Less developed countries

It has been shown that clustering helps local enterprises in industrial districts overcome growth constraints and compete in distant markets in advanced and less developed countries. Nevertheless, recent contributions have stressed that more attention needs to be paid to external linkages and to the role played by global buyers to foster upgrading at cluster levels. In this study, we contribute to this debate focusing on the analysis of the relationships existing between clustering, global value chains, upgrading, and sectoral patterns of innovation in Latin America. We find that sectoral specificities matter and influence the mode and the extent of upgrading in clusters integrated in global value chains.

The capital expenditure appraisal process has so far been presented in the framework of a cost benefit analysis where all benefits and costs are expressed in monetary values. However, many projects or programs undertaken by governments produce benefits that may be considered to be highly desirable but whose quantification in monetary terms is difficult if not impossible. Common examples of such projects are the provision of elementary school education, improvements in the provision of health care services, investment in public security and the administration of justice. In such cases, a full cost benefit analysis may not be feasible for each individual project or program but a costeffectiveness analysis (CEA) can be carried out. Such an analysis measures the quantities of benefits generated in terms of the number of units of the items produced, but no attempt is made to convert these into monetary values. This chapter outlines a methodology for conducting cost effectiveness analysis and discusses it usefulness and its limitations. Further extensions of cost effectives are made into topics of cost utility analysis, and the limitations of cost effectiveness.

This paper reports on the results of a case study of management controls in an Indonesian family-owned University. The paper attempts to understand the nature and dynamics of management controls in the operations of the University. Data for the analyses are gathered from multiple sources including document analysis, observations and semi-structured interviews. The findings of the case study showed that culture and social relations are very instrumental in the management of the University [Ansari, S. L., & Bell, J. (1991). Symbolism, collectivism and rationality in organizational control. Accounting, Auditing and Accountability Journal, 4(2), 4-27]. Decisions such as recruitment, rewards, performance evaluation, and resource allocations are often made in cognizance of social and cultural factors. The strong influence of culture and social relations in the organization thus made formal management controls less relevant. These findings have implications for understanding management controls in FOBs especially in the developing world.

Based on governance-related criteria, this article provides the empirical jurimetric verification of the how, where, when and why alternative dispute resolution (ADR) mechanisms provide efficiency enhancing channels to redress grievances in less developed countries. Based on data collected in 16 developing jurisdictions through a representative sample of poor rural households, the analyses contained in this paper identifies criteria within which ADR enjoys a comparative advantage over court-based formal dispute resolution procedures. The piece further addresses comparative and competitive aspects of formal versus informal dispute resolution and provides policy recommendations in order for the state to "assimilate" lessons drawn from the functioning of informal mechanisms.

This paper explores the relationship between globalization and democracy. Globalization is defined as exports from a less developed country to the United States (U.S.). A hypothesis, loosely based on a Heckscher-Ohlin set-up, is developed based on the income gain accruing to the abundant factor, labor, in the developing country. Labor's income gain raises their marginal benefit from political activity and thus leads to more democracy. As democracy increases, the exporting LDC will be rewarded with easier access to the U.S. market. The relationship between exports and democracy is thus modeled as a simultaneous process. To test the hypothesis that exports to the U.S. increase democracy in the exporting country, illustrative case studies of Mexico, South Korea, the Philippines, and Bangladesh are combined with an econometric analysis. Both sets of empirical results provide strong support for the hypothesis that increased exports lead to higher levels of democracy. The econometric results are robust to alternative measures of trade and alternative measures of democracy. A Granger causality analysis reveals statistical support in favor of the twoway causation between exports and democracy.

