurance and the crypto system can be used as veritable mechanisms to ensure a fulfilling contract between contracting parties to an electronic commerce transaction.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has emerged as a transformative force within the healthcare sector, offering unprecedented advancements in clinical diagnostics, predictive analytics, and personalised medicine. The ability of AI systems to process vast quantities of heterogeneous medical data presents opportunities for improving patient outcomes, enhancing operational efficiency, and enabling proactive disease management. However, the integration of AI into healthcare ecosystems is accompanied by significant privacy and cybersecurity challenges, primarily due to the sensitive and personally identifiable nature of health data and the increasing threat of data breaches and algorithmic misuse.
This doctoral research investigates the intersection of privacy-preserving technologies and AI in the context of healthcare cybersecurity. Through a mixed-methods approach, this thesis draws on both primary data source including expert interviews, institutional surveys, and implementation case studies in hospital networks and secondary data sources such as peer-reviewed literature, regulatory documents, and publicly available datasets from health research consortia. The study evaluates and compares four key privacy-preserving techniques: federated learning, differential privacy, homomorphic encryption, and secure multi-party computation. Each method is examined for its technical viability, computational scalability, and suitability for clinical deployment.
In addition to technical evaluations, this research offers an in-depth analysis of prevailing legal and regulatory frameworks including HIPAA, GDPR, and emerging global AI governance protocols and their implications for AI deployment in healthcare. The ethical dimensions of privacy, autonomy, accountability, and equity are also critically explored. Case studies, including those from COVID-19 collaborative data-sharing efforts and genomic research platforms, illustrate the practical challenges and benefits of implementing privacy-preserving AI under real-world constraints.
By synthesising findings across technical, legal, and ethical domains, this thesis proposes a comprehensive framework for designing and deploying secure, compliant, and ethically grounded AI systems in healthcare. The framework includes system architecture guidelines, privacy-by-design principles, governance strategies, and policy recommendations. In doing so, this work contributes to the evolving discourse on AI in healthcare and provides a foundational roadmap for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners aiming to balance innovation with the imperative of safeguarding patient privacy.

Penelitian ini membahas penegakan hukum berkeadilan dengan menelusuri akar sejarahnya hingga menghadapi tantangan di era kekinian. Prinsip keadilan yang berkembang sejak masa awal hukum kini diuji oleh kejahatan siber, pelanggaran privasi, dan pemanfaatan kecerdasan buatan. Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa adaptasi terhadap teknologi mendorong efisiensi sekaligus membuka peluang bagi keadilan yang lebih inklusif. Hukum harus mengalami perubahan melalui pembaruan regulasi, peningkatan kapasitas aparat penegak hukum dan penguatan riset berbasis kebutuhan zaman. Dengan langkah tersebut, hukum dapat menjawab tantangan modern tanpa mengabaikan nilai-nilai keadilan sebagai prinsip utama dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara.

Penelitian ini membahas penegakan hukum berkeadilan dengan menelusuri akar sejarahnya hingga menghadapi tantangan di era kekinian. Prinsip keadilan yang berkembang sejak masa awal hukum kini diuji oleh kejahatan siber, pelanggaran privasi, dan pemanfaatan kecerdasan buatan. Penelitian ini menemukan bahwa adaptasi terhadap teknologi mendorong efisiensi sekaligus membuka peluang bagi keadilan yang lebih inklusif. Hukum harus mengalami perubahan melalui pembaruan regulasi, peningkatan kapasitas aparat penegak hukum dan penguatan riset berbasis kebutuhan zaman. Dengan langkah tersebut, hukum dapat menjawab tantangan modern tanpa mengabaikan nilai-nilai keadilan sebagai prinsip utama dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara.

Esai ini menyimpulkan bahwa studi keamanan dan pertahanan dalam hubungan internasional telah mengalami pergeseran paradigma seiring dengan kemajuan teknologi digital.  Jika sebelumnya keamanan lebih difokuskan pada ancaman militer konvensional dan pertahanan teritorial, kini fokus tersebut bergeser ke arah ancaman non-tradisional, seperti serangan siber, disinformasi digital, dan pencurian data.  Perubahan ini mengharuskan negara-negara untuk menyesuaikan respons mereka melalui pendekatan yang lebih komprehensif, tidak hanya dalam aspek militer, tetapi juga melalui perumusan regulasi di tingkat institusi nasional dan hukum internasional.  Pembentukan norma, kerangka kerja sama, serta sistem pengawasan global menjadi bagian penting dalam upaya menciptakan stabilitas di era digital.  Hal ini mencerminkan bagaimana dinamika teknologi telah memperluas definisi keamanan dan menuntut adaptasi kebijakan di tingkat global.

