How Luther Became the Reformer

"Drawing on a lifetime of work on Luther, Christine Helmer has produced a highly original and stimulating interpretation of his theology, maintaining that his image as the great Protestant reformer who ushered in the modern era is a myth created by German historians a century ago and that he is better understood as a late medieval figure and Catholic reformer. This passionately argued study is sure to engage—and stir a much-needed debate among—readers of both faiths."

—Michael Massing, author of Fatal Discord: Erasmus, Luther,

and the Fight for the Western Mind

With impressive clarity and insight, Christine Helmer presents a vivid understanding of how the medieval Catholic reformer was mythologized into the great Protestant reformer.

—Susannah Heschel, Eli Black Professor of Jewish Studies,

Dartmouth College

This book is perceptively, importantly disturbing. There have been many quality biographies of Luther and examinations of his theological effects. But no other work explains the consequences of the wrongheaded myth of Luther. Through sharp readings and revisions, Helmer pulls Luther from a harmful hermeneutic and reminds us again that the way we explain our human past very much determines our capacity to live into a truly freer present.

—Kathryn Lofton, Professor of Religious Studies,

American Studies, and History, Yale University

With an elegant weave of intellectual history and constructive theological reflection, Christine Helmer retrieves the Catholic Luther to challenge the regnant Protestant image of the former Augustinian monk as advocating a radical break with the Roman Church. By contextualizing the construction of the reigning Reformation narrative within early twentieth-century German political and cultural discourse, she exposes its anti-Catholic and anti-Judaic presuppositions to be primed by a political theological agenda that was defiantly supersessionist. In her deft deconstruction of the Reformation Luther, Helmer compellingly calls for a revision of the conception of religion and modernity promoted by the Protestant narrative.

—Paul Mendes-Flohr, Professor Emeritus,

University of Chicago Divinity School;

Professor Emeritus, Hebrew University of Jerusalem

A century ago, most Protestants viewed Martin Luther as the great prophet of freedom who liberated the West from the oppressive rule of medieval Catholicism and set Western churches, states, and cultures on the road to modernity. Christine Helmer has long shown us that Luther’s reformation was far more medieval, far less revolutionary, and far more complex in influence than the heroic image of Luther would have it. This learned volume exposes the tangled roots and routes of this heroic Luther myth in modern German thought, challenging everyone from Hegel and Schleiermacher to Weber and Holl for their highly selective and present-minded readings of Luther. This is forensic critical historiography at its best.

—John Witte Jr., Woodruff University Professor of Law,

McDonald Distinguished Professor, Emory University

How Luther Became

the Reformer

How Luther Became

the Reformer

Christine Helmer

© 2019 Christine Helmer

First edition

Published by Westminster John Knox Press

Louisville, Kentucky

19  20  21  22  23  24  25  26  27  28—10  9  8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1

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Scripture quotations from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible are copyright © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A. and are used by permission.

Art on page 24 is reproduced by permission of the University of Hildesheim.

Book design Drew Stevens

Cover design by Allison Taylor

Cover photo by Radim Beznoska/Alamy Stock Photo

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Helmer, Christine, author.

Title: How Luther became the reformer / Christine Helmer.

Description: First edition. | Louisville, KY : Westminster John Knox Press, 2019. | Includes bibliographical references and index. |

Identifiers: LCCN 2018046258 (print) | LCCN 2019006407 (ebook) | ISBN 9781611649376 (ebk.) | ISBN 9780664262877 (pbk. : alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Luther, Martin, 1483-1546. | Luther, Martin, 1483–1546—Influence. | Germany.

