Iron Age Europe

In 2005, during excavations of the monastic cemetery at Auldhame, in Anglian Northumbria, not far from present-day Berwick, 5 burials were distinct from the rest. These graves could be dated to a approximately a century after the monastic settlement had abandoned the site at Auldhame and relocated, presumably to Tyningham, prompted by increasing Viking incursions. Two of the individuals in the burials, who may have been killed in a single incident, had evidently suffered mortal skull wounds inflicted by a large sharp object. These wounds are not likely the result of a gardening accident. According to AOC archaeology group project manager Anne Crone, "one was quite an elderly individual, so it is easy to speculate that these were monks killed in the attack." To my knowledge, the bone lesions have not been studied with a view to determining the size and nature of the offending implement, though the excavators suspected an axe, the Viking weapon of choice. Photo: <https /the-sacking-of-auldhame.htm>

For over a century, Iron Age chronologies have been constructed according to the phase principle. Archaeological phases have a start and end date, and are usually associated with a particular, sometimes regionally specific, artefact type. The phasebased approach is primarily a legacy of Paul Reinecke and Joseph Déchelette's highly influential studies. Prior to Reinecke and Déchelette a different chronological system had already been proposed by Otto Tischler; the archaeological horizon. Unlike archaeological phases, horizons have no end date, and rely on the attributes of artefacts, rather than specific object types, to define their start. In recent years there have been renewed calls to engage with the horizon-based approach to archaeological chronologies, with John Collis in particular advocating for a new, Universal Chronology which can be applied to as wide an area of Europe as possible. This paper provides an overview of the horizon-based approach to chronology and its applicability to Iron Age Ireland and Britain. The English county of Kent in the 1st century BC is considered as a case study for the horizon-based chronological system.

La cáliga era un calzado fuerte y pesado utilizado por los soldados romanos. Su aspecto abierto le confería una apariencia de sandalia. Era de fabricación muy resistente y constaba de tres partes: suela, plantilla o suela interna y un forro superior de piel calada en el que se recortaban las correas, que permitían su ajuste al pie mediante un sencillo cordón. A menudo eran empleadas con calcetines, prenda que aseguraba una adecuada protección térmica. El uso con los pies descalzos, favorecía su ventilación durante las largas marchas legionarias. Aunque incluso los centuriones usaban este calzado no así los oficiales superiores, por ello los soldados corrientes podían ser llamados caligati. Las suelas llevaban tachuelas, o clavos, que les conferían gran resistencia. El perímetro de las sierras de los montes Aloia y Galiñeiro, Monte Medulio, tiene que estar plagada de estos clavos.

The Shetland Islands were settled by Norse Vikings beginning before 800 AD. There is no evidence that any of the original Pict occupiers of the Islands were still there when the Vikings arrived, and if they were there it appears the invaders may have "put them to the sword" since it is presumed that had some survived there would have at least been more than a handful of Celtic place names in all of the Islands. In addition, the Shetland Islands were staging areas for Norse Viking raids to Scotland, Ireland, the west coast of England, and the Isle of Mann. Some sort of peaceful coexistence of the Picts and the warlike Vikings in such a small area does not seem likely. In the year 1468 Norway deeded Shetland to Scotland, and soon Scots began arriving as lairds, merchants, clergy and generally assumed positions in the upper ranks of society-leaving the most of the original Norse settlers to tend to small farms known as crofts where they raised a small amount of grain, tended herds of sheep, fished, participated in whaling expeditions, and later large numbers joined the Merchant Navy. Here we explore the Y-DNA and autosomal DNA evidence which demonstrates the Scandinavian origins of the Gilbert Basil Williamson family from Mid Yell, Shetland Islands.

Este trabajo presenta los resultados de la actuación arqueológica realizada en el campamento romano de La Cabaña (Cantabria), un recinto fortificado vinculado con las guerras cántabras (29-19 a. C.). La relación de los restos materiales con la narración de los autores clásicos permite identificar el lugar como uno de los escenarios de la campaña romana de 25 a. C., concretamente con el desembarco mencionado por Floro y Orosio. Se plantea la más que probable identificación del lugar del desembarco con la bahía de Santander y la relación del topónimo Portus Victoriae con este episodio bélico. This paper presents the results of the archaeological work carried out in the Roman field camp of La Cabaña (Cantabria), a fortified enclosure related to the cantabrian wars (29-19 BC). The relationship between the material remains and the narration of the classical authors allows us to identify the site as one of the scenes of the Roman campaign of 25 BC, specifically one linked to the landing mentioned by Florus and Orosius. The more than probable identification of the landing point with the Bay of Santander and the relationship of the place name Portus Victoriae with this war episode is outlined.

