The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism

CONTENTS

Cover

Title page

Notes on Contributors

Acknowledgments

Aims and Scope

A Note on Transcriptions

Avestan

Pahlavi (Zoroastrian Middle Persian)

New Persian (Farsi)

Arabic

Gujarati

Abbreviations

Introduction

A Disintegrated Academic Landscape

Attempts at Mapping Main Approaches

Some Main Figures in the History of Zoroastrian Studies

Contributions of Zoroastrian and Iranian Scholars

The Impact of the Study of Zoroastrianism on Modern Zoroastrianism

Emerging Trends in Recent Scholarship

Part I: Zarathustra Revisited

CHAPTER 1: Zarathustra’s Time and Homeland

Zarathustra’s Time and Homeland: Approximations and Dead Ends

The Location of the Legendary Zarathustra

The Geographical Horizon of the Young Avesta

Further Reading

CHAPTER 2: Zarathustra’s Time and Homeland

External Evidence for the Avesta

Linguistic and Literary Relationship between the Older and Younger Avesta

The Provenance of the Avesta

Conclusion

Further Reading

CHAPTER 3: Interpretations of Zarathustra and the Gāthās

CHAPTER 3A: The Gāthās

CHAPTER 3B: The Gāthās, Said to Be of Zarathustra

The Gāthās within the Avesta

The Edition of the Old Avesta

The Young Avestan Exegesis of the Old Avesta

Zarathustra

Unity and Homogeneity of the Gāthās

The Doctrine of the Gāthās

The Sole Source of Zoroastrianism?

Concluding Remark

CHAPTER 3C: Dimensions of the Gāthās as Poetry

Further Reading

CHAPTER 3D: The Gāthās as Myth and Ritual

Summary

Background

The Historical Zarathustra in Western Scholarship

My Approach

The Gāthās as the Story of Zarathustra

The Gathic Ritual Myth

CHAPTER 4: Zarathustra

Zarathustra as Author and Source

Zarathustra as Hero, Recipient of Revelation, and Prophet

Narratives and Identifications

Visual Representations

Conclusion

Further Reading

Part II: Periods, Regions, and Contexts

CHAPTER 5: Religion and Politics in Pre-Islamic Iran

Zoroastrianism before the Iranian Empires

The Achaemenid Empire

The Origin of Achaemenid Court Rituals

The Zoroastrian Calendar

The Judgment of the Soul

The Zoroastrian Story of Creation and the End of Time

Alexander and the Seleucids

The Parthian (Arsacid) Empire

The Rise of the Sasanians

Further Reading

CHAPTER 6: Zoroastrianism under Islamic Rule

Historical Periodization

Conquest and Settlement of the Arab Muslim Conquerors (7th CE)

The Age of Conversion and Heterodox Movements

The Zoroastrian Dark Ages (11th–16th Centuries CE)

Zoroastrians under a Shī’ī Gunpowder Empire (16th–18th Centuries CE)

Further Reading

CHAPTER 7: Armenian and Georgian Zoroastrianism

Armenia and Georgia: Geography and History

Languages and Sources

The Religion of Pre-Christian Armenia

The Religion of Pre-Christian Georgia

The Parthian Commonwealth

Further Reading

CHAPTER 8: Zoroastrianism in Central Asia

Sources

Calendars

The Kushan Pantheon

The Sogdian Pantheon

Temples

The Clergy and Its Literary Productions

Marriage Customs

Funerary Practices

After the Muslim Conquest

Conclusion: Central Asian Zoroastrianism in Perspective

Further Reading

CHAPTER 9: Zoroastrianism in the Far East

The History of Zoroastrian Studies in the Far East

Main Periods

The Advance of Zoroastrianism into the Far East (the 4th–9th Centuries)

The Formation of Sinicized Zoroastrianism (the 10th–20th Centuries)

The Parsis in the Far East (the 18th–21st Centuries)

Conclusion: Studies on Zoroastrianism in the Far East

Acknowledgments

Appendix:Chronological Table of Zoroastrianism in the Far East

Further Reading

CHAPTER 10: The Parsis

The Early Days

Colonial India

Parsis in Independent India

Final Remarks

Further Reading

CHAPTER 11: Zoroastrians in Modern Iran

The Amelioration Society, the Struggle against Discrimination and New Agencies

Constitutional Changes

Under the Pahlavīs

Nationalism: Ideological Reappraisal and Civic Zoroastrianism

Religious Boundaries and Modernization

The Islamic Republic

Some Conclusions and Prospects

Further Reading

CHAPTER 12: The Zoroastrian Diaspora

Zoroastrians in China

Zoroastrians in East Africa

Parsis in Pakistan

Zoroastrians in Britain

Zoroastrians in North America

Zoroastrians in Australia

Final Remarks

Further Reading

Appendix Chronological table

Part III: Structures, Discourses, and Dimensions

CHAPTER 13: Theologies and Hermeneutics

Religion and the Sacred Word

Good and Evil, Truth and Falsehood

The Nature, Will, and Desire of God

The Nature of the Evil Spirit and the Demons

The Divine Plan, Predestination, and Time

Human Behavior, Religious Wisdom, and Life Practices

The Problem of Evil and Defenses of Dualism

Textual Taxonomies: The Ahunwar, the Twenty-One Nasks, and the Dēn

Sacred Wisdom, Priestly Authority, and the Teaching of Religious Knowledge

Religion and Polemics: Disciplining Selves and Critiquing Others

Conclusions

Acknowledgment

Further Reading

CHAPTER 14: Cosmologies and Astrology

The Cosmic Fight and the Double Dimension of Existence and of Creation

Unlimited and Limited Time

The Organization of the World and the Place of the Iranians in the Mazdean Cosmography

Early Iranian Astral Cosmology and Mythology

The Avestan Heaven and the Astral Bodies

The Myth of Tištriia and the Astral Battle against the Falling Stars

Later Mazdean Cosmology and Astrology

The Planets, Their Names, and Their Demonization

Other Doctrines

Final Remarks

Further Reading

CHAPTER 15: Myths, Legends, Eschatologies

The Beginnings

Zoroaster’s Life

The End

Conclusion

Further Reading

CHAPTER 16: Gender

A Gendered Concept of the Divine?