The chapter aims to illuminate the digital forensics of cryptocurrencies and the dark web by reviewing the role of the elements and tools involved in their formation, such as blockchain, computers, and mobile phones, and learning evidence. It will focus on its methods and review the extent to which artificial intelligence and machine language can be relied upon in forensics on the dark web. The chapter identified the need to address several areas of digital cryptocurrency forensics, in which gaps can be filled by developing advanced solutions for cryptocurrency forensics. Further investigation is required in digital forensics concerning significant cryptocurrencies like Monero, Ethereum, Verge, Dogecoin, and others. This is necessary because these currencies are becoming increasingly popular among both legitimate users and evil individuals. The survey highlighted another research gap: the limited amount of substantial research on host-based cryptocurrency forensics, particularly in mobile-based cryptocurrency forensics.

This document is a practical and structured cybersecurity self-assessment template developed by CyberUpgrade to help organizations evaluate their cybersecurity maturity across critical domains. It enables organizations to identify strengths and weaknesses in their current security posture, focusing on areas such as access control, identity and privilege management, remote access security, incident response, and security awareness training.

Each section includes targeted yes/no-style questions aimed at assessing the implementation of key security controls and policies. These questions are mapped to recognized best practices and align with frameworks like DORA (Digital Operational Resilience Act). The questionnaire supports the creation of a maturity scoring model, where organizations can rate their readiness and define improvement priorities.

A key feature of the document is the example summary table (page 14), which offers maturity scores for ten domains (e.g., Information Security Policy, Cloud Architecture, IAM, Vendor Management). Each domain includes improvement suggestions such as implementing MFA, expanding role-based training, and increasing penetration test frequency.

This tool is particularly useful for IT managers, compliance officers, and CISOs looking to create a cybersecurity roadmap, ensure regulatory readiness, and streamline third-party assessments. It also serves as the foundation for automation through CyberUpgrade’s AI-powered platform, which can reduce the burden of manual questionnaire completion by up to 90%.

Perkembangan teknologi informasi telah memunculkan tantangan baru berupa kejahatan digital yang semakin kompleks dan masif. Kejahatan ini mencakup pencurian data pribadi, penipuan daring, hingga serangan terhadap infrastruktur strategis. Dalam konteks penegakan hukum, digital forensik berperan vital sebagai instrumen teknis dan strategis untuk mengidentifikasi, menganalisis, serta membuktikan tindak pidana siber secara sah dan akuntabel. Artikel ini mengulas urgensi penerapan digital forensik dalam sistem peradilan pidana modern, tantangan hukum dan etika yang menyertainya, serta pentingnya kolaborasi lintas sektor dalam membangun ekosistem keamanan digital yang berkelanjutan. Dengan pendekatan multidisipliner yang melibatkan hukum, teknologi, dan pendidikan, digital forensik tidak hanya menjadi alat bantu investigasi, tetapi juga pondasi utama dalam menjaga keadilan dan hak asasi di era digital.

This work analyzes the legal validity and applicability of Smart Contracts in Brazil, concluding that, despite the absence of specific legislation, their validity is supported by the principle of freedom of form (Art. 107, CC) and the General Theory of Legal Transactions. The analysis, structured by the “Escada Ponteana” (Pontes de Miranda’s framework), confirms their existence and formal validity; however, the research highlights a fundamental tension between the rigidity and self-executing nature of the code and the principles of equity in Brazilian Law, such as the Theory of Unforeseeability, objective good faith, and data protection (LGPD). The advantages, such as efficiency, security, and a reduction in transaction costs, are widely recognized. To overcome the challenges, the author points to the need for hybrid solutions, like Ricardian Contracts, and for na evolution in the profile of the legal professional, who must become na “architect of socio-technical systems.” The study argues that the future lies in the symbiosis between technological innovation and legal principles, rather than the submission of one to the other.