This paper applies KOCOA terrain analysis to the study of the Iron Age hillfort of Burnswark Hill (SW Scotland) and its associated Roman military remains. The Roman camps and projectiles identified at Burnswark have sparked a long scholarly debate, with views ranging from authors that interpret the evidence as related to Roman military training at an already abandoned hillfort, and others who consider it representative of a brutal Roman military attack on an indigenous stronghold. This article presents the recently undertaken KOCOA analysis of the site, which assesses how the terrain influenced the conduct of the Roman intervention at Burnswark. The results are used in conjunction with the insights provided by the metal detector surveys and excavations from the last decade. The combined evidence strongly suggests that the events at Burnswark can best be described as a Roman oppugnatio longinqua obsidio, an active siege that ended in a storming assault.

Each year the Portz Committee reads and selects the top three research/creativity papers by undergraduate honors students who are nominated by their institutions. The winners present their papers at the NCHC conference and receive a $250 prize. The edi-tors of JNCHC ...

This chapter covers the area between eastern France and western Hungary, and from the Alps to the central European Mittelgebirge, following the established division between the early Iron Age (Hallstatt) and later Iron Age (La Tène) periods, beginning each sec tion with a summary of the history of research and chronology. After characterizing the west-east Hallstatt cultural spheres, early Iron Age burial rites, material culture, and set tlements are explored by region, including the phenomenon of 'princely seats'. In the fifth century BC, a new ideological, social, and aesthetic concept arose, apparent both in the burial record, and especially in the development of the new La Tène art style. This period also saw the emergence of new, larger proto-urban forms of settlement, first unfortified agglomerations, and later the fortified oppida. Finally, the chapter examines changes in the nature and scale of production, material culture, and religious practices through the first millennium BC.

The paper deals with the cultural and spatial evaluation of numerous finds of the eastern type from Transdanubia, dated to the Ha D–Lt A stages. The main point of our interest was to provide a complex overview of these finds, focused mainly on the provenance, chronological aspect and possible interpretations of their occurrence in Transdanubia. Based on a detailed analysis of finds of the eastern type, it was possible in terms of their origin to determine four groups of finds in Transdanubia – finds of the Vekerzug culture from the first group and older types of arrowheads with an outer socket from the fourth group are most frequent. The occurrence of finds of the eastern type in Transdanubia shows similar tendencies as in the neighbouring regions of the Eastern Hallstatt culture, especially in Moravia. Both regions are special in terms of the frequency and type variability of Vekerzug finds. Especially arrowheads with an inner socket point to a new tradition in production of efficient weapon types in East-Central Europe and are, above all, an indicator of technological innovations. There are several concentrations of Vekerzug finds in Transdanubia: in its north-western and south-eastern parts, around Lake Balaton and in the Danube Bend area. The frequent presence of Vekerzug finds across Transdanubia shows the active contacts and peaceful interactions between the Vekerzug culture and the cultural regions to the west. We can consider the expansion of Vekerzug people into the western Budapest area and its surroundings. However, in other parts of Transdanubia, Vekerzug finds are evidence for cultural contacts of the local Hallstatt population with the Vekerzug culture.

The Second Punic War and the revolt of 197-195 BC plunged part of the Iberian peninsula into a state of instability and uncertainty, leading to the emergence of new conflicts that intertwined with pre-existing ones. Throughout the region, new internal rivalries arose or old ones were revived, alongside intercommunity conflicts for regional hegemony. Therefore, this article transcends the bipolar model that views war as a conflict between defined political communities, instead analysing the multifaceted reality of both conflicts. Through the examination of two specific episodes—the internal conflict in Castulo and the war for regional primacy among the Ilergetes—we aim to demonstrate the overlap of conflicts within the same time and space, involving multiple actors pursuing diverse objectives within a broader confrontation.

This dissertation will focus on the weapons cache discovered in 2002 in the
area of South Cave, East Riding of Yorkshire. The weapons cache contained
five swords and thirty-­‐three spearheads deposited within an oval pit cut through a ‘ladder’ settlement of the late Iron Age. The following discussion
will attempt to place the swords within their 1st century AD context both regionally and more widely. The discourse will utilise key secondary sources such as the pivotal work by Ian M. Stead (2006) on Swords and Scabbards of
the British Iron Age, alongside the primary source of the draft South Cave archaeological report, gratefully provided by the Museum of the East Riding
of Yorkshire prior to publication. It will also utilise a number of articles focusing on the typology of Iron Age swords, the Iron Age of East Yorkshire
and the Parisi tribe and the extent of trade within the 1st century AD Roman
Empire. This dissertation will mainly focus on the five swords recovered from
the site and will attempt to compare them with contemporary continental and Irish examples. One particular research question that the dissertation
will attempt to answer is whether the chalk figurines of the Parisi, showing swords worn across the back can be compared to the method of carry for sword 5.