Priesthood of Believers

Purity, Pollution, and Sexuality

Religio-Social Experience

Final Remarks

Further Reading

CHAPTER 17: Law in Pre-Modern Zoroastrianism

Reconstructing Zoroastrian Law

Law and Religion

Law of Persons and Animals

Family Law, Marriage, and Succession

Law of Property and Obligations

Criminal Law

Legal Proceedings

Zoroastrian Law after the Muslim Conquest

Final Remarks

Further Reading

CHAPTER 18: Law and Modern Zoroastrians

Reinventing Zoroastrian Law

Inheritance

Marriage

Religious Trusts

Beyond India

Final Remarks

Abbreviations

Further Reading

Cases

Statutes, Constitutions, and Related Papers

Part IV: Practices and Sites

CHAPTER 19: Ethics

The Ritual or Narrow Morality

Morality in a General Sense

Final Remarks

Further Reading

CHAPTER 20: Prayer

Introduction

Prayer Texts in Avestan

Prayers in Languages Other than Avestan

Prayer in Modern Zoroastrianism

Conclusion

Further Reading

CHAPTER 21: Purity and Pollution / The Body

The Source of Impurity and the Effects of Pollution

Analysis

The Removal of Pollution

Conclusion

Further Reading

CHAPTER 22: Rituals

Terminology

Reform and Change

Animal Sacrifice

The Art of Words

Priesthood and Laity

The Ritualization of Daily Life

Priestly Liturgies

Initiations and Weddings

Initiation into the Priesthood

Funerals and Post-Funerary Services

Further Reading

CHAPTER 23: Festivals and the Calendar

The Earliest Zoroastrian Festivals

Zoroastrian Festivals in Sasanian and Early Islamic Iran

Festivals in the Modern Period

Final Remarks

Further Reading

CHAPTER 24: Religious Sites and Physical Structures

Ancient Holy Structures

Institutions of Late Antiquity

Medieval and Pre-Modern Places of Piety

Modern Communities and Their Religious Sites

Further Reading

Part V: Intersections

CHAPTER 25: Early India and Iran

The Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Heritage of Avestan

Linguistic Similarities between Avestan and Old Indic

The Old Indic and Avestan Literature

Time and Place of the Indo-Iranians

The Old Indic and Avestan Poets and Their Poetry

Shared Myths: Cosmology

Dragon-Killers and Other Myths

Mythical Geography

Poetic Formulas

Gods and Demons

Ahura Mazdā

Mitra/Miθra

Vāyu/Vaiiu

Apām Napāt /Apąm Napā

Bhága/Baga (Baγa)

Aryamán/Airiiaman

Evil Deities

Ritual

Soma/Haoma

Conclusion

Further Reading

CHAPTER 26: Judaism

Early Encounters: The Achaemenid Conquest of the Near East

Intersections with Zoroastrianism in Second Temple Times

Intersections during Late Antiquity: The Talmud and Zoroastrianism

After the Conquest: Medieval Intersections between Jews and Zoroastrians

Conclusion

Further Reading

CHAPTER 27: The Classical World

Early Greek Cosmologists: 540–450 BCE

Greek Historians of the East: 450–370 BCE

Plato and the Academy: 370–300 BCE

The Hellenistic Period: 300–30 BCE

The Roman and Early Byzantine Periods: 30 BCE–600 CE

Final Remarks

Further Reading

CHAPTER 28: From Miθra to Roman Mithras

CHAPTER 29: Christianity

The Wise Men from the East

Zoroastrian Elements in Early Christianity

Zoroaster and Iranian Religion in the Church Fathers and Gnostic Literature

Christians in Arsacid and Sasanian Iran

Persecutions of Christians in Sasanian Iran

Zoroastrian Polemics against Christianity

Early Islamic Times

Further Reading

CHAPTER 30: Manichaeism in Iran

Manichaeans in Sasanian Iran

Zoroastrian Topics and Elements in Manichaeism

The Manichaean Worldview in Zoroastrianism and in Later Iranian Traditions

Pahlavi Texts against Manichaeans and Anti-Zoroastrica Written by Manichaeans

Conclusion

Further Reading

CHAPTER 31: Islam

The Attitudes toward Zoroastrianism in Early Islam

Descriptions of Zoroastrianism in Muslim Literature

Iranian Influence in Early Arabic Literature

The Iranian Festivals: Nowrūz and Mehragān

Zoroastrian Polemics against Islam

Secular Themes in Islam Derived from Iran

Middle Persian Books Translated into Arabic

Further Reading

CHAPTER 32: The Yezidi and Yarsan Traditions

Further Reading

CHAPTER 33: The Bahā’ī Faith

Early Interactions with Zoroastrian Leaders

The Zoroastrian Conversions

Factors in the Conversion of Zoroastrians

Separation, Integration, and Intermarriage

The Zoroastrian Converts in Later Years

Conclusion

Further Reading

Part VI: Primary Sources

CHAPTER 34: Primary Sources

Avestan

Middle Persian

Scholarly Resources

CHAPTER 35: Primary Sources

The Zoroastrian Dialects of Yazd and Kermān

Texts Written in Middle Persian Language in Persian Script (Pārsī)

Narratives of the Lives of Religious Figures

The Ṣaddars

Religious Miscellanies

The Persian Revāyats

Scientific and Astrological Texts

Zoroastrian–Muslim Apologetic Texts

Stories of Migration to India

Didactic and Ethical Works

Devotional Works

Āzar Kayvān

The 18th and 19th Centuries

Persian Printing in the 19th Century

20th-Century Zoroastrian Persian Texts

Community Magazines

CHAPTER 36: Primary Sources

Old Parsi Gujarati Translation Texts

The Archive of the Navsari Bhagarsath Anjuman

The Classical Compositions of Ervad Rustam Peśotan Hamjiār

The 18th- and Early 19th-Century Compositions

The Calendar Controversy and the Beginning of Print Literacy

The Missionary Controversy

Zoroastrian Reform and Iranian Philology

Theosophy and Ilm-e Kṣnum (Khshnoom)

Travelogues

Sources on Zoroastrian Ritual

Parsi History and Genealogy

Translations of Avestan and Pahlavi Texts

Novels, Poetry, Songs, and Drama

Library Abbreviation

Bibliography

Index of People, Places, and Topics

Index Locorum

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01

Figure 1.1 Chains of countries in the first chapter of the Vīdēvdād.

Chapter 08

Figure 8.1 Vaiiu (Wēšparkar) and Apąm Napā on a Panjikent painting, c. 740 CE.