Several studies show a relationship between abdominal obesity and cardiovascular diseases, partially mediated through an altered metabolism of dyslipidemia. The present study was aimed at testing the robustness of this association across three contrasted populations and at assessing the performances of abdominal obesity as a screening tool for dyslipidemia. Data were drawn from three population health surveys recently conducted in two regions of a developed country (Switzerland, mostly of Caucasian origin, n ϭ 2650) and in a less developed country (Seychelles, Indian Ocean, mostly of black descent, n ϭ 806). Dyslipidemia was defined as a ratio of total cholesterol to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (TC-HDL) greater than 5. Two anthropometric circumference measurements, waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and waist circumference (WC), were used to define abdominal obesity either as WHR у 0.9 in men and WHR у 0.8 in women or as WC у 94 cm and WC у 80 cm, respectively. A consistent direct association between abdominal obesity and dyslipidemia (odds ratios varying from 1.85 to 4.56) was found in the three populations, independently of gender, age, body mass index, blood pressure, and smoking. This consistency across ethnicities and environments strengthens the hypothesis of a common etiopathological mechanism. The sensitivity for detecting dyslipidemia was generally higher for abdominal obesity, based on either WHR or WC, than for criteria based on the other risk factors under study. In addition, the sensitivity was higher in the study populations with a low prevalence of dyslipidemia (Swiss women and Seychellois of both sexes) than in the others. These findings support that WHR and WC may be useful as simple and inexpensive screening tools to select individuals eligible for more sophisticated and costly serum lipid determinations, especially in developing countries.

A simpli®ed co-rotating twin screw food extruder was designed, fabricated and tested in England, followed by extensive testing in Sri Lanka. It was built as a model to meet the speci®c product and ®nancial constraints of less developed countries and was expected to be used in those countries to widen the production capabilities of extruded foods. The machine had an estimated delivery of 10 kg/ h and was made mainly with mild steel. Two types of screw were made, one with a constant pitch of 14 mm and the other with varying pitch in segments of 14, 12 and 10 mm. The machine was powered by a 2.2 kW electric motor with electronic speed controls. The machine also had electrical heating with a temperature controller and a pressure sensing device. The cost of fabrication of the machine was estimated at £2000 with most of the parts built in a fairly simple workshop. A mixture of rice and dried banana was successfully extruded as a potential snack food and on the basis of maximum expansion the best results was obtained from a barrel temperature of 120°C, screw speed 125 rpm, feed moisture 15% and with a die ori®ce size of 3 mm. When the alternative compression screw was tested very similar results were achieved with no signi®cant improvement in product expansion. Ó 0260-8774/99/$ ± see front matter Ó 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 2 6 0 -8 7 7 4 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 4 9 -7

Al~traet--Impressive increases in immunization rates have been reported in several less developed countries (LDCs) as a result of intensive EPI programs. An issue arises as to whether existing rates of immunization coverage can be sustained/increased given projected cutbacks in funding. This issue calls into question the assumption that as immunizable disease rates fall, local populations will need less encouragement to secure immunization services. This article considers how immunizations are perceived by lay populations and how perceptions of utility and need effect demand which in turn effects the sustainability of EPI programs. Among issues addressed is the observation that when specific diseases are not linked to specific immunizations, misimpressions related to the number of immunizations needed for "good health" abound. Also considered are metamedical reasons immunizations (and immunization programs) are both resisted and demanded in particular political contexts.

Violence against women is a significant public health issue in countries of both the industrialized and less developed world. This paper describes the magnitude and health consequences of domestic violence and rape. with an emphasis on developing countries; it recognizes, however, that there is a dearth of documentation regarding the wide range of activity opposing violence against women which is taking place in less developed countries. It briefly explores the factors that perpetuate violence against women and the strategies that have evolved to respond to the problem. It analyses the constellation of factors that may assist violence to emerge as a legitimate public health concern, and explores opportunities and obstacles to further progress in this field. Particular attention is devoted to the role of research in the policy-making process; research areas which may assist those opposing violence against women in all its forms are tentatively suggested.

Al~traet--Impressive increases in immunization rates have been reported in several less developed countries (LDCs) as a result of intensive EPI programs. An issue arises as to whether existing rates of immunization coverage can be sustained/increased given projected cutbacks in funding. This issue calls into question the assumption that as immunizable disease rates fall, local populations will need less encouragement to secure immunization services. This article considers how immunizations are perceived by lay populations and how perceptions of utility and need effect demand which in turn effects the sustainability of EPI programs. Among issues addressed is the observation that when specific diseases are not linked to specific immunizations, misimpressions related to the number of immunizations needed for "good health" abound. Also considered are metamedical reasons immunizations (and immunization programs) are both resisted and demanded in particular political contexts.