Classification: LCC BR334.3 (ebook) | LCC BR334.3 .H45 2019 (print) | DDC 284.1092-dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018046258

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For

Anthony Orsi,

beloved awesomeness

Contents

List of Images

Preface and Acknowledgments

1. History and Story: An Introduction

1. Celebration

2. Origins

3. Hermeneutics

4. Revision

5. Reception

6. Explorations

2. The Experience of Justification

1. Reformation

2. Ellipsis

3. Romans

4. Berlin

5. Experience

6. Hero

3. How Luther Became the Reformer

1. Story

2. Rationalization

3. Religion/Religion

4. 1917

5. The Holy

6. Morality

7. Implication

4. Modernity and Its Contradictions

1. Here I Stand

2. Anti-Catholic

3. Ethos

4. Modernity

5. Dystopia

5. A Test Case of Anti-Judaism

1. Test Case

2. Polemic

3. Anti-Judaism

4. Effacements and Evasions

5. History

6. Theology

6. How Luther Became the reformer (lowercase) of Catholicism

1. Today

2. Religion

3. Reframing the Story

4. Catholic reformer

5. Justification Revisited

6. Revisions

7. Reformation

Bibliography

Index of Names

Index of Subjects

Images

Postcard of Luther and Bismarck, ca. 1917.

Artist unknown (Oldenburg: Gerhard Stalling Kunstverlag, ca. 1900).

Reproduced by permission of the University of Hildesheim

Statue of Martin Luther, in Wittenberg, Germany, 2016.

David Crossland/Alamy Stock Photo

Luther-Denkmal, Ruine der Frauenkirche, Dresden, 1958.

German Federal Archive (Berlin)

Statue of Martin Luther, in Wittenberg, Germany, 2017.

Craig Stennett/Alamy Stock Photo

Preface and Acknowledgments

I struggled, perhaps for more than the usual while, to get a clearer grasp of the subject matter of this book. My studies of Luther have been devoted to identifying the medieval Catholic and philosophically competent Luther. The 2017 reprint by Lexham Press in their new Studies in Historical and Systematic Theology Series of my book The Trinity and Martin Luther—first published in Germany in 1999—shows that it is still taking time for the Catholic Luther to catch on. While the dominant focus in scholarship remains the Protestant Luther, the Catholic Luther is the subject of my interest. Together with a number of colleagues in the field, I have found that this Luther’s questions, critiques, and theological innovations arose from and were directed to the late medieval church in which he had been ordained. There are lines of continuity between Luther’s theology and his medieval philosophical and theological inheritances. Luther tried to make sense of the Trinitarian mystery, for example, by taking up late medieval debates concerning the logic of Trinitarian propositions. Even his use of Scripture was inflected with inherited medieval philosophical-theological concepts.

One question in particular has insistently pressed upon my interest in the Catholic Luther: Why has this Luther been suppressed? I looked to the Luther scholars of a century ago in order to search out the answer to this question. At the turn of the twentieth century, German theologians began to study Luther with the new tools of historical-critical analysis. Max Weber discovered Luther’s concept of vocation. Rudolf Otto discerned the awe-invoking and uncanny divine majesty in Luther’s concept of God. Karl Holl reconstructed Luther’s religious biography as interior development and conversion. All three were participants at the time in a renaissance of Luther studies. All three, although in different ways, saw in Luther the seeds of modern Protestantism, and more, of modernity itself, and they sowed these seeds in a cultural and political context that was decisively anti-Catholic.

I had originally intended the book as a sort of double revision. I would treat specific topics such as justification and priesthood from two perspectives. From one perspective, from the angle of the Luther Renaissance, I hoped to show how justification or priesthood was treated as modern Protestant innovation; from the other perspective, in my own scholarship on Luther, I aimed to demonstrate Luther’s historical and Catholic intention. I would then use the Catholic perspective to deconstruct the Luther who stood for modern Protestant values. I struggled to bring the two perspectives—one historical-constructive, the other genealogical-deconstructive—into a coherent narrative.

Then came 2017. As many of my Luther colleagues around the world reported, the demand for talks on Luther, blogposts, and articles was more than anyone might have anticipated. Everywhere in different communities, scholars, church leaders, artists, politicians, economists, and parishioners were caught up in the excitement—at times, the hype—being generated around the celebration of the five-hundredth anniversary of Luther’s Ninety-five Theses. Books about Luther were published at an astonishing rate, accelerating as the year’s end approached. Conferences, public events, concerts, museum exhibitions, and church education programs were organized. A plastic figure of Luther (with a quill that never stayed attached to his hand, perhaps to make room for a beer stein) became the best-selling toy in the history of the Playmobil company. Luther was lauded in many different forms and venues. There was a consistency to the accolades (and sometimes criticisms). Luther was of interest as a figure whose reception was singularly generative for Western values. The Luther who was represented in prose, art, and objects of commodity was a figure whose significance was constructed as significant for a distinct purpose—the shaping of the modern West. The topic of Luther and the West—also the title of my massive open online course (MOOC; online at www.coursera.org/learn/luther-and-the-west)—was front and center of this Luther quincentenary.