Figure 8.2 Nana and Tīr-Tištriia on an ossuary from near Shahrisabz (Shakhrisabz), Uzbekistan, c. 7th century CE.

Figure 8.3 The Amə a Spəṇtas on an ossuary from Biya-Nayman near Samarkand, c. 7th century CE. From left to right: Amurdād, Ardwahišt, Hordād, Šahrewar, Wahman, Spandarmad.

Figure 8.4 Srōš who has the Sacred Word for Body on a Panjikent painting, c. 740 CE.

Figure 8.5 The weighing of the soul on an ossuary from Yumalaktepa near Shahrisabz, c. 7th century CE. The seated gods on top are Ardwahišt (as master of Paradise), Rašn (holding the scales) and probably Srōš (as fighter against the demons of corruption, see the fly-swatters).

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1 A conceptual map of the Zoroastrian purity and pollution system.

Chapter 24

Figure 24.1 Corpse exposure areas above Achaemenid tombs, Naqš-e Rostam, Iran.

Figure 24.2 Ruins of Sasanian čahār tāq, Fīrūzābād, Iran.

Figure 24.3 Interior of Second ārāmgāh, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Figure 24.4 Interior of dakhme, čam, Iran.

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The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism

Edited by

Michael Stausberg

and

Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina

with the assistance of Anna Tessmann

This edition first published 2015

© 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism / Edited by Michael Stausberg and Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-4443-3135-6 (cloth)

1. Zoroastrianism. I. Stausberg, Michael, editor. II. Vevaina, Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw, editor. III. Title: Companion to Zoroastrianism.

BL1572.W55 2015

295–dc23

2014044819

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover image: Temple door at Chak Chak, Yazd, Iran. Photo © Jamshid Varza

Notes on Contributors

Miguel Ángel Andrés-Toledo is a Marie Curie Fellow, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.

Takeshi Aoki teaches at Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan.

Alberto Cantera is a Professor in the Department of Classical Philology and Indo-European, University of Salamanca, Spain.

Carlo G. Cereti is the Professor of Iranian Philology, Religions and History, University of Rome La Sapienza, Rome, Italy.

Jamsheed K. Choksy is Professor of Iranian Studies and of Central Eurasian Studies, India Studies, and History, Indiana University at Bloomington, USA.

Touraj Daryaee is the Howard C. Baskerville Professor in the History of Iran and the Persianate World, Department of History, University of California at Irvine, USA.

Yaakov Elman is the Herbert S. and Naomi Denenberg Chair in Talmudic Studies, Yeshiva University, New York, USA.

Marco Frenschkowski is Professor of New Testament Studies, Faculty of Theology, Leipzig University, Germany.

Richard L. Gordon is Honorary Professor of Ancient Religions and Fellow of the Max Weber Center for Advanced Cultural and Social Studies, Erfurt University, Germany.

Frantz Grenet is Professor of the History and Cultures of pre-Islamic Central Asia, Collège de France, Paris, France.

John R. Hinnells is Professor of Theology (Emeritus), Liverpool Hope University, UK.

Almut Hintze is the Zartoshty Professor of Zoroastrianism, Department of the Study of Religions, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, UK.

Helmut Humbach is Professor Emeritus of Comparative Linguistics, University of Mainz, Germany.

Manfred Hutter is Professor of History of Religions, University of Bonn, Germany.

Albert de Jong is Professor of Comparative Religion (and Religions of Antiquity), Leiden University, the Netherlands.

Ramiyar P. Karanjia is the Principal of the Athornan Boarding Madressa, Mumbai, India.

Jean Kellens is Professor Emeritus of Indo-Iranian Languages and Religions, Collège de France, Paris, France.

Firoze M. Kotwal is the former Principal of the M. F. Cama Athornan Institute and (former) High Priest (Dastur) of the H. B. Wadia Atash Bahram, Mumbai, India.

Philip G. Kreyenbroek is Professor and Director for Iranian Studies, University of Göttingen, Germany.

Maria Macuch is Professor Emeritus of Iranian Studies, Free University of Berlin, Germany.

Moojan Momen is an independent scholar based in the UK.

Antonio Panaino is Professor of Iranian Studies, University of Bologna, Italy.

Jenny Rose teaches at Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, USA.

Martin Schwartz is Professor Emeritus, Department of Near Eastern Studies, University of California at Berkeley, USA.

Shai Secunda is a Postdoctoral Fellow, Martin Buber Society of Fellows, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel.

Shaul Shaked is Professor Emeritus, Department of Comparative Religion, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel.

Mitra Sharafi is Associate Professor of Law, University of Wisconsin Law School, USA.

Daniel J. Sheffield is a Link-Cotsen Postdoctoral Fellow, Society of Fellows in the Liberal Arts, Princeton University, USA.

Prods Oktor Skjærvø is the Aga Khan Professor of Iranian Emeritus, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, Harvard University, USA.

Michael Stausberg is a Professor of Religion, University of Bergen, Norway.

Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina is a Lecturer, Department of Religious Studies, Stanford University, USA.

Martin L. West is an Emeritus Fellow, All Souls College, University of Oxford, UK.

Alan V. Williams is Professor of Iranian Studies and Comparative Religion, University of Manchester, UK.

Acknowledgments

The editors first met in Vienna in 2007 at the 6th European Conference of Iranian Studies organized by the Societas Iranologica Europaea, where we were introduced to each other by Prods Oktor Skjærvø. In the following year, Yuhan S.-D. Vevaina spent six weeks as a research fellow at Michael Stausberg’s department at the University of Bergen (Norway), sponsored by the university, for which we both are very grateful. It was during this stay that the idea of putting together a companion volume first took shape and we subsequently met with Rebecca Harkin from Wiley Blackwell in November 2008 in Chicago at the American Academy of Religion Conference. After our proposal was favorably reviewed we started to invite contributors in May 2009. Some colleagues dutifully submitted their first drafts in 2010 as requested. Unfortunately, others kept us waiting until February of 2014 for their final versions. These delays reflect the fragility of our scholarly community, which for specific areas and themes depends almost exclusively on the singular competence of individual scholars, who cannot be replaced easily by others. Hence, the project was delayed considerably. We therefore thank all our colleagues for their patience and collaboration, which indeed is a very positive development in a field that in prior decades suffered heavily from often unpleasant rivalries between individual scholars and their schools. Now, in the early 21st century, even though most of us continue to disagree on fundamental questions, a new spirit of collegiality and collaboration has appeared that finds its expression in the present volume. In this spirit, we hope the Companion will lead to further collaborative projects in the future.