Este trabajo presenta los resultados de la actuación arqueológica realizada en el campamento romano de La Cabaña (Cantabria), un recinto fortificado vinculado con las Guerras Cántabras (29-19 a. C.). La relación de los restos materiales con la narración de los autores clásicos permite identificar el lugar como uno de los escenarios de la campaña romana de 25 a. C., concretamente con el desembarco mencionado por Floro y Orosio. Se plantea la más que probable identificación del lugar del desembarco con la bahía de Santander y la relación del topónimo Portus Victoriae con este episodio bélico.

This paper presents the results of the archaeological work carried out in the Roman field camp of La Cabaña (Cantabria), a fortified enclosure related to the Cantabrian Wars (29-19 BC). The relationship between the material remains and the narration of the classical authors allows us to identify the site as one of the scenes of the Roman campaign of 25 BC, specifically one linked to the landing mentioned by Florus and Orosius. The more than probable identification of the landing point with the Bay of Santander and the relationship of the place name Portus Victoriae with this war episode is outlined.

Este trabajo presenta los resultados de la actuación arqueológica realizada en el campamento romano de La Cabaña (Cantabria), un recinto fortificado vinculado con las guerras cántabras (29-19 a. C.). La relación de los restos materiales con la narración de los autores clásicos permite identificar el lugar como uno de los escenarios de la campaña romana de 25 a. C., concretamente con el desembarco mencionado por Floro y Orosio. Se plantea la más que probable identificación del lugar del desembarco con la bahía de Santander y la relación del topónimo Portus Victoriae con este episodio bélico.

This paper presents the results of the archaeological work carried out in the Roman field camp of La Cabaña (Cantabria), a fortified enclosure related to the cantabrian wars (29-19 BC). The relationship between the material remains and the narration of the classical authors allows us to identify the site as one of the scenes of the Roman campaign of 25 BC, specifically one linked to the landing mentioned by Florus and Orosius. The more than probable identification of the landing point with the Bay of Santander and the relationship of the place name Portus Victoriae with this war episode is outlined.

The study provides a detailed investigation into several representatives of La Tène jewellery. Primarily, it deals with nonmetallic decorative inlays from the Late La Tène period, particularly with their application on a metal base. Unique artefacts have been selected for the study, all coming from the Czech Republic and Slovakia. A prime representative of the finds is a torc coming from a La Tène burial site in Prague (Czech Republic, Central Europe). In this geographical context, such finds are rather exceptional. The torc examined is remarkable both in terms of its origin and the production technology utilised, namely the application of decorative inlays made of red opaque glass. Available literature classifies this decorative element as an enamel technique. The highly specific type of red soda high-lead glass applied there was examined using LA-ICP-MS. Based on the trace elements detected, it can be established that the glass is most likely related to contemporary Egyptian production. Other items of the artefact set consist of two Münsingen brooches from Moravia and an exceptional brooch from Slovakia. The latter find was found to be decorated with coral (as confirmed by Raman spectroscopy). Besides identifying the materials of the decorations, we were also able to characterize the binder between individual decorative inlays and their metal base. The analysis of the binder has revealed the presence of birch tar (determined by FTIR and GC/MS). The results obtained expand the knowledge about the production technologies applied to the jewellery from the La Tène period.

Tracing Marnian pottery imports in the Central Netherlands through XRF analysis Bertil van Os, Peter van den Broeke & Ineke Joosten PART III. COMPARATIVE ANALYSES AND SOCIAL INTERPRETATIONS 12 Changing pottery style and the diffusion of Marnian ware Peter W. van den Broeke 13 Early La Tène two-wheeled vehicles and horse tack in the Lower Rhine-Meuse region. A technical and practical equestrian perspective

The pre-Roman history of the town of Aléria has been interpreted in various ways since the early 20th century. However, some of these interpretations have been more political than scientific, particularly within fascist historiography and post-war Corsican regionalist historiography. Based on this observation, this article aims to examine the issues and the ways in which Aléria's pre-Roman history – and through it, Corsica's history – has been utilized by scholars and intellectuals close to the Corsican nationalist movement to support an essentialist discourse on contemporary island identity.

Tiny, fragile, and colourful -yet often overlooked. Prehistoric glass beads remain under-recognised and underexplored. While scientific interest in these artefacts is rapidly increasing, the objects chosen for analysis have frequently not been thoroughly examined or classified from an archaeological perspective. Moreover, the questions raised by archaeologists are not always fully addressed by those egaged in chemical analyses. Glass beads, like other forms of personal adornment -including all items worn on the body or clothing in a broader sense -played a significant communicative role within traditional costumes. They may have been selected according to age and gender, or used to signal wealth and prestige. Prehistoric glass beads are frequently viewed as imports that reflect wider cultural contacts. However, comparative material from the first and second millennia BC is frequently unavailable, due to a lack of published collections, incomplete documentation, or the absence of adequate illustrations or measurements.

