Lighting fixture

There are very little chandeliers survived from XVII c. in Lithuania. Few examples that reached our days can’t show the whole panorama of chandeliers of XVII c. of Lithuania, therefore thorough analysis of written sources was initiated. The purpose of this article is to introduce the social prevalence and functioning of chandeliers: to find out where, how many and in which way chandeliers were hanging, what materials were used in manufacturing of chandeliers, how many branches they had and what forms were custom for chandeliers of Lithuania in XVII c. In order to better understand the theme of article, development of European chandeliers to XVII century is introduced in article as well.
Different Polish and Latin words (korona / corona, lichtarz / candelabra, jelenie głowa z rogami / cornibus cervini, swiecznik) that were used to describe chandeliers in written sources are introduced. They also show that various types of chandeliers existed: circular chandeliers reminiscent of a crown or wheel, whittled from wood in form of deer head with horns, orb chandeliers formed from decorated bars and one central stem having chandeliers. All these shapes were typical for Europe lands during IX–XVII centuries.
The records in documents showed, that chandeliers usually were hanging in the interiors of churches and houses of very rich people as noblemen and bishops. Meanwhile petty noblemen and citizens of Vilnius were using candlesticks. Numerous references of chandeliers in the inventories of churches in XVII c. let us know that usually there was only one chandelier in the church. Also that most often it was hanging in the center of church, sometimes in front of great altar. The majority of chandeliers in documents are named as lichtarz wiszący and probably chandeliers with one central stem were usually called by this term. Undoubtedly, must be said that XVII century was the age of chandeliers made from brass. According references in documents, six, also eight or twelve branch chandeliers were most popular.
To end with, valuable references of XVII c. documents showed that there were more various types of chandeliers than can be seen in Lithuanian museums or public interiors. Chandelier descriptions founded in the inventories revealed the basic information about chandeliers of Lithuania in XVII c., but also raised new questions and problems, which require new researches in future.

During the restoration of the Palace of Pac family in Vilnius old town (Didžioji Street. 7), fragments of papier-mache chandelier were found. The new material collected for the theoretical reconstruction of this luxurious artefact led to the publication of rare earlier unexplored papier-mache light fixtures in Lithuania.
The topic has received very little research attention. Publication  Japanned Papier Mâché and Tinware c.1740-1940 (Woodbridge: Antique Collectors' Club Ltd, 2012) by English author Yvonne Jones was helpful in describing the technique of papier-mache. Information on the activity of papier-mache chandelier workshops was provided by Igor Sichev’s comprehensive book Russian Bronze (Русская бронза. Энциклопедия русского антиквариата, 2003). 
This article shortly presents types of papier-mache techniques and workshops in the foreign countries.  Data of the written sources are analysed, various survived and not survived examples are overviewed. The main focus of article is the chandelier found in the Palace of Pac. Stylistics of fragments of the item shows that it was made in the middle of the 19th century. As the top and the bottom parts of the item were lost, the search of analogue chandelier was made. Accidentally the photo of the Palace of Verkiai were discovered, where three identical chandeliers can be seen. Written and iconographic sources let raise hypothesis that fragments of chandelier found in the Palace of Pac belongs to the one of three chandeliers earlier suspended in the Palace of Verkiai.
The analysis of papje-mache chandeliers in Lithuania leads to several conclusions: 1) the small number of surviving examples and the data of the sources show that papje-mache light fixtures were rare items; 2) chandeliers made from this inexpensive material decorated luxurious interiors of noblemen’s palaces; 3) papier-mache chandeliers distinguished in their shape and ornament, and they did not repeat the lighting devices made from more expensive materials.

Information about chandeliers manufactured in the 2nd half of the 19th century and the 1st half of the 20th century and, especially, chandelier factories of this period is scarce in published overviews of the evolution of European lighting fixtures. Perhaps most authors still hesitate whether this mass-produced equipment is of any value; it also seems that their preservation is not a major concern either.
An overview of the historical and cultural context of the 2nd half of the 19th century and the 1st half of the 20th century reveals the reasons behind negative attitudes toward mass-produced items and the pioneering designers’ efforts to change the standing situation by improving the design of everyday-use objects. In the discussed period, chandeliers were not produced in Lithuania industrially. The system of guilds, which survived until the end of the 19th century, produced a situation in which such household items were commissioned to local craftsmen or imported from abroad. Surviving factory catalogues and equipment found in Lithuania demonstrate that particularly large numbers of chandeliers were imported from Warsaw – the metallurgy center of the neighboring Poland, as well as from Berlin (Germany) and Russia. The article discusses the factories of these countries and the goods they manufactured, and attempts to identify the workshops that produced the chandeliers surviving in Lithuania. The preservation of the examples stored in Lithuanian museums or still hanging in sacral and secular interiors would pay due tribute to an important and interesting remnant of the technical age.

This study examines influences of a daylight dimming control system on the variation of indoor illuminanace and lighting energy savings in a small office space. Field measurements and a series of computation were performed for typical types of sky conditions in summers. Results indicate that the daylight illuminance under clear and partly-cloudy sky were close to the target illuminance during a majority of time due to a higher ratio of window to wall. However, the target illuminance was not kept successfully due to the variation of photosensor signals which were strongly influenced by desktop illuminance. The system with partially-shielded conditions succeeded to keep target illuminance under clear sky conditions. The system failed under overcast sky conditions since the electric light output from fixtures caused excessive signals to photosensors due to insufficient daylight on a desktop. Unshielded and fully-shielded conditions were not recommended for effective controls of the systems. The influence of lighting fixtures on photosensors should be minimized to achieve successful lighting controls by daylight dimming systems.

Information about chandeliers manufactured in the 2nd half of the 19th century and the 1st half of the 20th century and, especially, chandelier factories of this period is scarce in published overviews of the evolution of European lighting fixtures. Perhaps most authors still hesitate whether this mass-produced equipment is of any value; it also seems that their preservation is not a major concern either. An overview of the historical and cultural context of the 2nd half of the 19th century and the 1st half of the 20th century reveals the reasons behind negative attitudes toward mass-produced items and the pioneering designers' efforts to change the standing situation by improving the design of everyday-use objects. In the discussed period, chandeliers were not produced in Lithuania industrially. The system of guilds, which survived until the end of the 19th century, produced a situation in which such household items were commissioned to local craftsmen or imported from abroad. ...