Sustainable Livelihood

Cotton farmers in many developing countries are facing decreasing marginal returns due to stagnating yields and high input costs. Conversion to organic management could offer an alternative. In a two year comparative study in central India covering 170 cotton fields, organic farms ...

Social capital is widely recognized as one of the five capitals that can be used to sustain livelihood, avert risk and vulnerability. This paper looks at the use of social capital as a risk mitigation device and to sustain livelihood and food security. In this research IFPRI panel data collected during 1996-1997 (pre-flood) and 1999-2000 (post-flood period) and field data

Reductionism in rural development policymaking can have serious practical ramifications for human life and well-being. Ecosystem Health and Sustainable Livelihoods (SL) are two approaches that have been assisting development practitioners to avoid reductionism and to take complexity seriously. Both of these approaches have primarily been applied at relatively small scales, and the application of SL at policy level has been largely in terms of the substance of policyconsidering the impacts of policy on livelihoods. Nevertheless, we argue that they offer insights for policy processes, as well. Drawing on these insights we outline factors that should be considered in an ecosystem approach to policy process. This is an approach that would be characterized by a set of nested deliberation and decision-making processes, by a method of problem definition, analysis and solution seeking that is iterative and based on negotiation among multiple stakeholders, and by careful attention to the cross-scale aspects of decision-making processes and the flow of information.

People living in the arid areas experience highly variable rainfall, droughts and floods often have insecure livelihoods. Small multi-purpose reservoirs supply water for domestic use, livestock watering, small scale irrigation, fisheries, and other beneficial uses. Although reservoir ensembles store a significant quantity of water and have a significant effect on downstream flows, they have rarely been considered as systems, with synergies and tradeoffs resulting from the number and density of their structures. The Small Reservoirs Project (SRP) will develop tools to assist people working at two scales. At the basin/ensemble scale, people will be helped to maintain water related ecosystem services, the long-term sustainability of local water supplies, and adequate downstream flows as they make use of small reservoirs. At the community/household scale, they will be helped to improve food security and increase sustainable livelihoods. The SRP is developing a suite of innovative methods to gather the data to be used to develop the required tools. In this paper, a selection of the SRP's innovative methods is presented. There are methods to measure evaporative losses from a small reservoir, to assess the health aspects of small reservoirs, to assess the impact of small reservoir ensembles on water quality, to gather water poverty and water livelihood information, and to gather and prepare hydrologic information to be used in a small reservoir ensemble model developed using WEAP. During the course of the SRP we will use these and other methods we are developing to make the tools needed to facilitate the improved management of reservoir ensembles. Small Reservoir Project (SRP) is funded by GTZ through the mechanism of the CGIAR's Water for Food Challenge Program.

Contributing to and providing links between environmental variability and adaptive livelihood strategies, household well-being and development policy, this paper presents an analysis that explores theoretical and policy debates on whether livelihood adaptations and emerging strategies within the context of current environmental change have received the required policy attention and intervention. Livelihood diversification as a poverty reduction strategy has been argued to result in improved well-being or perpetuates a cycle of impoverishment. The paper focuses on communities in vulnerable environments with limited well-being and poor assets. The study examines the changing livelihood strategies and livelihood options of households located within ecosystems perceived to be experiencing environmental change in Northeastern Ghana. On-farm and non-farm diversification and migration as livelihood strategies considered as survival strategies in environments experiencing rising temperatures and erratic rainfall patterns. It is argued that diversified livelihoods are operated within a cycle of impoverishment. The paper calls for geographically and locally sensitive policy intervention approaches that can sustainably expand the livelihood options of the poor in changing environments.