During the final stages of the gestation of this volume, we were assisted by Dr Anna Tessmann (a private scholar based in Heidelberg), who in spite of her other duties tirelessly helped us with the copyediting of all the manuscripts with an untiring eye for details and a commitment to consistency which we hope will be much appreciated by our readers. She also prepared the two indexes. The editors and contributors owe her a great debt of gratitude. We are also grateful to the Department of Archaeology, History, Cultural Studies and Religion at the University of Bergen for providing the funds that allowed Anna to assist us in our project.

We must also acknowledge Professor John Kieschnick and Rafal Felbur from the Buddhist Studies Program in the Department of Religious Studies at Stanford University for kindly helping us to edit the Chinese and Japanese translations and citations found in Professor Aoki’s chapter on East Asia, and we would also like to thank Dr Patrick Taylor for his translation of Jean Kellens’s article from French into English. We would also like to thank the referees for their detailed and helpful comments and critiques; we have done our best to have them incorporated.

The severe delays and other shortcomings of the work notwithstanding, for both of us this project has been a great learning experience and we hope that both general readers and specialists will find reading the volume an equally rewarding experience. Ultimately, we hope that readers will appreciate our basic motivation for producing this work, namely, our passion for the study of Zoroastrianism and our desire for this specialist knowledge to be shared in academia and with the public.

Bergen and Stanford, June 2014

Michael Stausberg and Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina

Aims and Scope

Even though Zoroastrianism was relatively well studied in the early days of the comparative and historical study of religions (Stausberg 2008a: 562–564), scholarly interest has precipitously declined since, and the study of Zoroastrianism now largely operates in a disintegrated academic landscape (see Stausberg and Vevaina, Introduction: Scholarship on Zoroastrianism, this volume). In this volume, thirty-three scholars from ten countries seek to redress this situation by offering a comprehensive view of the state of the art in the study of Zoroastrianism in the early 21st century. While there are various companions to other religions (published in this series or by other publishers), this book is the first of its kind for Zoroastrianism. The scholarly books on Zoroastrianism in general (i.e., not covering specialized studies on particular texts, themes, or periods) published during the past thirty-five years can be divided into the following categories: shorter introductory volumes (Boyce 1979; Nigosian 1993; Clark 1998; Mazdāpūr 2003 [1382 in Persian]; Stausberg 2008b; Rose 2011a; Rose 2011b), selections of textual primary sources (Malandra 1983; Boyce 1984b; Skjærvø 2011a), a multivolume survey of Zoroastrian history and rituals (Stausberg 2002b; 2002c; 2004b), an as yet unfinished massive history of Zoroastrianism (Boyce 1975a; Boyce 1982; Boyce and Grenet with Roger Beck 1991; Boyce and de Jong, forthcoming), a lavishly illustrated volume with introductory essays (Godrej and Mistree 2002), an exhibition catalogue (Stewart 2013), and an ongoing and now largely online encyclopedic project on Iranian civilization that comprises numerous useful entries on Zoroastrian matters (the Encyclopædia Iranica, open access under www.iranicaonline.org). In sum, nothing comparable in scope to the present The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Zoroastrianism has ever been published.

This multi-authored volume is not dominated by one single overarching view of Zoroastrianism. In fact, by putting this volume together we as editors have endeavored to respect the diverse voices of the contributors as we seek to collectively grapple with and perhaps move beyond normative takes on the essential identity of Zoroastrianism that can often be found in the older literature. We, the editors, do not believe in such a thing as an essence of Zoroastrianism that would provide the one authentic, real, or normative version of this historically and geographically diverse religion. As scholars we do not judge our sources in this light (even when the sources themselves make such claims), but our interests are of an analytic, critical, and historical nature, where we situate our sources in different historical contexts, attempt to understand them as driven by specific interests, and thus represent this historical diversity to a diverse readership. From our academic perspectives, we do not see Zoroastrianism as something given for one and all times or as simply the outcome of the words of the founder or prophet, but rather as a complex network of dynamic ongoing re-creations that its makers – believers and practitioners – are situated within, continually engage with, and often contest, or that we as scholars identify, in the light of our interpretative frameworks, as related to this trans-historical and transnational entity commonly referred to as Zoroastrianism. The latter, for example, is the case with material and visual remains in Central Asia, which make sense when interpreted as evidence for regional variations of Zoroastrianism which are, in certain striking cases, rather divergent from the more familiar cultural productions we find in textual and material sources from pre-modern Persian and the contemporary Iranian and Indian communities (see Grenet, Zoroastrianism in Central Asia, this volume). As scholars we are not in a position to arbitrate on the truth-value of any of the various attempts by Zoroastrians to represent the genuine and true vision of their religion as more authentic than that of their rivals, even though we can analyze to what extent these claims are consonant with earlier equally contested interpretations of Zoroastrianism. We therefore see it as our professional responsibility to analyze points of contrast or divergence between different understandings of this faith. What we describe as innovations may be dismissed by some Zoroastrians as aberrations or hailed by others as progress – both normative categories that are equally problematic for historical-critical research. The five main parts of this volume therefore present different facets of this scholarly agenda.

It could seem intuitively plausible for a discussion of Zoroastrianism to start with Zarathustra (Zoroaster), who is traditionally held to be the founder or prophet of the religion that in the modern age came to be called after him. Such a narrative strategy would build on the emphasis placed on Zarathustra in Zoroastrian sources. The inherent risk is simply conceptualizing the history of Zoroastrianism as a mere footnote to Zarathustra and thus placing the development of the religion under the intellectual spell of this remote point of reference. Since the exact time and homeland of Zarathustra continue to remain a matter of dispute, the first two chapters in Part I discuss this problem from both geographical and linguistic perspectives (Frantz Grenet and Almut Hintze respectively). Believers and many scholars alike hold Zarathustra to be the author of five enigmatic songs, the Gāthās, which are then often used to reconstruct the original message of the prophet and, by extension, his religion. The Gāthās, however, have yielded widely contrasting interpretations and translations in the 20th century and therefore, in order to not privilege one reading, we have invited four eminent scholars (Helmut Humbach, Jean Kellens, Martin Schwartz, and Prods Oktor Skjærvø), who have over the past decades made groundbreaking contributions to the understanding of these complex texts, to provide a synthesis of their current thinking on the Gāthās. We hope such a plurality of interpretations will prove stimulating to both specialist and general readers. The final chapter of this first part by Michael Stausberg looks at the trajectories of the figure of Zarathustra in the periods after the Gāthās, when he was cast in the role of the foundational individual by Zoroastrian sources and came to signify whatever ideal the religion was and is supposed to mean in the context in question. The chapter also addresses non-Zoroastrian engagements with the figure of Zarathustra and examines various modern visual representations and discursive appropriations of the prophet.