Relations based on trust among the people, from the economic point of view is called as “social capital”. It has an important role in economic well-being. In the recent years, it has been understood that it is not possible to explain the existing economic well-been by only physical capital. Consequently, especially in less developed countries, it is necessary to improve social capital which is one of the basic externalities of economic well-being.

The introductory article to this special issue points out that export-oriented policies have proven superior to inward-oriented policies in delivering both long-term economic growth and quality of life indicators. One reason is that export-oriented policies demand economic liberalization as well as reductions in market distortions fro m import barriers, subsidies, and internal market inefficiencies. However, a number of management writers, including Porter, Michael E., The Competitive Advantage of Nations, Free Press, New York, (1990), have suggested that factor costs and availability are not a sufficient basis for sustainable competitiveness in world markets. Nations will attain global competitive advantages to the extent that they are able to foster a spectrum of related industries led by companies possessing a broad set of managerial competencies. Understanding how world-class industries and companies develop remains one of the major research issues in public and corporate policy. This is even less well understood in the case of developing nations, because they have been less well researched and because most studies have focused on industry policy for newly industrializing countries (NICs) and highly industrialized nations. The dilemmas and decisions of Chocolates El Rey and the Venezuelan cocoa industry richly illustrate the commitment required to achieve world-class competitiveness at company and industry levels. In the early 1990s, Venezuela began to open its economy and to encourage nontraditional exports. This transition came to an early halt as a result of a number of political scandals and public opinion backlash in a country accustomed to big government and managed markets. The policy reversals that followed have had a dismal effect on the Venezuelan economy, which has plunged from one crisis to another. Nonetheless, there have been an increase in internal competition and a drive to increase nontraditional exports. Heightened competition has challenged Venezuelan companies to increase their capabilities, even if they do not enter international markets. Some companies simply have sold out to multinational firms. Others have attempted to develop into world-class competitors. For example, some have forged strate,~c alliances with multinational companies (see efforts made by that company both to raise standards in the Venezuelan cocoa industry and to forge a niche for high-quality products in industrial markets. In those markets, there is a wide supply of high-quality goods, intense competition, and well-defined user preferences. Two of the major challenges set forth in the case are: • Export Strategy: Which market segments to target, how to advantageously differentiate the company from entrenched competitors, how to distribute its products to the appropriate segments, what sort of presence to have in export markets, and what price to charge different channel members. • Developing Brand Equity: How to overcome the negative image associated with goods from underdeveloped countries in such a way that an adequate market share may be achieved at profitable prices. The case lends itself to other teaching purposes as well. It illustrates the scope, uses, and limitations of market research; it also is good for a discussion of the company-level process of industrial reconversion in countries that are liberalizing their economies. The case also would be suited to a discussion of the effects of development policies on company and industry performance. The clouds that were gathering over the Venezuelan economy in 1994 raised once again the specter of renewed exchange control regimes and overvalued currencies that have plagued Venezuela's economy. An overvalued currency could greatly complicate El Rey's pricing in export markets. We hope that the case will encourage research on the development of brand equity (Aaker, D. G., Managing Brand Equity,