Excavations carried out between 2008 and 2013 for the development of the “Industriepark A61”near Koblenz led to the discovery of extensive settlement finds and burials from various periods. Among them was a large annular ditch which dates to the early to older Urnfield period. Settlement finds of approximately the same date suggest that the associated settlement site was located in the direct vicinity of this burial monument. The settlement structures were either removed or abandoned
when the annular ditch was constructed and at the same time an older grave was integrated into its circumference.

The souterrains of the northern mainland comprise a distinctive group within the wider national dis-tribution: they are stone-built, narrow with massive lintels and typically associated with hut-circle settlements. Most are known from antiquarian records or from the RCAHMS survey of Sutherland in 1911, and there has been very little investigation of them since; aside from the excavation of an example  at  Cyderhall  Farm  in  south-east  Sutherland  and  limited  investigation  at  Upper  Suisgill,  virtually no new data have been contributed since that time. In 2012, Forestry and Land Scotland commissioned  the  3D  laser  scan  survey  of  one  example  at  Cracknie,  Borgie,  for  the  purposes  of  informing conservation management. This led to the excavation of the entrance to the passage and consolidation of the opening in 2022, at which point samples suitable for radiocarbon dating were obtained. These indicate that activity was taking place around the Cracknie souterrain in the early Middle  Iron  Age,  probably  around  the  early  2nd  century  bc.  This  paper  discusses  the  Cracknie  souterrain in the context of the north mainland group, along with a note on the discovery of a new example  at  Borgie  in  1997,  recorded  by  the  late  Paul  Humphreys,  and  suggests  that  the  northern  stone souterrains should be considered among the earliest such sites to be constructed, and that they probably originated towards the end of the third quarter of the 1st millennium BC.

‘Gildet women’ – remarks on appliqués made of precious metals in the Vekerzug culture: This study deals with the findings of appliqués made of precious metals from the sites of the Vekerzug culture in Eastern Hungary and Southwestern Slovakia. Except for one hoard, the appliqués come from ten graves. Providing a more complex overview of these findings was at the center of our interest, focusing mainly on cultural and spatial analysis, their possible relation to specific gender or age categories of the burial individuals, and the importance of the appliqués for the costumes of the Vekerzug culture. All of their variants are unique to the Vekerzug culture and have no analogies in the neighboring regions, including the East European steppes and forest-steppes. Most of the appliqués in the Vekerzug culture are dated to the Late Hallstatt period or the Early La Tène period. The appliqués were found in the graves of adult females. Their costumes do not differ from the female costumes of the Vekerzug culture without appliqués. Most of the appliqués were found in richly furnished female graves, some of which are among the richest in the Vekerzug culture. Additionally, other objects made of precious metals in the Vekerzug culture, such as head ornaments and beads, were almost exclusively reserved for women.

Place name mapping ………………………………………………………………………. Field names ………………………………………………………………………………... 12 Settlement typology ……..………………………………………………………………… 1) Large nucleations 2) Smaller nucleations 3) Service nucleations 4) Compact hamlets 5) Loose hamlets 6) Directly adjacent farms with/without a common name element 7) Multiple spread farms with common name element 8) Other farms Definition: Designed landscapes consisting of gardens or parkland usually surrounding a large house. Land characterised on Ordnance Survey maps by a stipple convention. Key characteristics: Stipple convention on Ordnance Survey maps; landscape features such as roads and field boundaries frequently show evidence of alteration or have been removed. Interpretation: Designed landscapes associated with elite residences maintained principally for their amenity or aesthetic value. Descriptive analysis Topography: This type tends to be located on lower ground, though not on flood plains. Field morphology and boundaries: In most cases morphology and boundaries have been altered and reflect meanings inherent in the parkland, not the historic landscape it has replaced. Roads: Not applicable. Settlements: Settlements consist of a large house, sometimes with associated housing for servants. Woodland: Most of these areas incorporate areas of woodland plantation maintained partly for economic and partly for aesthetic reasons. Land holding: It can be expected that these landscapes were owned and occupied by the same individuals, who are also likely to have been major landowners in the locality. Mineral extraction: Not applicable.