The promotion and support of urban agriculture (UA) has the potential to contribute to efforts to address pressing challenges of poverty, under nutrition and sustainability among vulnerable populations in the growing cities of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). This may be especially relevant for HIV/AIDS-affected individuals in SSA whose agricultural livelihoods are severely disrupted by the devastating effects of the disease on physical productivity and nutritional wellbeing. This paper outlines the process involved in the conception, design and implementation of a project to strengthen technical, environmental, financial and social capacity for UA among HIV-affected households in Nakuru, Kenya. Key lessons learned are also discussed. The first has been the value of multi-stakeholder partnerships, representing a broad range of relevant experience, knowledge and perspectives in order to address the complex set of issues facing agriculture for social purposes in urban settings. A second is the key role of self-help group organizations, and the securing of institutional commitments to support farming by vulnerable persons affected by HIV-AIDS is also apparent. Finally, the usefulness of evaluative tools using mixed methods to monitor progress towards goals and identify supports and barriers to success are highlighted.

For almost 20 years, the Marine Science Institute (MSI), University of the Philippines, has been culturing giant clams to restore depleted populations of these large bivalves in the Philippines, and to promote giant clam farming as a sustainable livelihood. Restocking activities were done in collaboration with local groups by providing training in the culture and ocean rearing of giant clams, and by implementing a “users pay” approach. Initially, a variety of giant clam species was used but once F1 broodstock of Tridacna gigas were reared, restocking focused on this species due to its scarcity and fast rate of growth. About 20 000 T. gigas were placed on coral reefs. In addition, >50 000 clams (T. gigas, T. squamosa, T. derasa, T. crocea, T. maxima and Hippopus hippopus) were distributed through other means. Altogether, >40 sites throughout the Philippines received cultured giant clams. Grow-out trials to test the viability of supplying giant clams for the aquarium trade to create new sources of income were conducted successfully with a group of fishers in Bolinao, Pangasinan. However, this initiative encountered legal obstacles when the government regulatory agency prohibited the export of cultured clams, regarding this as a threat to the conservation of wild individuals. The long experience in culturing and restocking giant clams in the Philippines provides many lessons for other countries wishing to restore stocks of these large bivalves. Particular care needs to be given to selection of release sites, negotiations with participating groups to safeguard the released clams, adequate transfer of technology to collaborators, and transport of large clams from nursery areas to release sites.

The main purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of livelihood risks on food insecurity in rural households. This research is a quantitative in terms of its purpose and descriptive in terms of data collection. The analyses are of correlation type. The statistical population of this study consisted of all the small-scale farming heads of households in Divandarreh County of Kurdistan province. Using Krejcie and Morgan sampling table and the stratified proportional sampling method, 375 persons were selected as the study sample. The data collection tool of the study was a questionnaire whose validity was confirmed by a panel of experts, and its reliability was established by calculating Chronbach's Alpha Coefficient (α > 0.7). The results showed that the studied farmers had high levels of food insecurity and were highly exposed to livelihood risks. Also, the correlation analyses showed positive and significant relationships between livelihood risk variables and food insecurity. The variables included agronomy (0.639), agricultural trade (0739), price (0.524), employment (0.474), health (0.541), policy making (0.425), and demographic features (0.387). In addition, as the logistic regression sequences indicated, of the livelihoods risks, agricultural production risk (0.074) had the greatest impact on the food insecurity of households.

Laos is one of the poorest countries in the world. The majority of households continue to rely on farming to meet their needs. However the country is also going through an important transition as the market extends into formerly remote rural areas. Drawing on surveys of nine villages in three districts, the paper elucidates how households are managing the transition from subsistence to market. Agriculturally resilient communities with considerable potential are contrasted with villages where the scope for increases in farm output are sharply constrained. The growing role of non-farm activities is highlighted and a distinction drawn between 'distress' and 'progressive' diversification. The paper argues that diversification is propelled by very different forces and has markedly different implications in livelihood terms. It is also suggested that while general statements can be made about livelihood transitions in the country, and the production and reproduction of poverty, at a household level it is often not possible to 'read-off' likely livelihood conditions from a mere assessment of resources.