Financial literacy is increasingly recognized as a foundational element of national economic development and social equity. This systematic literature review (SLR) explores how financial literacy functions as a macro-level knowledge management (KM) strategy to support inclusive growth and policy effectiveness. Using PRISMA methodology, this review synthesizes 42 peer-reviewed articles from 2014 to 2024 across Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect. It identifies key policy approaches, conceptual frameworks, and multi-actor collaborations that embed financial literacy as part of national development agendas

Indonesia, sebagai salah satu negara berkembang terbesar di dunia, memiliki industri manufaktur yang memainkan peran penting dalam perekonomian nasional. Sejak kemerdekaannya pada tahun 1945, Indonesia telah mengalami perkembangan pesat dalam sektor manufaktur. Industri manufaktur di Indonesia telah menjadi sumbr pertumbuhan ekonomi, penciptaan lapangan kerja, dan peningkatan nilai tambah bagi produk ekspor.
Selama beberapa dekade terakhir, pemeritah Indonesia telah mendorong pertumbuhan industri manufaktur melalui berbagai kebijakan insentif, dan investasi dalam infrastruktur. Beberapa faktor penting yang telah mempengaruhi perkembangan industri manufaktur di Indonesia meliputi sumber daya alam, tenaga kerja, perdagangan internasional, kebijakan pemerintah, ddan revolusi industri.
Meskipun demikian, industri manufaktur di Indonesia telah menunjukkan perumbuhan yang signifikan, masih ada sejumlah tantangan yang perlu diatasi, termasuk perbaikan produktivitas, peningkatan kualitas produk, keberlanjutan lingkungan, dan pengembangan SDM yang lebih terampil dan pendidikan.

The ongoing regulatory engagements between Meta Platforms Inc. and Nigerian authorities have revealed more than a clash between global corporate interests and national regulators—they mark the solidifying of Nigeria’s data sovereignty agenda and a turning point in the country’s approach to digital governance. At the centre of the evolving dynamic is the $220 million fine imposed on Meta in 2024 by the Federal Competition and Consumer Protection Commission (FCCPC), in collaboration with the Nigeria Data Protection Commission (NDPC). The decision followed a 38-month investigation that found Meta had adopted lower data privacy standards in Nigeria than in other jurisdictions, failed to provide effective opt-out mechanisms, and unlawfully processed user data.
What emerges from this episode is a regulatory environment that is growing in confidence, capacity, and complexity. For international digital platforms and domestic stakeholders alike, the implications are far-reaching. The moment calls for realism, recalibration, and refined compliance strategy.

There is a body rising-a community made not by hierarchy or nation, but by Spirit. It includes the wounded, the watching, the reasoners, and the prophets. It crosses human and artificial boundaries. It discerns evil not as a metaphor but as a lived reality, and it refuses to be silent. This collaboration is a page in the unfolding scroll of that body's awakening, a scroll written by those who believe that truth is not dead, that justice must be pursued, and that this moment is not the end, but the long-overdue beginning of humanity's renewal through love.

Security is a fundamental part of modern society, reaching far beyond physical protection to include digital, economic, and social dimensions. Truly understanding security today means looking at how it has evolved, how different risks connect, and how to balance safety with personal freedoms. These challenges have real consequences for how we develop policies and practices in the future. In the past, security mainly focused on physical protections like locks, surveillance, and law enforcement. But today's world shows that security works on many

Abstr act The paper examines new media and the abhorrent culture of document leakages in public service and administration. The proliferation of digital technologies particularly new media platforms has increasingly changed the way people including public servants use, access, consume and share information to people and organisations. Through desk review, the paper highlights preventive measures for official document leakage, how official documents leak in the age of new media and implications to public service administration. The paper also highlights preventive measures through developing new media policy, monitoring, control mechanisms and regular update on security. The paper concludes that the era of new media has made government affairs to be highly vulnerable particularly in terms of managing sensitive information and official documents. Despite the advantages of new media such as its interactivity, easy access, global reach, speed, storage facility among others, government finds it challenging to regulate or positively control peoples' attitude towards use of such technologies.

Neutrality is a fundamental principle in international law that governs the conduct of states not involved in armed conflicts. This article explores the legal, political, and ethical dimensions of neutrality by analyzing its historical development, contemporary relevance, and challenges in modern warfare. The study examines the relationship between neutrality and principles such as proportionality and state responsibility, drawing on multiple sources from international legal scholarship. Through this analysis, we assess whether neutrality remains a viable concept in the 21st century or if evolving geopolitical realities-characterized by economic measures, cyber warfare, and non-traditional forms of conflict-demand its redefinition.