Poszterünkön négy, eddig még nem közölt vaskori bronz kisplasztikát mutatunk be. Mindegyik szobrocska a Duna-Tisza közén került elő kontextus nélküli felszíni találatként, illetve fémkeresőzés eredményeképpen. Kalocsa környékén (Bács-Kiskun vármegye) az 1960-as években találták az erősen stilizált férfit ábrázoló szobrot, Jászfényszaru–Barátok-tava lelőhelyen (Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok vármegye) 2019-ben, míg Alsónémedi–Faluréti-domb lelőhelyen (Pest vármegye) 2020-ban múzeumi fémkeresős bejárás hozta felszínre a két egymáshoz meglepően hasonló függesztőkarikás szobrocskát. Kompolt–Tagi-rét II. sz. vaskori, szarmata, népvándorlás- és avar kori lelőhelyen (Heves vármegye) egy férfi bronz szobrocska a 2000-es évek elején került elő. Szabó Róbert ajándékának köszönhetően, a szobor az egri Dobó István Vármúzeum régészeti gyűjteményébe került. A Kárpát-medencében a legkorábbi ember alakú bronz szobrocskák a kora vaskorban készültek. A legtöbb kora vaskori női, férfi bronz szobrocskát a Dunától nyugatra a Hallstatt kultúra területén találták. Európában főként a késő Hallstatt és a korai La Tène időszakban általában a férfiakat, ritkábban a nőket formázzák meg szobrocskának, erősen hangsúlyozva a szexualitást. A kutatás az emberi alakokat ábrázoló bronz szobrocskákat alapvetően két csoportra osztja: álló, (sok közülük egy kis állvány fölé állított) és a függő szobrocskák (felfüggesztéssel rendelkezők).

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This dictionary presents the language used by the Neolithic farmers who migrated into Europe and around the Mediterranean basin from the Middle East starting around 6500 BCE. This migration ended up forming a new culture and new civilization which ended up being suppressed by the Roman and Hellenistic empires and then by their descendant, the Christian church. What united them as a unique culture was their language of Akkadian which was the language native to Mesopotamia. These were the people who built the monoliths across Europe. These are the people who invented runic writing which became the ancestor to all the world’s alphabets. These are the people whose priestly class continued to write runic Akkadian texts on stone even while the spoken languages around them became more Indo-European after the Indo-European invasion. This is the priestly class who preserved their Pagan culture against the advance of Hellenism and later Christianity until they were all killed off during the early medieval period in the Nordic lands. This priestly class were the Druids mentioned in the classical texts. These Druid Akkadian texts started appearing around 1900 BCE on Crete from what today is called the Minoan Civilization. The first large example is their Phaistos Disk. This writing style was soon simplified into Minoan Linear A which then became the source for the world’s alphabets. The Bronze Age texts show an early division in their letter style between the people of the Aegean Islands (Sea Peoples) and the people of the Levant. All later alphabets would be derived from these 2 sources.

Archaeological features without macro-finds (i.e. finds visible with the naked eye) represent a common phenomenon that poses considerable methodological problems in interpretation. To tackle these problems, we present an approach based on integrating micro-archaeological methods and macro-observations to help elucidate ‘invisible’ activities or at least to exclude certain others. Specifically, we combine micromorphological and micro-debris analyses with the scarce macro-finds and their fragmentation degree to clarify whether the lack of evidence for certain activities really reflects their absence or merely bad preservation conditions. This study focuses on a Late Iron Age ‘empty’ enclosure excavated in the settlement site of Haselbach, Lower Austria. ‘Empty’ square enclosures of the La Tène Culture have been controversially interpreted as either sanctuaries, domestic buildings or burial enclosures, although these interpretations were rarely supported by any material evidence. Using...

At the site of Hillside Farm, Bryher, on the Isles of Scilly, a materially rich single Iron Age inhumation was discovered containing the unsexable fragmented remains of one adult with a number of high-quality metal grave goods including an iron sword with a bronze scabbard and a bronze mirror. Swords and mirrors have long been considered high-status, oppositionally gendered grave goods that crosscut regional divisions in the pre-Roman British Iron Age (c. 800 B.C.-A.D. 43). Their combined presence within the burial of a single individual represents a touchstone within the ongoing unraveling of a long-held, interconnected set of reified binary sex and gender assumptions that have permeated discussions of British Iron Age mortuary contexts. In better recognizing this web of Bbinary binds,^we can deconstruct the a priori, exclusionary, interconnected sex and gender assumptions that configure how we investigate the terms of engagement between materials and persons in these burial contexts. Crucial to this analysis is an approach to patterning that (1) does not begin with a search for sex and gender as evidence of male and female dichotomies, (2) sees the potentiality for any component of a mortuary assemblage to have multiple points of significance, and (3) embraces data ambiguity. Developing such critical approaches will ultimately contribute to the deployment of more inclusive forms of analysis that do not reify sex and gender as the primary organizing principles within mortuary contexts, aiding scholars in avoiding assumptions that bind sex and gender analyses into artificially binary paradigms.

El presente trabajo establece los pormenores del equipamiento militar utilizado tanto por las tropas hispano indígenas, como por los ejércitos mexicas en su enfrentamiento en las guerras de 1521. Se hace un balance de los elementos que comprendieron el equipamiento de ambos efectivos y su presencia en fuentes escritas, documentos pictográficos y, sobre todo, la limitante de las fuentes arqueológicas. De igual manera se hace un análisis preliminar de la importancia de los campamentos y su estructura en los contextos de conflictos armados indígenas.