This paper investigates the recently launched privatization of local solid waste management in Cairo, focusing on its adverse effects on the economy and on the urban settlement system of the Zabaleen garbage collectors' communities. According to the official development strategy, the privatization of solid waste services is fundamental to overall government plans for the rehabilitation of areas of historical Cairo. But the objectives of the rehabilitation plans tend to favour business interests while threatening the interests of the local population. The findings of a study on the situation emphasize the significance of poverty alleviation initiatives in restructuring solid waste collection and developing the recycling industry, and the development of new channels for cooperation and partnership between the garbage collectors' association (Gammiya), grassroots organizations, local authorities and multinational waste management companies. In order to promote sustainable livelihoods and better opportunities for the urban poor, the study emphasizes the need among the low-income Zabaleen to draw on the sustainable flow of local resources, while seeking new means of supporting land acquisition and its development for improved housing standards, basic services and environmental quality.

Asset-based community development (ABCD) is presented as an alternative to needs-based approaches to development. Following an overview of the principles and practice of ABCD, five major elements of ABCD are examined in the light of current literature on relevant research and practice. This involves exploring: the theory and practice of appreciative inquiry; the concept of social capital as an asset for community development; the theory of community economic development, such as the sustainable livelihoods approach; lessons learned from two decades of international development in the participatory paradigm; and the theory and practice of building active citizenship engagement and a stronger civil society. How ABCD both reflects recent trends in these areas and stands to benefit from the insights generated from this work is outlined.

Nepal has increasingly gained world-wide recognition in participatory forest management, primarily through "Community Forestry" program. This paper sketches trajectory of forest management policies and practices in Nepal and analyzes achievements and pitfalls associated with Community Forestry. The focus is on analyzing the relations amidst good forest governance, sustainable livelihoods and forest conservation. Our analysis indicates that Community Forestry program has been successful to meet the twined goals of forest conservation and socioeconomic transformation through power devolution, participation and good governance. Encouraged with such achievements, Nepal has envisioned attaining the national goals of poverty alleviation and the global goals of Sustainable Development by strengthening good forest governance, sustainable forest management, and livelihood improvement. Though, there are adequate challenges, mostly socioeconomically, Community Forestry has been a 'Learning platform' that empowering people and recognizing their rights over the resources is the most viable approach of sustainable forest management for a country like Nepal.

This article introduces sustainable livelihoods approaches, explaining what they are and how they have emerged. It examines how different organizations have taken up a sustainable livelihoods approach, and considers whether in so doing they have drawn on community development thinking and practice. It is found that community development is largely absent from sustainable livelihoods thinking and contended that part of the reason lies with the locally situated character of community development practice, which makes it difficult for externally driven sustainable livelihoods interventions to systematically incorporate community-level methods and practices. More fundamentally, sustainable livelihoods approaches embody a technocratic development drive, which is at odds with the principles, ethos and values that underpin much community development work.

The paper investigates recently launched plans to privatize solid-waste management in Cairo, focusing on its adverse effects on the sustainability of the associated recycling economy and urban settlement system of the garbage collectors communities (Zabaleen) located within the Muqattam mountain area which is adjacent to Cairo's old historical quarters. According to official development strategy, the privatization of solid-waste services is regarded as fundamental to overall government plans for Old Cairo's rehabilitation. The objectives of the rehabilitation programme tend to favour touristorientated projects, whilst ignoring the local population's interests through the removal of informal Zabaleen settlements in Muqattam mountain, and through the clearing of the Eastern Cemetery of its tomb dwellers and shanty town buildings.

This dissertation is based on the journal article format with a collection of four separate papers, three of which have been published. The objective of this dissertation is to offer perspectives to contextualize sustainable agriculture in relation to two societal contexts beyond farm and watershed: (1) the developing country context, and (2) the fresh fruit and vegetables (FFV) sector (with

Sustainable development, although a widely used phrase and idea, has many different meanings and therefore provokes many different responses. In broad terms, the concept of sustainable development is an attempt to combine growing concerns about a range of environmental issues with socio-economic issues. To aid understanding of these different policies this paper presents a classification and mapping of different trends of thought on sustainable development, their political and policy frameworks and their attitudes towards change and means of change. Sustainable development has the potential to address fundamental challenges for humanity, now and into the future. However, to do this, it needs more clarity of meaning, concentrating on sustainable livelihoods and well-being rather than well-having, and long term environmental sustainability, which requires a strong basis in principles that link the social and environmental to human equity.