Do varieties of welfare capitalism exist in the developing world? This analysis challenges scholars of comparative political economy and international political economy who treat the political economies of less developed countries (LDCs) as more or less identical to one another or, at the other extreme, as nations marked by tremendous diversity. This paper is one of the first attempts to highlight systematic differences among the political economies of the developing world, particularly with respect to their distribution regimes. Using cluster analysis, the results illustrate that welfare efforts in LDCs are either directed towards promoting market development (a productive welfare state), protecting select individuals from the market (a protective welfare state) or both (a dual welfare state). The discovery of distinct patterns of welfare regimes in LDCs presents hitherto unknown implications for the influence of domestic politics and policies in late twentieth-century globalization. Rudra 4 Existing scholarship overlooks the possibility of varieties of welfare capitalism in the developing world. In contrast, discussions abound regarding identifiable and systematic differences in domestic institutional arrangements within the advanced capitalist countries, particular with respect to their distribution regimes. Is it feasible that distribution regimes of relatively poor countries also fall into distinct patterns? By implication or design, studies in comparative political economy (CPE) and international political economy (IPE) treat less developed countries (LDCs) as more or less identical to one another or, at the other extreme, as nations marked by tremendous politico-economic diversity. It is startling that neither scholars nor policy-makers have a clear sense of 'peer groups' among developing nations, outside of broad, amorphous categories such as region or level of economic development. This analysis challenges long-standing conceptions of LDC political economies by providing theoretical and empirical support for 'systematic divergence' in their choice set of social welfare policies. The discovery of distinct patterns of welfare regimes in LDCs presents hitherto unknown implications for the influence of domestic politics and policies in late twentieth-century globalization.

Globalization, either directly or indirectly (e.g. through structural adjustment reforms), has called for profound changes in the previously existing institutional order. Some changes adversely impacted the production and market environment of many coffee producers in developing countries resulting in more risky and less remunerative coffee transactions. This paper focuses on customization of a tropical commodity, fair-trade coffee, as an approach to mitigating the effects of worsened market conditions for small-scale coffee producers in less developed countries. fair-trade labeling is viewed as a form of "de-commodification" of coffee through product differentiation on ethical grounds. This is significant not only as a solution to the market failure caused by pervasive information asymmetries along the supply chain, but also as a means of revitalizing the agricultural-commodity-based trade of less developed countries (LDCs) that has been languishing under globalization. More specifically, fair-trade is an example of how the same strategy adopted by developed countries' producers/ processors (i.e. the sequence product differentiation -institutional certificationadvertisement) can be used by LDC producers to increase the reputation content of their outputs by transforming them from mere commodities into "decommodified" (i.e. customized and more reputed) goods. The resulting segmentation of the world coffee market makes possible to meet the demand by consumers with preference for this "(ethically) customized" coffee and to transfer a share of the accruing economic rents backward to the Fair-trade coffee producers in LDCs. It should however be stressed that this outcome cannot be taken for granted since investments are needed to promote the required institutional innovations.

Background Improving the quality of care for sick children referred to hospitals in less-developed countries may lead to better outcomes, including reduced mortality. Data are lacking, however, on the quality of priority screening (triage), emergency care, diagnosis, and inpatient treatment in these hospitals, and on aspects of these potential targets that would benefit most from interventions leading to improved health outcomes. Methods We did a qualitative study in 13 district hospitals and eight teaching hospitals in seven less-developed countries. Experienced paediatricians used a structured survey instrument to assess initial triage, emergency and inpatient care, staff knowledge and practices, and hospital support services. Findings Overall quality of care differed between countries and among hospitals and was generally better in teaching hospitals. 14 of 21 hospitals lacked an adequate system for triage. Initial patient assessment was often inadequate and treatment delayed. Most emergency treatment areas were poorly organised and lacked essential supplies; families were routinely required to buy emergency drugs before they could be given. Adverse factors in case management, including inadequate assessment, inappropriate treatment, and inadequate monitoring occurred in 76% of inpatient children. Most doctors in district hospitals, and nurses and medical assistants in teaching and district hospitals, had inadequate knowledge and reported practice for managing important childhood illnesses. Interpretation Strengthening care for sick children referred to hospital should focus on achievable objectives with the greatest potential benefit for health outcome. Possible targets for improvement include initial triage, emergency care, assessment, inpatient treatment, and monitoring. Priority targets for individual hospitals may be determined by assessing each hospital.