Библиографија Петра Поповића израђена је према Интернационалном стандарду за скраћени библиографски опис (ISBD). Референце су подељене у три целине: монографске публикације, прилози у зборницима, серијским и осталим публикацијама и преводи, прикази књига, унутар којих су поређане хронолошки. Bibliography of Petar Popović This bibliography was compiled in accordance with the International Standards for Bibliographic Description (ISBD). The references are divided into three segments: monographs; chapters, papers and other periodicals; and translations and book reviews, all of which are placed in chronological order. Moнографске публикације / Monographs 1977 1. Prolegomena proučavanju novca i kovanja kod Skordiska : magistarski rad / Petar Popović.-Beograd : [P. Popović], 1977.-60, II, XIX, [2] lista ; 30 cm. 1986 2. Novac i novčani opticaj u ilirskim oblastima do kraja I veka pre naše ere : doktorska disertacija / Petar Popović.-Beograd : [P. Popović], 1986.-220, 29 listova ; 30 cm. 1987 3. Новац Скордиска : новац и новчани промет на Централном Балкану од IV до I века пре н. е.= Le monnayage des Scordisques : les monnaies et la circulation monétaire dans le centre des Balkans IVe-Ier s.av.n.è. / Петар Поповић.-Београд : Археолошки институт ; Нови Сад :

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Cropmarks of a cemetery containing square- and round-ditched burials were excavated at Redcastle in 1997 and 1998. A total of sixteen graves was recorded: five in square barrows, two in round barrows and nine unenclosed graves. Another round barrow is clearly visible on the aerial photograph outside the excavation area. Preservation of the graves and the human remains therein varied considerably. Analysis of the bones identified two females, three possible females and one possible male. Radiocarbon dating showed that the burials dated from the third to eighth centuries AD. There was no readily apparent connection between gender or age and the use of square or round ditches to enclose the graves. Some evidence was recovered for Neolithic activity in the area while the remains of a timber-lined souterrain were also excavated. The fill of the souterrain contained a range of artefacts including native and Roman pottery, Roman glass and iron tools. Detailed palaeoenvironmental studies we...

Nordhessen, das Land zwischen mittlerer Lahn und unterer Werra, ist arm an Grabfunden der Merowingerzeit1. Nur ein einziges Grab des 6. Jahrhunderts ist namhaft zu machen2, nur wenige des 7.Jahrhunderts sind bekannt, und zwar überwiegend Hügelgräber mit Körper-als auch Brandbestattungen3. Offensicht lich zählte dieser Raum in merowingischer Zeit nicht zu dem Gebiet der Reihengrä ber, sondern bewahrte andere Bestattungssitten, nämlich das Verbrennen der Toten und Überhügeln der Bestattungsplätze; nur so ist die auffällige Diskrepanz zwi schen nachgewiesener oder erschließbarer Besiedlung des Landes und zutage getre tenen Grabfunden zu erklären4. Im 8. und noch im 9.Jahrhundert bereichern dann verhältnismäßig viele beigabenführende Gräber das archäologische Fundbild

Over the last decade, there has been a noticeable increase in the number of projects and discoveries relating to Iron Age iron in the UK. These include the discovery of one of the earliest smelting furnaces at Messing ham, North Lincolnshire, an extensive industry along the Thames Valley and finds of iron objects includ ing swords and spearheads within the graves of the Arras culture of Eastern Yorkshire, for example at Pocklington. There has also been an encouraging increase of the number of PhD theses being undertaken in UK universities on early iron objects and their production and deposition, including those supervised and examined by the writer. This contribution will consider the origins of iron production in Iron Age Britain and the relationship between iron production, its uses and the deposition of iron artefacts within the landscape in the light of these recent discoveries.