As wonderful as it was to participate in the celebration of a figure represented as the most influential theologian in Christian history, it was disconcerting to see how uncritically one-sided the acclaim was. The co-option of Luther as emblematic of the modern West contrasted with my work on Luther as late medieval Catholic theologian. As the celebratory year wound on, I became more and more convinced that an adequate commemoration of his contributions to Christian theology and to the development of Western history required taking into account both perspectives that I had originally envisioned for this book. It became clearer to me that the story of How Luther Became the Reformer (uppercase) might integrate my historical concern with Luther as reformer (lowercase) of the late medieval Catholic Church with an analysis of how early twentieth-century German theologians constructed Luther as significant for modern culture. A study of this period in the history of Protestant theology could illuminate why particular representations of Luther and modernity were taken up in 2017.

The year 2017 was also one that differed significantly from the world in 2016 that had anticipated the anniversary of Luther’s reformation. Geopolitical events in 2017 made headlines concerning the erosion of Western values of truth, freedom, and equality. Western democracy was profoundly shaken by the sometimes unexpected political and personal implications of contemporary communications technology. Civil discourse was replaced with immediate reactive opinion, often of the most virulent, vicious sort. The scientific world of evidence was challenged by a worldview created by alternative facts. Neoliberal interests trumped the common good. Fissures opened up in Western society that exposed fascist, racist, and anti-Semitic tendencies.

As I put together the chapters in this book, I was aware that my focus on the Luther celebrated one hundred years ago was also a retrieval of another era marked by geopolitical danger. The year 1917 anticipated the collapse one year later of the Habsburg Empire, which had dominated Europe for centuries, and the humiliation of Germany at Versailles in 1919. The catastrophic losses in the Great War shocked the world. The land that claimed Luther as its own was ground zero for the rise of fascism.

The past two years have also witnessed remarkable resistance in the United States and around the world. People committed to the value of human dignity are protesting the signs of abusive politics. #BlackLivesMatter resists white supremacy. #MeToo exposes the rape culture of the patriarchy. Most recently teenagers are joining the #MarchforLives to signal that gun violence must be addressed by the politicians, upon whom the youngsters call bullshit in a demand for truth. Political activism, public demonstrations, phone calls to elected representatives, and grassroots community-building demonstrate the fight to carve out a hopeful future. It has yet to be determined if Weimar Germany is a serious analogy to the present situation. Most likely responses to climate change will determine if the planet even has a future.

Originally motivating this book was the question as to why the Catholic Luther has been suppressed for over a century by constructions of the Protestant Luther. Given the current geopolitical tumult, I have come to hope as well that this study can shed light on modern culture through the lens of a particular construction of Luther. If the modern world is to continue to strive toward a vision of human dignity, tolerance, and climate justice, then the destructive aspects accompanying this vision of Luther and the Reformation must be identified.

I completed the book on a leave from Northwestern University during the 2017–2018 academic year. I benefited from the generosity of the Center for Christian-Jewish Learning at Boston College. In my position as Visiting Corcoran Chair at the Center, I studied Luther’s anti-Judaism in the context of late medieval Germany, particularly in view of biblical translation and interpretation. I thank both the Center for Christian-Jewish Learning and the Theology Department at Boston College for extraordinary hospitality as well as encouragement for my work on the Catholic Luther.

Throughout this project I have become more awakened to the need for theologians to contribute their thoughts on important topics of truth, community, and knowledge to the broader humanities and university as well as in the public political realm. For companionship that creates polyvalent meaning through life together, and the precious gifts of prose, rigorous thinking, historical sophistication, solidarity, and recognition, I thank my husband, Robert A. Orsi. My gratitude goes to Tim Noddings for brilliant meticulous help with the final preparation of the manuscript. Dan Braden was unconditionally supportive of this project, and I thank him for all his efforts—even his anxiety—in moving this work across the proverbial finish line. I dedicate this book to my son Anthony Orsi, with particular thanks for moving me with his generously exuberant and joyful love and with his demands for breakfast.