Part II presents a survey of Zoroastrian history and Zoroastrian communities from antiquity to the present and thereby situates the Zoroastrian tradition(s) in different historical and geographical contexts. Three chapters deal with Zoroastrianism and Zoroastrian communities in the course of Iranian history, from the time of the pre-Islamic empires (Albert de Jong) through the pre-modern Islamic periods (Touraj Daryaee) to the modern and contemporary Iranian Zoroastrian communities (Michael Stausberg). Chapters on the Caucasus (Albert de Jong) and Central Asia (Frantz Grenet) in pre- and early Islamic times survey regional versions of Zoroastrianism beyond the Persian orbit; these regions show some rather distinctive characteristics when compared to Persian Zoroastrianism that is often taken as the normative model for the religion. Nowadays, the majority of Zoroastrians live in India, where the Parsis, as they are known and self-identify, can look back to a long history, which is here reviewed by John R. Hinnells. Since colonial times, Parsis and later also Iranian Zoroastrians have settled in large parts of the world; these Zoroastrian diasporas, which have created novel organizational and material infrastructures, comprise multisited networks, where the negotiation of Zoroastrian identities occur with great intensity (John R. Hinnells). During the past twenty years new information technologies have allowed Zoroastrians across the globe to engage in translocal and transnational networks of communication with their fellow practitioners in an unprecedented manner. Via the Silk Road there were mercantile and religious connections to East Asia already in precolonial times, yet the East Asian part of the Zoroastrian world often tends to be overlooked in scholarship. In this volume, Takeshi Aoki reviews the history of Zoroastrianism in East Asian countries from the pre-Islamic period to the contemporary age. In addition, this chapter also provides a survey of East Asian scholarship on Zoroastrianism, which is often ignored in the West regrettably because of language barriers.

Part III of our Companion is called Structures, Discourses, and Dimensions. Instead of merely providing lists of deities and their attributes and narrated actions, Yuhan S.-D. Vevaina discusses theologies and hermeneutics, i.e., reflections as found in Zoroastrian Middle Persian (Pahlavi) sources on the status and functioning of the divine actors and their relationships to humans, the ways these statements are generated in the form of scriptural interpretation, and the teaching and transmission of religious knowledge. Antonio Panaino analyzes the structure of the cosmos and the place of astrology in ancient Zoroastrian sources and points to the importance of Iran in the transmission of astrological lore between East and West. Carlo G. Cereti recounts the mythological narratives relating to the beginning of the world, the figure of Zarathustra, and the events predicted to unfold at the end of time. Jenny Rose discusses the gendered nature of the divine world, the division of labor in religious and ritual practice along gender lines, the relationships between sexuality and ideas of purity and pollution, the different social, legal, and ritual status of women and men, and their respective expected roles and access to power. Maria Macuch provides an overview of the general principles of Zoroastrian law, the main spheres of legal regulation and legal procedure in the pre-Islamic and early Islamic sources, followed by Mitra Sharafi’s discussion of the modern reinventions and constructions of Zoroastrian (Parsi) law and the ways in which Zoroastrians have engaged with colonial and civil law to serve their identitarian needs as minority communities through various forms of boundary maintenance.

Part IV covers religious practices and religious sites. The first chapter reviews the question of ethics in Zoroastrianism, a religion which has been interpreted as being primarily ethical in nature by certain influential scholars of the past. Alberto Cantera distinguishes between rituals as an arena for moral intervention of humans in the cosmic events and morality in a broader sense, where ethics have become a dominant theme in Zoroastrian religious thought (including the understanding of law). Prayer is a central religious practice in Zoroastrianism, as in several other religions, but Firoze M. Kotwal and Philip G. Kreyenbroek point to differences between typical Western and Zoroastrian understandings of the nature and function of prayer before turning to the history of prayer in Zoroastrianism from the earliest sources to contemporary practices. The human body is the key site of ritual practice and conceptions of notions of purity and pollution, which are structuring elements of Zoroastrian theologies, their views on the cosmos, the ecosystem, space and the human being, social relationships, and the systems of ritual actions and obligations. Alan V. Williams analyzes Zoroastrian claims regarding the origin and removal of impurity and examines the ways in which these embodied practices construct order at the level of the individual, society, and the cosmos. Michael Stausberg and Ramiyar P. Karanjia address different forms and types of rituals and some of their structural principles and modes of organization, whereas Jenny Rose looks at collective celebrations timed according to the religious calendar and their historical developments from the earliest sources to contemporary practices in the Iranian and Indian communities. This part ends with Jamsheed K. Choksy’s review of the history of Zoroastrian religious sites and structures, mainly temples and funerary structures (such as the so-called Towers of Silence), from the Achaemenid period to the present communities in India, Pakistan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Iran.