Because the conditions for agricultural development vary considerably across space, we need to develop methods that allow us to take such variability into account when evaluating development strategies for particular crops or farming systems. This paper addresses spatially varying characteristics in an evaluation of the potential economic benefits of three cotton development strategies for Uganda: area expansion, productivity improvement, and domestic consumption increase. We begin with a historical review of cotton production in Uganda. We then described the major challenges and opportunities for Ugandan cotton production, including farm-level production constraints. Household-level production data from the 2000 Uganda National Household Survey (UNHS) are used to estimate the current spatial distribution of cotton production (called the cotton production area, or CPA), based on the association of household cotton production with ranges in mapped variables (altitude, length of growing period, and population density), district cotton production statistics and expert knowledge of local production patterns. Cotton development domains (CDDs) are then defined by agroclimatic suitability, market/ginnery access, and inclusion in the CPA. We use the UNHS data to evaluate the importance of cotton as a livelihood enterprise and its role in rural livelihood strategies. Key ecosystems and protected areas are considered in conjunction with the CDDs in defining feasible areas for expansion of production. Finally, the Dynamic Research Evaluation for Management (DREAM) model is used to estimate benefits that accrue from the three development strategies considered.

In order to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger and promote sustainable development through Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the United Nations Millennium Declaration was adopted in September 2000 at the largest ever gathering, committing countries both rich and poor to do all they can to eradicate poverty and hunger, promote human dignity and equality and achieve peace, democracy and environmental stability, achieve universal primary education, promoting gender equality and empower women, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, ensure environmental sustainability and develop a global partnership for development. It is because of these and more especially goal one, to "eradicate extreme poverty and hunger", that prompted this study. It focused on assessing the contribution of urban agriculture as a tool for sustainable livelihood in Kwale, Delta State. Emphases were laid on the characteristics of the urban farmers, major urban agricultural activities, its impact on household income and food security, and finally the challenges facing urban agriculture in the study area. Twenty (20) urban farmers were randomly selected from each of the four zones that encompass Kwale giving a sample size of eighty (80) respondents used for the study. Information obtained were analysed using simple descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution tables, percentages and bar charts. Two hypotheses were postulated and tested in the course of this study using Spearman's correlation coefficient (rho). The findings from the study indicate that urban agriculture is an important source of supply in urban food system, income options for households, and creates full time employment. The challenges for urban farmer are land, inadequate capital, and high cost of labour. Since current employment situations in the urban areas do not generate adequate income for the poor urban population, it is therefore recommended that urban agriculture should be integrated into urban land use planning in the state as a source of urban income, employment and food security. Government as the principal land owner should liaise with individuals and group land owners to devise appropriate mechanisms to release undeveloped plots of land within and around the city for agricultural purposes. If some of these recommendations are properly addressed, urban agriculture would help to reduce urban poverty and achieve livelihood sustainability.

Tourism has been increasingly used for and directly linked with rural poverty reduction in developing countries. However, the application of, and to an extent the principles of the widely used organising framework for considering poverty reduction, the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA), may not fit fully the tourism situation, and vice versa. Based on a review of the literature, we first suggest that, sustainable livelihoods for tourism should be viewed in a broader tourism context rather than merely taking tourism as a development tool. Second, the SLA seeks household livelihood sustainability at the individual or household level, while tourism sustainability is often applied to the industry itself at wider more macro level scales. Thus, a deep understanding of the sustainability trade-off between the SLA and tourism needs to be found. Third, tourism research has demonstrated local residents' increasing concern about participation in political governance associated with tourism development, with less participation jeopardising local people's assets from a livelihood perspective. Therefore, an additional concept of institutional asset (mainly community participation) needs to be incorporated within the SLA. Given the above understandings, a sustainable tourism livelihood was defined and a Sustainable Livelihood Framework for Tourism approach is proposed and discussed.