1. History and Story

An Introduction

1. Celebration

The year 2017 was marked by unprecedented political and cultural shifts across the globe within the enveloping context of immediate climate disaster. Neoliberal interests contested the role of governments to negotiate the common good; the relatively new democracies of the European Union, those founded after 1989, began to renege on their promises for a clear and open public space. At the same time, resistance awakened to challenge the emergent global order of illiberal democracies and complacent technocrats. The values of democracies were reviled, often by those chosen to protect them, and undermined. Public decency was eroded by abusive discourse; the new technologies of social media were manipulated to incite paranoia and sow seeds of chaos to benefit the interests of the powerful. The temperature of the planet became hotter than ever; violent weather events displaced populations, creating a new category of refugees. New movements cast a bright light on the sexual abuse of women in the workplace. Activists banded together within and across national boundaries in solidarity and protest. The unprecedented upheavals and challenges of 2017 precipitated a profound contestation of what it means to live in the world at this phase of the modern era.

Also 2017 was the year in which all around the world people celebrated the five-hundredth anniversary of the Protestant Reformation. Exactly five hundred years earlier, on October 31, 1517, an obscure Augustinian friar and theology professor nailed a list of ninety-five statements to the door of the castle church in Wittenberg, Germany. Martin Luther soon saw his carefully articulated protest against what he saw as the excesses of the Catholic Church translated from Latin into German, published, copied, and disseminated all over Europe. His protests would be read and discussed throughout Germany and in neighboring countries of France, England, Switzerland, and Bohemia. Soon enough, the little village on the Elbe River in the territory of Electoral Saxony was plunged into geopolitical upheaval that implicated the grand ambitions of the papacy.

Pope Leo X was the second son of Lorenzo de’ Medici, called the Magnificent, one of the most powerful and influential men of the sixteenth century. Leo aspired to build the central church of Christendom in the Holy City of Rome. This would require vast sums of money. In a story familiar to all Protestant schoolchildren, Leo granted special indulgences to those he commanded to contribute money for his architectural plans. It was this economic scheme that incited Luther’s theological and existential ire. The crisis Luther’s protest precipitated quickly drew in the Archbishop of Mainz, also an Augustinian friar, whose own political ambitions required borrowing money from the Fugger banking family in Augsburg in order to meet the pope’s demand, and the emperor, Charles V, who presided over territories from Bohemia in the east to the Americas in the west. Luther’s Ninety-five Theses on the Power of Indulgences caught and contributed to a moment of theological questioning that came amid a complex swirl of late medieval church politics, expansions of empire, and economic exploitation.¹

Luther’s call for church reform has resounded down the ages. All around the world, Christian, post-Christian, and non-Christian people celebrated the five-hundredth anniversary of his protest as significant for the modern world order. With Luther, as the history is told, the political and cultural shift from the medieval to the modern had begun. The values of religious freedom and the autonomy of the individual that Luther was said to have introduced with his treatise on Christian freedom from 1520 had come to characterize modernity.² The politics of social contract and democracy, the emergence of the guilds and of new forms of capitalism, social developments in which knowledge became a matter of public negotiation, legal openness to human rights, and guarantees of religious toleration—these were all modern developments that owed their origins to Luther, asserted Protestant historians. Not only the man was celebrated, but also what he had come to stand for.

While many celebrated, however, others commemorated the Protestant Reformation, bringing a more nuanced and even chastened sensibility to the year’s events. Some historical theologians carefully noted that Luther’s initiatives were more ambiguous, less brash and provocative than has been claimed. Luther did not intend to start a new church after all. He protested specific abuses in the late medieval Catholic Church.³ Nor did Luther promote anything resembling modern values. He was politically conservative and pastorally compassionate. He advanced some reforms while blocking more revolutionary programs as he saw expedient or appropriate. A number of historians and theologians are careful to distinguish Luther’s agenda from the modern project. This is especially so with regard to religious toleration: all of Luther’s works were laced with ugly polemic against those who disagreed with him, among them the pope and his theologians, Zwingli and the peasants, the Turks and Jews. All were objects of Luther’s outraged scatology. Toward the end of his life, Luther’s writings were permeated with obscene vitriol against Jews, in language so violent and ugly that one 1543 work in particular, About the Jews and Their Lies, was used by the National Socialists to promote anti-Semitic racism and murderous pogroms.⁴