Part V contextualizes the Good Religion, as pre-modern Zoroastrian sources referred to it, in its historical intersections with other religions and cultures. The organization of this section follows a historical timeline based on when Zoroastrianism came into contact with the other religions and cultures. Prods Oktor Skjærvø begins with the Indo-European and Indo-Iranian heritage of the Avestan texts, inherited similarities and cultural differences between Avestan and Old Indic texts and poetry, myths and mythological geography, names and functions of deities and demons and shared ritual features. (See Stausberg 2012b for a longer historical survey that also covers later Hinduism; a commissioned chapter on this topic for this Companion unfortunately did not materialize nor were we able to include a chapter on Buddhism.) Judaism continues to share a long history with Zoroastrianism from the 6th century BCE to the present; in their chapter, Yaakov Elman and Shai Secunda mainly focus on the rather intensive Jewish–Zoroastrian interactions in late antique Mesopotamia as found in rabbinic and Pahlavi sources. A survey of the intellectual fascination with Zoroastrianism and the Persians by writers from different periods of the Classical world (Martin L. West) is followed by a review of the question of the Zoroastrian background of Mithraism, or the romanization of the Iranian deity Mithra (Richard L. Gordon). Marco Frenschkowski reviews intersections between Christianity and Zoroastrianism from early Christianity to the early Islamic period; he also pays attention to persecution of Christians in Sasanian Iran and Zoroastrian critiques of Christian doctrines. Manichaeism, which originated in the 3rd century CE, actively accommodated Zoroastrian themes in its self-fashioning and proselytization in the Iranian world. Manfred Hutter analyzes Zoroastrian topics in Manichaean writings and the mutual polemics between Manichaean and Zoroastrian authors. Islam emerged at the periphery of Iranian culture but its spread has fundamentally altered the societal role and shape of Zoroastrianism during the past millennium or so. Shaul Shaked addresses the attitude towards Zoroastrianism in early Islamic sources and their views of Zoroastrianism, Iranian and Zoroastrian influences on early Islam, Middle Persian writings translated into Arabic, and Zoroastrian polemics against Islam. Philip G. Kreyenbroek looks at minority communities whose religious centers lie in Kurdish-speaking regions, the Yezidis and Yarsan (also know as Ahl-e Haqq or Kaka’is), and their shared traits with Zoroastrianism. He points to the lasting and pervasive influence of an earlier Iranian religious tradition centering on the figure of Mithra in these regions. Finally, the Bahā’ī Faith, which originated in the second half of the 19th century in Iran, has since its beginnings had interactions with Zoroastrians and relatively numerous Zoroastrians converted to this new religion. Moojan Momen analyzes factors facilitating these conversions, later separation, integration and intermarriages between both religious communities, and more recent conversions by Zoroastrians who in many ways contributed to the development of the Bahā’ī Faith.

The final part (VI) of this Companion functions as an appendix that readers can draw on when reading the essays and that, we hope, will prove valuable for further engagement with Zoroastrian studies. It recapitulates the four main groups of primary textual sources. Miguel Ángel Andrés-Toledo gives a brief synopsis of the Avestan texts, the Avestan manuscripts with Middle Persian (Pahlavi) translations, and the Middle Persian writings arranged according to periods of origin from the third to the nineteenth centuries. The chapter lists editions, translations, and studies of the sources. Since these sources are relatively well studied, this chapter is meant to provide a useful recapitulation of existing scholarship. The two chapters by Daniel J. Sheffield on Zoroastrian writings in New Persian and Gujarati, on the other hand, deal with texts which are poorly studied, have not been studied at all, or were until recently altogether unknown, even to scholars of Zoroastrianism. These chapters therefore do not merely summarize extant studies but present original research. In particular, the texts in Gujarati remain a virtually untapped source for the study of Zoroastrianism; its neglect in research results from the disintegrated research landscape that will be discussed in the Introduction to Scholarship on Zoroastrianism by the editors.

The bibliographical references to the individual chapters have been compiled into a shared bibliography at the end of the volume, which thereby can serve as a comprehensive and up-to-date early 21st-century bibliography of Zoroastrian studies. Most chapters are provided with suggestions for further reading.

A Note on Transcriptions

Avestan

The transcription of Avestan in this volume is largely based on the now standard system established by Karl Hoffmann (Hoffmann 1987; Hoffmann and Narten 1989). The Avestan alphabet is a phonetic rather than a phonemic alphabet with every sound being represented by a single letter. It consists of 14 (or 16) letters for vowels and 37 letters for consonants (see the table in Hoffmann 1987; online: www.iranicaonline.org; see also Skjærvø 2003a: 1–3 for suggestions on how these letters might have sounded; online: www.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/).

Pahlavi (Zoroastrian Middle Persian)

The transcription of Pahlavi in this volume is based on the now almost universally standard system put forth by David N. MacKenzie in a seminal article from the 1960s and his A Concise Pahlavi Dictionary respectively (MacKenzie 1967, 1971).

The sound system (phonology) of Pahlavi is similar to that of New (Modern) Persian.

ž and γ are typically found in Avestan loanwords

č and ǰ are the sounds in English like ‘child’ and ‘jug’

š is like English ‘shirt’

ž is the voiced sound of English ‘measure’

x is the ch-sound in German ‘Bach’

γ (Greek gamma) is the sound of the Spanish g between vowels, as in haga

New Persian (Farsi)

The spelling of New Persian words in this volume (except for some geographic terms and names which are common in English) is based on the transliteration of the Arabic script with a particular attention to the sound system of contemporary New Persian. Throughout this volume we use a single Latin letter for a single Persian consonant, as recommended by the Encyclopædia Iranica (EIr) (http://www.iranicaonline.org/pages/guidelines). However, for common legibility of words we follow the conventional kh for (Arab. khā’) and gh for (Arab. ghayn). In contrast to the EIr, the letters (Arab. dhāl) and (Arab. thā’) are transliterated as ẕ and s (and not as d and ṯ) respectively. In our New Persian spelling for the volume the ending (Arab. hā’) in most words is -e (i.e. khāne ‘house’). In the case of the Zoroastrian manuscripts we use multiple forms like nāma/nāme. The eżāfe-constructions are connected with an -e. Ey/ay and ow are diphthongs. The New Persian spellings of Arabic words differ from the Arabic spellings; for instance, the coordinating conjugation (meaning ‘and’) is different: wa in Arabic but va in New Persian.

Arabic

The Arabic terms in this volume are adapted from the system used in the Encyclopaedia of Islam Online.

Gujarati

The transliteration of Gujarati in this volume is a modified version of that used by the Library of Congress, as follows:

The short vowel /a/, which is implicit after every consonant, is only transliterated when it is pronounced. The anusvār has been transliterated as /ṃ/ when it represents a nasal consonant and / / when it represents a nasalized vowel. The use of visarg in Gujarati is very rare, but is transliterated /ḥ/ when it occurs. Since there is no phonemic distinction in Gujarati between ĭ/ī or ŭ/ū, length has not been indicated on these vowels. It should be noted that the Modern Standard Gujarati vowels ĭ and ū, which are now applied on the basis of etymological length, occur only very haphazardly prior to the standardization of Gujarati in the late 19th century. Alternate forms of the vowels /e/ and /o/ are very common in early publications.