There is widespread agreement on the need for land reform in Zimbabwe as a means of reducing poverty. This paper assesses the potential consequences of a land-reform scheme that draws on proposals from Zimbabwe's government in 1998 and 1999. The authors analyze the ...

Women's contribution to small scale aquaculture is often remain unrecognized and the real benefits from their involvement are not objectively assessed. The present study focused on the women's participation in fish production and marketing through assessment by reviewing DANIDA assisted projects in greater Noakhali Districts in Bangladesh.

This article introduces sustainable livelihoods approaches, explaining what they are and how they have emerged. It examines how different organizations have taken up a sustainable livelihoods approach, and considers whether in so doing they have drawn on community development thinking and practice. It is found that community development is largely absent from sustainable livelihoods thinking and contended that part of the reason lies with the locally situated character of community development practice, which makes it difficult for externally driven sustainable livelihoods interventions to systematically incorporate community-level methods and practices. More fundamentally, sustainable livelihoods approaches embody a technocratic development drive, which is at odds with the principles, ethos and values that underpin much community development work.

Social impact assessment (SIA) is now conceived as being the process of managing the social issues of development. There is consensus on what ‘good’ SIA practice is – it is participatory; it supports affected peoples, proponents and regulatory agencies; it increases understanding of change and capacities to respond to change; it seeks to avoid and mitigate negative impacts and to enhance positive benefits across the life cycle of developments; and it emphasizes enhancing the lives of vulnerable and disadvantaged people. We analyse the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats facing SIA. We assert that the SIA community needs to revisit core concepts, such as culture, community, power, human rights, gender, justice, place, resilience and sustainable livelihoods. It is incumbent on SIA practitioners to educate proponents, regulators and colleagues about these concepts, and to embed them into practice norms. Stronger engagement with the emerging trends of free, prior and informed consent (FPIC); human rights impact assessment; social performance standards; supply chain management; governance; local content and economic development will improve the relevance and demonstrable value of SIA to all stakeholders.

Domestication of indigenous fruit trees which emerged as a farmer-driven; market -led process has become an important initiative in the tropics due to their nutritional and socio-economic importance which contributes to sustainable livelihood. This paper presents evidence for the contribution of domesticating indigenous fruit trees (IFTs) to sustainable livelihood. Evidence on the number and types of people involved in the domestication of IFTs and obtaining an income is presented. The contribution on nutritional level of the people and the environment are also discussed. Policy makers should realize the importance of participatory domestication in the development of the community and this practice should be protected. Intervention should be made in other to sustain and increase the already valuable contribution of domesticated IFTs.

Women's contribution to small scale aquaculture is often remain unrecognized and the real benefits from their involvement are not objectively assessed. The present study focused on the women's participation in fish production and marketing through assessment by reviewing DANIDA assisted projects in greater Noakhali Districts in Bangladesh.

Livestock water productivity is defined as the amount of water depleted or diverted to produce livestock and livestock products and services (Sonder et al, in prep). However, different livestock species and their products vary in terms of their values and contributions for men and women in reaching livelihood objectives. Similarly, various livestock production systems generate different costs for men and women, resulting from gendered control and access.

The concept of ‘sustainable livelihoods’ is of immense significance in the context of social development. This paper outlines a framework for the impact of technology for uplifting the rural livelihood in North East India. This study has been conducted to understand the present scenario of rural livelihood in North East India. The framework shows the available technologies for rural development, the extent of their use and the outcome as a whole. North East India is a region rich in bio-diversity, fertile soil, varied agro-ecology, immense water resources, human resources which are potential sources to develop the agricultural as well as economy of the region. However, due to lack of proper strategies for maintaining the natural resources, less co-ordination in programme implementation, lack of proper communication facilities, and poor infrastructural facilities the region has been lagging behind towards development. Scientific approaches, studies and innovations are highly essential to overcome the constraints that are being faced today in the rural areas. India being a very large country, with diverse geographical and ecological conditions, and varied socio cultural background of the rural population, a uniform prescription or model would be inappropriate for application in all the regions. As North East is a less developed region in India and a huge number of rural population are involved in agriculture which contributes greatly towards the Indian economy as a whole so, appropriate technology should be adopted to enhance the livelihood of the rural people.