The commemoration in 2017 thus offered scholars, ecumenically minded Christians, and people involved in Christian-Jewish dialogue the opportunity for a reconsideration of Luther’s ambivalent legacy. If Luther was to be regarded as a figure heralding modernity, then it was only right that he be identified with its complications, namely, with the division of the Western church into two mutually exclusive confessions, Roman Catholic and Protestant; with the rise of slavery as the obverse of freedom; and eventually with the emergence of genocidal anti-Semitism and the architecture of the Shoah.

Celebration contributed to the myth making; commemoration counseled a more profound and searching reevaluation. Both together reinforced the global attention on one late medieval doctor of theology. Martin Luther remains a familiar name after five hundred years, a remarkable longevity for one man’s protests, albeit brilliant and biting, against the church’s abuse of power. When compared to John Calvin—the younger French reformer of Swiss Geneva, whose world-historical impact is more evident, certainly, when measured in terms of global diffusion——Luther’s achievements seem rather circumscribed and local. His followers did not settle a continent! And yet, it is Luther—a coarsely garbed, dyspeptic former friar reeking of the squalor of the medieval household—rather than Calvin who appears in the public imagination as the instigator of modernity. Luther likewise towers over his fellow monk, Thomas Aquinas, whose work funded the intellectual culture of the post-Tridentine Roman Catholic Church. Luther, not Aquinas or Calvin, is the subject of bestselling biographies and popular movies.⁵ Luther has been uniquely generative for modern historiography that traces the sources of freedom and individualism. Of all the theologians in the West, Luther is known as the Reformer.

How Luther became the Reformer is this book’s question. In running text throughout the book, I use the uppercase form, the Reformer, when I am referring to the early twentieth-century construction of Luther that is the subject of this book. I use lowercase, the reformer, to name the historical figure who drew on the Catholic theological and philosophical arguments of his time to propose reforms to the church of which he was a member. This puts him in the company of Saint Catherine of Siena and more recently Hans Küng. Through the centuries, and particularly since the previous centenary of the Protestant Reformation in 1917, Luther as the Reformer par excellence has been endowed with world-historical status. How Luther Became the Reformer examines how the history and the legend of Luther as Reformer have been inextricably linked to modernity. There appears to be no feature of modern consciousness or value that has not, at one time or another, been identified with Luther as its source, inspiration, or provocateur. These include the modern subject and the modern state, the modern citizen of that state and his or her attitudes toward religion, modern Christianity, and by extension modern variants of other religious traditions. Every religion in the past five hundred years seems to have had its Luther! Even the modern theological notion of the death of God claims Luther’s cross-centered Christology as its center. How Luther has come to be connected to some of the most significant ideas informing theories of the modern West is the subject of this book’s historical explorations.

The titles of recent biographies illustrate my claim! Luther rediscovered God and in the process changed the world. Luther began the fight for the Western mind. Luther’s historical interventions have made him the most famous man in Europe! Luther is rebel, renegade, and revolutionary. These sobriquets and others have appeared on numerous book covers throughout 2017.⁶ Even those storytellers who attribute to Luther a more ambivalent role in modernity’s development sign on to the central plot. Luther is linked in a special way to the unfortunate decline of medieval Christendom, with disastrous consequences, it is said, for contemporary life. Remarkable about the literary productions in 2017 was the fact that Luther remained emblematic of modernity in a way that is not true for any other historical figure, not David Hume, not René Descartes, not Thomas Hobbes, not Immanuel Kant, not Giovanni Boccaccio, nor any other likely contender!

The story of how Luther was made the Reformer is a historical question. Or more precisely, the making of Luther the Reformer has to do with two questions. One concerns why Luther’s story has been told as so singularly significant for modernity. The other has to do with what Luther intended for the late medieval Catholic Church. These questions were not given at the moment Luther reached down for his hammer and took