Unter dem unteren Niederrhein versteht man etwa die Region von Düsseldorf bis zur niederländischen Grenze beiderseits des Rheines. Sie geht rechtsrheinisch in das Ruhrgebiet über, zu dem schon Duisburg, Oberhausen und Essen gehören, eine Kunstlandschaft, die erst mit der Industrialisierung entstand und weit in das Westfälische hineinreicht. Der nördliche Teil ist mehr ländlich geprägt. Bis in den Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts lag das Schwergewicht in diesem Raum bei der Beschäftigung mit den römischen Kulturhinterlassenschaften. Schon im 16. Jahrhundert studierte man die antiken Schriftsteller. Deren Nachrichten führten zur Identifizierung römischer Ortschaften, was häufig durch archäologische Überreste bestätigt wurde. Die Erforschung dieser Epoche wurde eine Domäne der klassischen Altertumswissenschaften, die sich im 19. Jahrhundert herausbildeten. Es verwundert deshalb nicht, daß die Wissenschaftler des Bonner Provinzialmuseums aus dieser Disziplin kamen. Umfangreichere Grabungen setzten am unteren Niederrhein schon in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts ein, bei denen auch schon fränkische Gräber erkannt wurden (Pirling 1 ff.; Stampfuß 1973, 127 ff.). Seit der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts wandten sich zahlreiche Gymnasiallehrer der Region der Erforschung archäologischer Denkmäler zu. In Duisburg wurde schon vor der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts das königliche Gymnasium der Ort, an dem die »Duisburger Altertümer« gesammelt und erforscht wurden. Das früheste noch heute erhaltene Stück dieser Sammlung ist ein hochmittelalterliches Schwert, gefunden beim Bau des Ruhrkanals 1845 vor der Stadt (Genthe 31Nr. 170, Taf. 2, 30). Seit 1853 gelangten fränkische Grabfunde aus dem großen Friedhof an der Düsseldorfer Straße/ Ecke Friedrich-Wilhelmstr. in diese Sammlungen (Genthe 1881, 5 u. 57 ff.). In den Jahren 1867 bis 1872 unternahm der Oberlehrer des Duisburger Gymnasiums Moritz Wilms im Auftrage des Duisburger wissenschaftlichen Vereins zahlreiche Grabungen mit seinen Schülern in der Umgebung von Duisburg, die er 1872 veröffentlichte (Wilms). Sein Bericht umfaßt auch die älteren oben genannten Funde. Hermann Genthe, Direktor des Duisburger Gymnasiums Anfang der 80er Jahre des 19. Jahrhunderts, hat die umfangreichen Sammlungen seiner Schule unter dem Titel »Duisburger Altertümer. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Stadt Duisburg und zur prähistorischen Karte Deutschlands« 1881 veröffentlicht. Genthe war promovierter Archäologe und Altphilologe und gehörte zum Vorstand des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums in Mainz. Er berichtet in seiner Schrift über alle seit den 20er Jahren des 19. Jahrhunderts gemachten Funde in Duisburg bis in die frühe Neuzeit und wertet auch die schriftlichen Quellen des Stadtarchivs, darunter mittelalterliche Urkunden für seine Arbeit aus (Genthe 65 ff.). Im letzten Viertel des 19. und zu Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts entstanden zahlreiche Altertums-und Geschichtsvereine mit z. T. eigenen Sammlungen, aus denen sich an verschiedenen Orten Museen entwickelten. Es seien nur die Museen Kleve,

X-ray imaging is one of the oldest techniques used in art analysis. X-Radiography is now completed with tomography. Used on bronze sculptures, it gives unrivalled information on state of conservation or fabrication process. The treasure of Bavay, discovered in 1969 in the north of France, is a hoard consisting of 371 bronze objects dated from the 1st to 3rd century AD. Among objects of various shape and use, an exceptional set of Roman statuettes was discovered. Two Mercury statuettes were studied and, apart the fact that they are hollow, their characteristics are very different. The metal walls are thin and even for the Lysippean Mercury and it could only have been made by the indirect lost wax casting process. On the other hand, Indigenous Mercury still has its own inner refractory core made of clay, whose shape is a very simple evocation of the statue. Here the direct lost-wax process was used, with a previous core shaping, on which wax was directly carved. In some cases, spatial information is difficult to read on flat 2D radiographies, so complementary images are made thanks to 3D tomography. Reconstruction algorithms generate a 3D object issued from 720X-Ray images, showing the internal and the external surfaces. Virtual cutting can show any part of the object, allowing a detailed sight of the inner parts. For example, the Jupiter statue in tomography shows on the inner surfaces metal infiltration and a secondary casting of a lead-tin. Further analysis can be added to tomographic model: capturing the surface with a 3D scanner can add more precision on external surface representation: it was achieved for the Jupiter statue. In some cases also, photography for surface color information, or X-ray fluorescence chemical maps can also be placed on 3D models for a better localization of materiels.

This thesis examines metalwork deposition, distribution and association in the British Early Iron Age (800-600BC) through the medium of the socketed axe. Out of 1412 known Early Iron Age axes, 954 specimens were analysed in detail for this thesis: 680 associated finds and 274 single finds. The methodology was governed by two main objectives: firstly, to propose a reworked and more comprehensive typology of Early Iron Age cast copper-alloy and wrought iron socketed axes in conjunction with their metallurgy, distribution and deposition, and secondly, to discuss their place within Early Iron Age society and what part they may have played in the people’s life, work, trade and exchange, ritual and death. As a result, this thesis introduces, defines and discusses 12 new types of transitional and Early Iron Age socketed axes. While the transitional type can be dated to the Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age transition (c. 850-750BC), the remaining 11 types can be dated to the fully developed E...