No phonemic distinction is made between ś, ṣ, and s and, in 18th- and 19th-century materials, ś and s were used interchangeably. We have therefore transliterated /ś/ only when it is etymological and have otherwise substituted /s/. The semi-vowels /y/ and /v/ in pre-standardized Gujarati are often represented by the juxtaposition of two vowels, thus /iaśt/ for /yaśt/. The consonant /h/ written after a vowel sometimes indicates a breathy vowel (murmured vowel) as in the distinction between /bār/ ‘twelve’ and /b r/ ‘outside’. Since this feature of pre-standardized Gujarati orthography, which is omitted in modern spelling, has not been investigated, it has simply been transliterated as /h/ here. Since Gujarati names are transliterated into English-language publications very irregularly, we have tried to provide their transliterations followed by their common forms in parentheses in the bibliography, e.g. Jamśetji Jijibhāi (Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy).

Readers will notice variant spellings of the same name in the various chapters, e.g. Šābuhr vs. Šāpūr or kustī vs. kostī. We have tried to regularize these variants across the chapters, though in some instances it did not seem useful to standardize all variants across different contexts, especially where specific forms are more appropriate. For example, in the chapter on Manichaeism the reader will find Šābuhr, since Mani’s text is commonly referred to as the Šābuhragān. Common names and titles like Zarathustra (Zaraθuštra), Mani (Mānī), Mithra (Miθra), the Gāthās (Gāθās) are not typically provided with their technical transcriptions.

We would like to acknowledge Daniel J. Sheffield for his assistance with the Gujarati transcription system.

Abbreviations

Certain contributors use specialized abbreviations that are found at the end of their chapters.

Introduction

Zoroastrianism currently has some 125,000 adherents worldwide with the majority living in India, mostly in Mumbai and Gujarat (estimated at 60,000 for the as yet unreleased census of 2011). In South Asia the Zoroastrians are known as the Parsis (see Hinnells, The Parsis, this volume). Since World War II their numbers have been in rapid decline (there were just under 115,000 Parsis in pre-Partition India in 1941) and the Indian media report dire predictions according to which this trend will continue in the upcoming decades. The second largest group of Zoroastrians is to be found in Iran, from where the Parsis relocated in the aftermath of the Arab invasions in the mid-7th century CE and the Islamization of the country in the following centuries (see Daryaee, Zoroastrianism under Islamic Rule, this volume). Fewer than 20,000 Zoroastrians currently reside in Iran, where they are recognized as a religious minority by the constitution (see Stausberg, Zoroastrians in Modern Iran, this volume).

Political changes in India (Independence and Partition in 1947 and its aftermath) and Iran (the Islamic Revolution in 1979 and its aftermath) as well as socioeconomic factors have stimulated many Zoroastrians to migrate. By now, there are substantial (by Zoroastrian standards) communities in Britain, Canada, the United States, Dubai, and Australia as well as minor groups in other countries, including Pakistan, Sri Lanka, China, and New Zealand (see Hinnells, The Zoroastrian Diaspora, this volume).

Zoroastrianism is thus an interesting case of a globalizing, highly urbanized, and literate (over 90 percent in India) ethnic religion while being one of the oldest religious traditions in the world. Prior to the spread of Islam, which led to the concomitant marginalization of Zoroastrianism in its homelands (Afghanistan, Central Asia, Iran, and adjacent areas), Zoroastrianism was one of the major religious forces of the ancient world. Zoroastrians lived in neighborhoods with Jewish, Christian, Manichaean, and Islamic communities for centuries. Its presumed influence on these religions has historically been the major factor warranting scholarly attention. In fact, Zoroastrianism was a fashionable subject in the early history of the study of religion\s. Remarkably, some of the early protagonists of the history of religions as an academic discipline had Zoroastrianism as one of their main areas of specialization. Consider such seminal scholars as Cornelis Petrus Tiele (1830–1902), Nathan Söderblom (1866–1931), Edvard Lehmann (1862–1930), Raffaele Pettazzoni (1883–1959), and, moving closer to the present, Geo Widengren (1907–1996) and Carsten Colpe (1929–2009). As historians of religions, their impact on subsequent Zoroastrian studies (and even more so on Iranian studies) has been fairly limited and as newer generations of historians of religions did not share the enthusiasm of their predecessors for this subject, relatively few articles on Zoroastrianism have been published in major history of religions journals since the 1960s (Stausberg 2008a).

A Disintegrated Academic Landscape

The study of Zoroastrianism faces the same challenges as those of other religious traditions operating over vast spans of time. To begin with, studying a religion in its various settings and contexts ideally requires philological expertise in a number of different languages. Taking into account only those languages in which we have substantial amounts of primary textual sources, this would basically include the fields of Old, Middle, and New Iranian studies plus Gujarati, the language spoken in the part of Western India where the Parsis first settled. Compared to the study of so-called world religions like Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, or Hinduism, scholars of Zoroastrianism face a rather limited selection of relevant languages with regard to primary sources. Nevertheless, what might appear as a good starting point from a comparative perspective turns out to be a severe problem in light of contemporary disciplinary and institutional boundaries. To quote from a recent survey on Iranian Historical Linguistics in the Twentieth Century:

Iranian studies are seldom recognized as an academic discipline sui iuris and very few Iranologists have been able to contribute to the fields of Old, Middle, and New Iranian alike. Since the Neogrammarian revolution [in the late 19th century], Avestan and Old Persian have been taught in Indo-European departments or programs, usually with an emphasis on linguistics. New Iranian (especially New Persian) is taught in departments of Middle Eastern studies (German: Orientalistik) alongside the other written languages of Islam (Arabic and Turkic), and the courses focus primarily on historical or social issues. Middle Iranian languages rarely receive more than introductory courses, either as an adjunct to New Persian or to the Indo-European curriculum.(Tremblay 2005: 2)

Even where one finds Iranian studies as a separate academic entity (chair, department, or center), Zoroastrianism is not always part of the academic specialization of the staff. As a rule of thumb one can say that Zoroastrianism is at least remotely on the scholarly agenda whenever there is a scholarly interest in pre-Islamic history and culture or in Old and Middle Iranian languages. However, whenever the balance leans towards the Islamic era and New Persian languages, Zoroastrianism is usually completely outside of the scholarly focus. The factual marginalization of Zoroastrians in Iranian history after the Islamic conquest in the 7th century CE is thereby faithfully mirrored by the Western academic community. As implied by Tremblay, there is usually very little scholarly exchange crossing the iron curtain separating Old and Middle from New Persian studies. To pull down this rigid barrier will be one of the main challenges for the study of Zoroastrianism and maybe also for Iranian studies in general (see now, Sheffield 2012).