Do foreign direct investment (FDI) and international business ventures promote positive social and economic development in emerging nations? This question will always prove contentious. First, the impacts differ according to context. Second, the social consequences and spillover effects of knowledge diffusion and technologysharing may be limited and hard to measure. Third, contributions to enhancing social responsibility and improving living standards in host countries are delayed in effect, causally complex, and also hard to measure. Outcomes often critically depend on collaboration of governments, international institutions, the business world, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Research in this area is challenging and requires interdisciplinary collaboration between economists, financial experts, sociologists, ethicists, and other specialists. This paper explores: (1) the evidence to support the proposition that FDI and international business improve social conditions in less-developed countries, and: (2) how these improvements are linked to strategies of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and ethical business practice. The paper draws insights from development, FDI, poverty alleviation, and bottom-of-thepyramid (BOP) literature. Applications are demonstrated using examples from poverty-stricken areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. The paper attempts not only to argue theoretically but also to provide practical evidence. The approach is simultaneously descriptive, analytical, and prescriptive in order to address a wide audience. It also highlights issues and trends for further academic research and presents the viewpoint that some limitations lie in the nature of ethics frameworks widely referenced in business and that these often fail to consider the compatibility of ethical constructs with relevant incentives. In this vein, we explore the application of Homann's framework for advantage and incentive-based ethics.

This paper argues that there are many challenges to designing and implementing water and sanitation interventions that actually deliver economic benefits to the households in developing countries. Perhaps most critical to successful water and sanitation investments is to discover and implement forms of service and payment mechanisms that will render the improvements worthwhile for those who must pay for them. In this paper, we argue that, in many cases, the conventional network technologies of water supply and sanitation will fail this test, and that poor households need alternative, non-network technologies. However, it will not necessarily be the case that specific non-network improved water supply and/or sanitation technologies will always be seen as worthwhile by those who must pay for them. We argue that there is no easy panacea to resolve this situation. For any intervention, the outcome is likely to be context-dependent. An intervention that works well in one locality may fail miserably in another. For any given technology, the outcome will depend on economic and social conditions, including how it is implemented, by whom, and often on the extent to which complementary behavioral, institutional and organizational changes also occur. For this reason, we warn against excessive generalization: one cannot, in our view, say that one intervention yields a rate of return of x% while another yields a return of y%, because the economic returns are likely to vary with local circumstances. More important is to identify the circumstances under which an intervention is more or less likely to succeed. Also for this reason, when we analyze a few selected water and sanitation interventions, we employ a probabilistic rather than a deterministic analysis to emphasize that real world outcomes are likely to vary substantially.

This paper explores the meaning, and some of the practical implications, of health sector reform in less developed countries. It reviews the problems that reforms have to address, and the policy objectives they are designed to achieve. It argues that the process of reform is not concerned only with defining priorities and refining policies, but also with reforming and restructuring the institutions through which health policies are implemented. Even though some organizational principles are likely to be common to all reform programmes, a prescriptive approach to institutional reform is inappropriate. The choice of reform options can be influenced by technical advice and analysis, but the decision to proceed, and the subsequent success of implementation, will be dependent on political support. The latter part of the paper presents examples of institutional reform from several less developed countries and includes a consideration of the role and influence of donor agencies.

The literature on science parks evaluation mainly covers the developed countries of OECD. There is a lack of evidence about the role of science parks in the less developed countries. This paper aims to partially fill this gap in literature by examining the science parks in a peripheral European country, Greece. The findings indicate that the picture of the three science parks of Greece is not the same in terms of the links between university and industry. Informal links have been developed between the firms and the local university, however, only the firms located at one science park have developed formal links, while the formal links of the companies of the other two parks are at the infant level at this time. Synergies between the on-park companies are limited only in commercial transactions and social interactions. The research type synergies are completely absent in all three parks.

This paper presents the principles of cooperation and briefly describes the history and development of agricultural cooperatives in developed and less-developed countries, with particular emphasis on South Africa. A new Cooperatives Act, based on international principles of cooperation, was promulgated in South Africa in August 2005. The theory of cooperatives, and new institutional economics theory (NIE) (including transaction cost economics, agency theory and property rights theory) and its applicability to the cooperative organizational form, are also presented, as are the inherent problems of conventional cooperatives, namely free-rider, horizon, portfolio, control and influence cost problems caused by vaguely defined property rights. An analysis of the future of cooperatives in general, based on a NIE approach, suggests a life cycle for cooperatives (formation, growth, reorganization or exit) as they adapt to a changing economic environment characterized by technological change, industrialization of agriculture and growing individualism.