The discovery of 373 intact and broken tin-bronze socketed axes accompanied by 404 fragments in four pits at Langton Matravers collectively represents one of the largest hoards found to date in prehistoric Britain and Ireland. They were very probably never meant to be used as axes as the very high levels of tin they contain would have made them brittle. Many were poorly finished, with the majority still containing their casting cores. The axes are typologically dated to the Llyn Fawr metalwork phase (c.800-600 BC) and span the Bronze Age/Iron Age transition, when the production, circulation and deposition of bronze appear to have been substantially reduced throughout northwest Europe. By placing the Langton Matravers hoard(s) in a broader metallurgical, material and archaeological context, existing theories for this phenomenon, such as the preference for iron, a collapse in bronze supply, or the sharp devaluation of a social or ritual 'bronze standard', are evaluated. It is proposed that the Langton Matravers axes belong to a short phase in the centuries-long processes underlying the changing roles of bronze and iron.

Challenges the view of lowland brochs as &#39;imported&#39; by N Scottish mercenaries and destroyed in the Roman advance. Seen in their local context they appear as a natural development and an architectural expression of wealth in a complex Roman-native interrelationship.

Knjiga Limska gradina nastala je kao prilagođeni tekst diplomskog rada autorice, pod nazivom Limska gradina u kastelijerskoj kulturi Istre, obranjenog 1988. godine u Beogradu. Tekst i priloge uredila je Kristina Mihovilić. Knjiga sadrži 148 stranica, od čega je 45 tabela, 71 slika u boji i šest priloga (crteža). Predgovor je napisao Darko Komšo, koji je ukazao na važnost objave ovog materijala za proučavanje prapovijesti Istre. U Uvodu (9-19. str.) autorica najprije govori o pogrebnom ritusu (spaljivanju pokojnika) za vrijeme kasnog brončanog i željeznog doba u Istri te opisuje 13 tipova grobova koji se tada javljaju. Zatim u potpoglavlju Limska gradina-Naselje i nekropola opisuje položaj i izgled lokaliteta te donosi kratku povijest istraživanja. Limska gradina nalazi se na povišenom platou iznad Limskog kanala, a istraživana je od 1960. do 1967. godine, pri čemu su otkrivena 74 groba. U potpoglavlju Ustrinum opisan je prostor za spaljivanje pokojnika koji se upotrebljavao do razdoblja Ha B3, a uz gradine u Puli i Bermu jedini je takav prostor odvojen od nekropole. Autorica donosi i zaključke o obredima koji su se ondje odvijali. Na kraju autorica uspoređuje Limsku gradinu s najsličnijim istarskim gradinama (Beram, Nezakcij, Vrčin, Gardina na Brijunima i Margonje kod Peroja). Uvod je popraćen s osam slika u boji. Slijedi iscrpan Katalog nalaza (21-71. str.) poredan po mjestu nalaza i godini iskopavanja. Svi obrađeni nalazi dolaze iz dijela nekropole unutar naselja. Katalog je popraćen sa 60 slika u boji, a na kraju knjige je svaka kataloška jedinica donesena u tabelama. U poglavlju Analiza keramike (72-90. str.) autorica detaljno opisuje keramički materijal u nekoliko kategorija-boja, faktura, obrada površine, ukrašavanje. Također, tipološki opredjeljuje ulomke posuda prema obliku oboda. Određuje osam tipova zdjela, sedam tipova lonaca, šest tipova šalica, dva tipa minijaturnog posuđa, četiri tipa pladnjeva/ tronožaca, jedan tip pitosa, osam tipova amfora. Od ostalih kategorija prisutno je deset tipova dna, devet tipova ručki, tri tipa pršljenova i dva tipa podmetača. Posljednja su kategorija ornamenti i tehnike ornamentiranja, gdje je opisano osam tehnika ukrašavanja i motivi koji se javljaju u određenim tehnikama. Poglavlje je popraćeno sa šest priloga-crteža tipova keramike i ukrasnih motiva. Sljedeće poglavlje je Kronologija i sličnosti sa susjednim grupama (91-99. str.). Autorica naglašava da je većina materijala iz nekropole vrlo fragmentirana keramika te je zbog toga određivanje oblika, a samim time i kronologija, bilo otežano, no većinu čine posude kakve su se upotrebljavale u pogrebnim obredima vezane uz pripremu i konzumaciju hrane i pića, a djelom su to i žare. Za kronološko opredjeljenje pojedinih tipova poslužila je publikacija Andrea Cardarellija iz 1983. godine i novije publikacije keramike iz Nezakcija i Kaštelira kod Nove Vasi (Brtonigle). Materijal je podijeljen u tri kronološke faze. Prvu, pod nazivom Prije nekropole, predstavljaju najstariji nalazi s područja nekropole, među kojima su metličasta keramika koja se često javlja u eneolitičkim slojevima na širokom području od Istre, Krasa do Karpatske kotline, zatim ulomak cetinske keramike ukrašen koničnim bradavicama te keramika srednjeg brončanog doba predstavljena koljenastim ručkama i tronošcima. Slijedi Prije nekropole i faza I A-B (11.-10. st. pr. Kr.) žarne nekropole Limske gradine s nalazima koji se