Apart from Iranian languages, there are significant (secondary) source materials in non-Iranian languages to be taken into account: Vedic Sanskrit for comparative purposes with the Avestan corpus, Greek and Latin for interactions with the Classical world, Akkadian, Egyptian, and Elamite for religion in the Persian Empire, Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, and Arabic for interactions with Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Sasanian studies in general, Classical Armenian and Georgian for the Caucasus, not to mention the secondary scholarly languages of French, German, Italian, Spanish, Russian, Chinese, and Japanese. Texts, however, are obviously not the only sources for the study of Zoroastrianism. Nor is philology the only approach. Ancient history, archaeology, art history, sigillography (the study of seals), and numismatics (the study of coins), for example, are important related scholarly disciplines or endeavors, although their impact on the study of Zoroastrianism has up to now been fairly limited. Turning to the modern and contemporary periods, a number of recent anthropological, sociological, and historical studies have provided valuable insights on modern Zoroastrian social life and identities (see e.g., Luhrmann 1996; Walthert 2010; Ringer 2011 respectively).

Iranian studies or the related fields of study mentioned above are the traditional breeding-grounds of the study of Zoroastrianism, but (so far) Zoroastrian studies does not exist as an integrated field of study. While there are several loose networks of scholars regularly interacting in various contexts, there is neither a scholarly journal devoted to Zoroastrian studies nor a review bulletin; and there is no scholarly association or organization for scholars of Zoroastrian. In all this, the study of Zoroastrianism is characterized by a considerable delay compared to the study of most other religious traditions.

In addition, there is no academic department of Zoroastrian studies, not even in Iran or India. However, just as specialist positions in a number of religions were being established during recent decades at Western universities – often with considerable financial input from adherents – there are now a handful of academic positions in Zoroastrian studies, all located in diasporic hot spots:

From 1929 to 1947 the Bombay Zoroastrian community funded a position called the Parsee Community’s Lectureship in Iranian Studies at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS, renamed from the School of Oriental Studies in 1938) in the University of London. The position was held by the two eminent Iranists Harold W. Bailey (from 1929 to 1936) and Walter B. Henning (from 1936 to 1947). In the 1990s three Zoroastrian benefactors (Faridoon and Mehraban Zartoshty and an anonymous Iranian benefactor) helped fund a professorship in Zoroastrianism with the aid of the estate of the late Professor Mary Boyce who was Professor of Iranian Studies at SOAS from 1961 to 1982 (see Hintze 2010 and more on Boyce below).

In the early years of the new millennium, a Zoroastrian Studies Council was formed at Claremont Graduate University’s School of Religion in Claremont, California. This and similar councils at Claremont are made up of leaders from the religious communities; their aims are defined as follows: These councils represent a partnership with the religious community by advising the school on the needs of the community and consulting with the school as courses and programs are developed (Claremont Graduate University n.d.). In this case the group of leaders is mainly composed of Iranian Zoroastrians. The council has successfully set up some classes in the study of Zoroastrianism during the past years, but as of yet there is no funded fulltime position. As of December 2012, a lectureship in Zoroastrian studies at Claremont Graduate University was permanently endowed, as an adjunct position, offering one course per year.

In 2006 the young transdisciplinary Department of Historical Studies at the University of Toronto at Mississauga established a position in the history of Zoroastrianism.

In 2010 the Department of Religious Studies at Stanford University created an endowed (but not permanent) lectureship for Zoroastrian studies with the financial support of Zoroastrian donors and FEZANA (the Federation of the Zoroastrian Associations of North America; see Hinnells, The Zoroastrian Diaspora, this volume).

In three of these four cases, the scholars appointed are philologists with a documented expertise on Old and Middle Iranian texts respectively, which reflects the continued prominence of philology in this field. It remains to be seen whether these positions will have an impact on the consolidation of Zoroastrian studies as a more coherent field of study. While this volume goes into press, the École Pratique des Hautes Études (Paris) is about to recruit a Maître de conférences (Assistant Professor) in Zoroastrian studies (Ancient Iran) at its Department of Religious studies. Here again the published job profile puts emphasis on proficiency in ancient Iranian languages.

Attempts at Mapping Main Approaches

It is customary in scholarly literature to review past attempts before setting out on one’s own path; these sorts of academic preludes being largely rhetorical reconstructions tend to point to perceived weak points in previous work. In the last fifteen years two scholars have attempted to map the field of Zoroastrian studies at large.

The Dutch historian of ancient religions Albert de Jong has distinguished between three main views of Zoroastrian history. He refers to them as fragmentizing, harmonizing, and diversifying views respectively (de Jong 1997: 44–68).

The characteristic feature of a fragmentizing view according to de Jong is the idea that Zoroastrianism ought to be defined by the Gāthās and by the Gāthās only (de Jong 1997: 46). The Gāthās, a tiny part of the Avestan corpus, are five songs (hymns or poetic compositions) that most scholars and believers ascribe to Zarathustra who is generally held to be the founder or prophet of the religion (see the chapters on the Gāthās and Stausberg, Zarathustra: Post-Gathic Trajectories, this volume). In that sense, what de Jong describes as fragmentizing can also be termed normative insofar as one text becomes the norm for any reconstruction of the religion. This raises the related question of the status of the later history of Zoroastrian (indigenous or emic) interpretations of the Gāthās: Should an interpretation of the Gāthās be based on their comparative linguistic or their transmissive cognates, that is, with the largely contemporaneous Vedas or the later Middle Persian (Pahlavi) writings in mind, or should both approaches be combined?

In another sense, fragmentizing views assume the existence not of one main pre-Islamic indigenous religion (Zoroastrianism or Mazdaism) but, rather, several different religious communities such as a (presumed) Mithra-community or regional religious traditions such as Median and Parthian religions.

The second main view discussed by de Jong is referred to as harmonizing. The characteristic feature of this group of approaches is their idea that the main collections of ancient source materials, the Old and Middle Iranian texts (the Avestan and the Pahlavi writings),

basically reflect the same tradition, a tradition that deserves to be called Zoroastrianism (because it grew out of the teaching of Zarathustra). The numerous developments are due not to ruptures or dramatic breaks in the tradition (as in fragmentising views) and certainly do not reflect different religions, but are interpreted as manifestations of an organic process of growth…

(de Jong 1997: 50)

As is to be expected by his rhetorical arrangement, de Jong himself clearly favors the third view, which he refers to as diversifying. This view is held to avoid what he terms to be the other two excessive approaches and is apparently devised to strike the balance between an outright denial of a continuous tradition on the one hand and "the