Plant-parasitic nematodes are pests of a wide range of economically important crops, causing severe losses to agriculture. Natural genetic resistance of plants is expected to be a valid solution of the many problems nematodes cause all over the world. Progress in resistance applications is particularly important for the less-developed countries of tropical and subtropical regions, since use of resistant cultivars may be the only possible and economically feasible control strategy in those farming systems. Resistance is being considered of particular importance also in modern high-input production systems of developed countries, as the customary reliance on chemical nematicides has been restricted or has come to an end. This review briefly describes the genetic bases of resistance to nematodes in plants and focuses on the chances and problems of its exploitation as a key element in an integrated management program. Much space is dedicated to the major problem of resistance durability, in that the intensive use of resistant cultivars is likely to increasingly induce the selection of virulent populations able to “break” the resistance. Protocols of pest-host suitability are described, as bioassays are being used to evaluate local nematode populations in their potential to be selected on resistant germplasm and endanger resistant crops. The recent progress in using robust and durable resistances against nematodes as an efficient method for growers in vegetable cropping systems is reported, as well as the possible use of chemicals that do not show any unfavorable impact on environment, to induce in plants resistance against plant-parasitic nematodes.

1. Background From a worldwide perspective, it has been recognized that small and medium enterprises (SMEs) play a vital role in economic development, as they have been the primary source of job/employment creation and output growth, not only in developing but also in developed countries. In Piper's (1997) dissertation, for instance, it states that 12 million or about 63.2% of

This paper examines different models of governing structure found in metropolitan areas around the world. It evaluates how well these models achieve the coordination of service delivery over the entire metropolitan area as well as the extent to which they result in the equitable sharing of costs of services. Based on theory and case studies from numerous cities in developed

In 1987, district health care policies were officially adopted by a majority of developing countries. Many operational problems constraining implementation of such policies have subsequently been identified, most of which are attributable to well-known characteristics of less developed countries. However, the policy of operational and administrative decentralization has often been critically obstructed by inappropriate organizational structures in ministries of health. By applying Mintzberg's analytical framework to several ministries of health, we identify structural deficiencies that make systems unfit to match their policy environment and yield the expected outcomes of functional and decentralized services. We propose a typology likely to elicit strategies for decentralizing health care administration. Our analysis is based on the following steps:

Theory suggests that foreign direct investment (FDI) contributes to capital accumulation and technological progress and is an important catalyst for industrial development. In the context of an endogenous model, we investigate the impact of FDI on economic growth, and test the hypothesis that the beneficial effect of FDI inflows is stronger in those countries with higher level of economic development. Our results show a strong direct impact of FDI on economic growth in developing countries, as well as an indirect impact through the interaction of FDI with human capital. Additionally, our results suggest that the impact of FDI on economic growth is greater among technological leaders. We conclude that absorptive capacity in the host country is important in allowing FDI to positively and fully impact economic growth. JEL Classifications: F21, F23, O47

The provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province (KPK) and Baluchistan have historically lagged behind other provinces in the race for industrialization because of their geographical disadvantage and the law and order situation prevailing in their regions. Recent figures show that the number of closures and ailing industrial units in
KPK has been increasing. Statistics indicate that 55% of firms administered by SIDB 1
and 64% of firms administered by SDA 2  have closed down. In the wake of increase
in terrorism activities in KPK and the rampant unemployment, the importance of revival of closed and sick industrial units has further increased. To know the nature and severity of the problems that small industrial units face in KPK, we selected Hayatabad Industrial Estate (HIE), Peshawar as a case study. During the data collection process, we distributed questionnaires and conducted interviews with owners
or managers of 48 industrial units in HIE. The survey results indicate that anarchy and terrorism, power outages & energy costs, locational disadvantages, lack of skilled labor force, and inconsistent government policies are major problems as perceived by owners of industrial units. We discuss the implications of these problems and present
policy choices to mitigate their impact.