Nepal has increasingly gained world-wide recognition in participatory forest management, primarily through "Community Forestry" program. This paper sketches trajectory of forest management policies and practices in Nepal and analyzes achievements and pitfalls associated with Community Forestry. The focus is on analyzing the relations amidst good forest governance, sustainable livelihoods and forest conservation. Our analysis indicates that Community Forestry program has been successful to meet the twined goals of forest conservation and socioeconomic transformation through power devolution, participation and good governance. Encouraged with such achievements, Nepal has envisioned attaining the national goals of poverty alleviation and the global goals of Sustainable Development by strengthening good forest governance, sustainable forest management, and livelihood improvement. Though, there are adequate challenges, mostly socioeconomically, Community Forestry has been a &#3...

This case study builds on an ongoing large-scale quantitative research project undertaken by BIDS/IRRI since 1987 originally in 64 unions from 57 districts of the country. It adds a qualitative research component to examine the impact of modern rice varieties (MVs) on livelihoods in a structured sample of eight of these villages across a range of favorable and unfavorable contexts. This component was structured using the sustainable livelihoods framework and employed focus groups stratified by poverty ranking and gender.

The distinctive features of fisheries resources, fishers and their geographic contexts, on the one hand, and broad stylized features of the existing lacklustre performance of this sector, on the other, call for specialized and sustained efforts to promote livelihood of usually poor, backward and unorganized fisher communities, which are nevertheless and often the most intimate stakeholder of this sector and its underlying resources. To develop a perspective on intervention strategies for livelihood promotion of most intimate stakeholders -that is, the fisher folk, in a sustainable manner, this paper uses clues from recent economic theories and management tools on property rights, Coase Theorem, stakeholder cooperation and publicprivate-community partnership in an effort towards resolving the multi-dimensional problems of this sector. It stratifies and brings out the pros and cons of the existing fishing efforts into four categories of models -the traditional marketing model, state-led models of livelihood promotion and fisheries development (including cases of para-statal cooperatives), entrepreneur or leader-driven models, and technology-driven models, through selected illustrations from different parts of the country and covering both marine and inland (including brackish water) segments of fisheries. The paper, after identifying the major ingredients for sustainable livelihood development around fisheries, finally articulates Dr. APJ Kalam's concept of PURA to recommend a rural entrepreneur-led hybrid model of fisheries development to solicit sustainable and growth oriented cooperation among the suppliers of land (i.e., stakeholders to fishery resources, which are available through Nature), labor (including fishers) and capital (including professionals). The ultimate goal of this paper is to derive inspiration from Coase Theorem and the Japanese model of Keiretsu to empower the producers and suppliers of fish -namely, the fisher folk and to place them at the centre stage of control of rural entrepreneur-led private organizations, wherein the fisher community will not be deemed as mere consumers or vendors of fish, but will enter as dignified co-producer partners with significant shares in residual claim and residual control in those organizations.

Pakistan has very low forest cover, but these forests are very diverse in nature and of significant importance for the livelihood security of millions of rural people who live in and around these forests. Policies, institutions and processes form the context within which individuals and households construct and adapt livelihood strategies, on the other hand these institutionally shaped livelihood strategies may have an impact on the sustainability of natural resource use. The present paper aims to critically analyse the forest policies of Pakistan. Implications for sustainable forest management and livelihood security of forest dependent people are also given. The first forest policy of Pakistan was announced in 1955 followed by the forest policies of 1962, 1975, 1980, 1988 as part of the National Agricultural Policy, 1991, and the latest in 2001. Most of the forest policies were associated with the change of government. There was much rhetoric in some recent policies regarding the concept of “participation” and “sustainable livelihoods” but in practice these policies are also replica of the previously top-down, autocratic and non-participatory forest policies. Pakistan needs to develop a sustainable, workable, research-based, and people-friendly forest policy enable to catering to the changing needs of stakeholders including government.