In this paper, we examine the studies, since Adam Smith, on the impact of commercial and technological aspects, resulting from international trade, on the physical accumulation and quality of productive factors. We remark that the theory of economic growth and the theory of international trade, during the ‘classic period’, constituted two inseparable branches of economics. In this epoch, it was believed that international trade has a positive effect on the economic growth. Later, during the ‘neoclassic period’, these two theories of the economic thought became autonomus relatively to each other. Consequently, the importance of international trade was neglected in the context of economic growth, espe ially until the 1960’s. Recently, with the introduction of models of endogenous growth, both theories have merged again. The modelling frameworks advanced by the new models, as well as the recent developments inside the international trade theory, has allowed us to obtain a better unders...

In this paper, we examine the studies, since Adam Smith, on the impact of commercial and technological aspects, resulting from international trade, on the physical accumulation and quality of productive factors. We remark that the theory of economic growth and the theory of international ...

This study investigates three competing but complementary perspectives on factors related to entrepreneurial firm growth. We examine individual (entrepreneur) firm and national environment factors associated with the growth expectations of nascent, baby and established firms. Using 25,384 data points from Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM)'s survey of entrepreneurial activity in 35 countries, we find male gender, personal acquaintance with an entrepreneur, innovative product/service, low levels of competition and based in less-developed countries are associated with high growth expectations for all three business stages. Nascent and baby firms' business growth expectations are also linked to having higher levels of start-up capital and outside investment. In contrast to some previous research, we find that a firm's initial size is the best predictor of growth expectations. Altogether, size-related factors determine not only initial growth expectations, but also growth expectations at later firm stages. The law of disproportionate growth (i.e. a small number of firms are responsible for most expected job creation) holds for both start-ups and established businesses, although the latter are more rare. While both start-up and established firm growth expectations are higher in the developing countries, the fastest growing young firms are mainly found in developed countries.

The capital expenditure appraisal process has so far been presented in the framework of a cost benefit analysis where all benefits and costs are expressed in monetary values. However, many projects or programs undertaken by governments produce benefits that may be considered to be highly desirable but whose quantification in monetary terms is difficult if not impossible. Common examples of such projects are the provision of elementary school education, improvements in the provision of health care services, investment in public security and the administration of justice. In such cases, a full cost benefit analysis may not be feasible for each individual project or program but a costeffectiveness analysis (CEA) can be carried out. Such an analysis measures the quantities of benefits generated in terms of the number of units of the items produced, but no attempt is made to convert these into monetary values. This chapter outlines a methodology for conducting cost effectiveness analysis and discusses it usefulness and its limitations. Further extensions of cost effectives are made into topics of cost utility analysis, and the limitations of cost effectiveness.

Urban growth is inevitable over the next two decades. The bulk of this growth will take place in less developed countries. This presents a formidable challenge for urban planners and managers. With this in mind, this paper considers some of the ways urban planners can make use of recent developments in remote sensing and geographic information systems technology to respond to this challenge. The discussion is divided into four sections. The first of these considers the nature of the tasks involved. The second examines the potential of remote sensing and geographic information systems to assist in these tasks in general terms. The third section presents some of the findings of three case studies of contrasting application areas in the urban planning field which give some insights as to how these tools can be used to respond to this challenge. The final section rounds off the discussion with a vision of sustainable urban development and its implementation at the local level. r 2001 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to identify a comprehensive set of potential determinants influencing the successful implementation of world class manufacturing (WCM) in a less-developed country environment on the basis of a research conducted among manufacturing firms in Egypt. Design/methodology/approach -Data for this paper are collected using a self-administrated questionnaire that is distributed to 200 Egyptian manufacturing firms. Of the 200 questionnaires posted, a total of 96 questionnaires are returned and used for the analysis. The respondents express their opinions concerning the importance of subsequent factors for implementation success and about the factors' presence in their manufacturing firms. Moreover, the impact of the factors on the implementation success is examined. Findings -The challenge for the Egyptian manufacturers today is to advance their manufacturing activities. To address this challenge the Egyptian manufacturing firms need to understand what are the factors that play critical role in utilising the WCM techniques and their implications on business strategic objective to compete successfully in the global arena. This paper discusses the above issues and proposes seven critical factors classified into two categories and validated empirically through a sample of 96 companies being surveyed in Egypt. The results clearly demonstrate that WCM strategic and tactical success factors have catalytic influence on WCM success. Research limitations/implications -There is a need to empirically test and refine the proposed factors, and to explore relationships among the various variables by collecting data from organisations that have already implemented WCM. Practical implications -The research outcomes are useful for professionals who lead WCM implementation and those who make decisions for the first time on WCM implementation. The results can be used by practitioners while managing the project and handling people's attitudes. Originality/value -This paper proves the influence of particular factors on the success of WCM implementation in certain circumstances, thus giving insight into the genuine mechanisms determining WCM implementation outcome.

Today widespread poverty is one of the major problems of mankind and its alleviation one of her major agendas. In recent years microfinance has emerged as an important instrument to relieve poverty in the developing countries. Today there are more than 7000 micro lending institutions providing loans to more than 25 million poor individuals across the world, their vast majority being the women. However these institutions face some serious challenges, especially in less developed countries where the proportion of people in poverty is high. The existing microfinance in Nigeria serves less than 1 million people out of 40 million being the potential number that need the service. Also, the aggregate micro credit facilities in Nigeria, account for about 0.2 percent of the GDP and is less than one percent of total credit in the economy. Addressing this situation inadequately would further accentuate the problem and slow down growth and development of the country. We find that the microfinance institutions charge interest rate as high as up to 100% for lending and pay as low as 5% on savings. This aggravates the existing inequalities in the distribution of wealth and income in Nigeria. Finally, Nigeria being a country with a Muslims majority, represents a potential for Islamic microfinance especially that most Muslims reject the conventional interest based micro financing, which is not tailored in line with their faith. This might cause failure of government project to combat poverty in the country through micro financing. Under the circumstance Islamic micro financing has potential to serve the country better. The paper has relied on the sources of Shari`ah law, secondary data from journals, periodicals, conference proceedings, text book , internet search and other sources of published data to support the argument.

The capital expenditure appraisal process has so far been presented in the framework of a cost benefit analysis where all benefits and costs are expressed in monetary values. However, many projects or programs undertaken by governments produce benefits that may be considered to be highly desirable but whose quantification in monetary terms is difficult if not impossible. Common examples of such projects are the provision of elementary school education, improvements in the provision of health care services, investment in public security and the administration of justice. In such cases, a full cost benefit analysis may not be feasible for each individual project or program but a costeffectiveness analysis (CEA) can be carried out. Such an analysis measures the quantities of benefits generated in terms of the number of units of the items produced, but no attempt is made to convert these into monetary values. This chapter outlines a methodology for conducting cost effectiveness analysis and discusses it usefulness and its limitations. Further extensions of cost effectives are made into topics of cost utility analysis, and the limitations of cost effectiveness.

This paper, based on a local e-government project in Fez, Morocco presents an empirically based methodology for assessing project outcomes in the context of factors of "good governance". Factors associated with good governance, outcome measures for assessing the results of the project in relation to these factors and a method for assessing e-government developments in a Less Developed Country through their contribution to "good (local) governance" are developed in this paper as well as indicators for enabling a project outcome assessment as a measurement of the project's contribution to the improvement of good governance.

What are the similarities and differences between crowdsourcing and sharing economy? What factors influence their use in developing countries? In light of recent developments in the use of IT-mediated technologies, such as crowdsourcing and the sharing economy, this manuscript examines their similarities and differences, and the challenges regarding their effective use in developing countries. We first examine each individually and highlight different forms of each IT-mediated technology. Given that crowdsourcing and sharing economy share aspects such as the use of IT, a reliance on crowds, monetary exchange, and the use of reputation systems, we systematically compare the similarities and differences of different types of crowdsourcing with the sharing economy, thus addressing a gap in the current literature. Using this knowledge, we examine the different challenges faced by developing countries when using crowdsourcing and the sharing economy, and highlight the differences in the applicability of these IT-mediated technologies when faced with specific development issues.