Martin Luther and the German Reformation

Anthem Perspectives in History

Titles in the Anthem Perspectives in History series combine a thematic overview with analyses of key areas, topics or personalities in history. The series is targeted at high-achieving A Level, International Baccalaureate and Advanced Placement pupils, first-year undergraduates and an intellectually curious audience.

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Gladstone and the Logic of Victorian Politics

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King John

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The Creation of Modern China, 1894–2008

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Iain Robertson Scott

Martin Luther and the German Reformation

Rob Sorensen

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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Sorensen, Robert A. (Robert Allen), 1951– author.

Title: Martin Luther and the German Reformation / Rob Sorensen.

Description: New York: Anthem Press, 2016. | Includes bibliographical

references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2016021079 | ISBN 9781783085651 (pbk.: alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Luther, Martin, 1483–1546. | Reformation.

Classification: LCC BR332.5.S63 2016 | DDC 284.1092 [B]—dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016021079

ISBN-13: 9 781 7830 8565 1 (Pbk)

ISBN-10: 1 78308 565 7 (Pbk)

This title is also available as an e-book.

CONTENTS

Definition of Key Terms

Introduction

1. Context

1.1   The Late Medieval Church

1.2   Crises of the Late Middle Ages

1.2.1   Famine, plague and revolt

1.2.2   Church schism

1.2.3   Early reform movements

1.2.4   The impact of humanism

1.3   The Holy Roman Empire

2. Luther’s Early Life

2.1   Family and Early Childhood

2.1.1   Young man Luther

2.2   Early Education

2.3   Nominalism

2.4   Monk and Professor

2.5   Justification by Faith

3. The Accidental Reformer

3.1   The Indulgence Controversy

3.1.1   What is an indulgence?

3.1.2   Tetzel’s plenary indulgence

3.1.3   Did Luther actually post the 95 Theses?

3.1.4   Power politics

3.2   The Heidelberg Disputation

3.3   Friends in High Places

3.4   The Leipzig Debate

3.5   1520: The Decisive Year

3.5.1   Excommunication

3.5.2   Political support for Luther

3.5.3   The key writings of 1520

3.6   The Diet of Worms

4. Conflict and Reform

4.1   A Year of Exile

4.1.1   The Wartburg

4.1.2   The Bible in German

4.1.3   Radicalization of the reform movement

4.1.4   Return from exile

4.2   The Peasants’ War

4.3   Zwingli and the Conflict over the Eucharist

4.4   Erasmus and the Bondage of the Will

4.5   The Augsburg Confession

5. A New Way to Be a Christian

5.1   Basic Themes in Luther’s Theology

5.1.1   Justification by faith alone

5.1.2   The authority of scripture

5.1.3   The priesthood of all believers

5.1.4   The sacraments

5.1.5   Two kingdoms

5.2   Marriage and Domestic Life

5.3   The Development of the Lutheran Church

5.4   Music

6. The Final Years

6.1   Home Life

6.2   Physical and Emotional Illnesses

6.3   Polemics and Controversies

6.3.1   Islam and the Turks

6.3.2   The question of the Jews

6.3.3   Philip of Hesse and bigamy

6.4   The End

7. The World Luther Made

7.1   Long-Term Impacts

7.1.1   The spread of Lutheranism

7.1.2   The growth of individualism

7.1.3   Nationalism and politics

7.1.4   Social welfare and education

7.1.5   Women and the family

7.2   Questions about Luther’s Legacy

7.2.1   Antinomianism—does human behavior matter at all?

7.2.2   Why was Luther successful?

7.2.3   How Lutheran was Luther?

7.3   Concluding Thoughts

For Further Study

Notes

Bibliography

Index

DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

ANFECHTUNG:  A word used by Luther to describe his spiritual struggles. It can mean temptation, trial or assault.

ANTINOMIANISM:  The idea that righteous behavior is unnecessary because the grace of God can save you regardless of your sinfulness.

BAPTISM:  One of the traditional Christian sacraments, baptism is a ceremony in which a person is immersed in or sprinkled with water to signify the forgiveness of sins and admission into the church. In the sixteenth century, baptism was almost universally a ceremony performed on newborn infants.

CARDINAL:  A high official in the Catholic hierarchy, appointed by the pope as one of his chief assistants and advisors. Cardinals also elect a new pope upon the death of the previous pope.

CATECHISM:  A short instructional work designed to teach people the basics of Christianity.

CLERICAL CELIBACY:  The idea that members of the clergy ought to remain unmarried and should refrain from sexual relations.

CONCILIARISM:  A late fifteenth-century movement that claimed that supreme religious authority lay with church councils rather than in the person of the pope.

ELECTOR:  One of seven princes of the Holy Roman Empire who could vote in elections for emperor.

EUCHARIST:  One of the traditional seven sacraments. The Eucharist is the symbolic meal of bread and wine that were also mystically Christ’s body and blood.

EXCOMMUNICATION:  The official act of revoking a person’s membership in the church.

FORENSIC JUSTIFICATION:  The idea that a believer is declared righteous, but not actually made righteous.

GOSPEL:  Literally good news, the term was used by Luther to refer to the central teachings of Christianity and particularly the doctrine of justification by faith alone.

HERESY:  Belief or teaching that is contradictory to the official teachings of the church.

HUMANISM:  A movement seeking to revive the culture and scholarship of ancient Greece and Rome through returning to the original sources and languages. Humanists also emphasized the value and ability of the individual human being.

ICONOCLASM:  The opposition to the use of images in Christian worship.

INDULGENCE:  Official remittance of penance for sins, available for purchase from the church.

JUSTIFICATION BY FAITH:  Luther’s central doctrine—that sinners can be reconciled with God not through any act on their part, but rather by having faith that God will act to reconcile them with Himself.

MASS:  Can refer either to the Eucharist, or to the church service in which the central element is the celebration of the Eucharist.

MONASTICISM:  A religious commitment to poverty, chastity and obedience.

ORTHODOX CHURCH:  A Christian church, prominent in Eastern Europe and the Middle East. The Orthodox are a historic church not connected with the Roman Catholic Church.

POPE:  The title for the Bishop of Rome, the official leader of the Catholic Church.

PENANCE:  An act, assigned by a priest, to atone for sin.

PURGATORY:  A place for the Christian dead to complete their acts of penance before being allowed to enter heaven.

REAL PRESENCE:  The idea that Christ’s actual body and blood are present in the Eucharist. Unlike transubstantiation, belief in the real presence does not necessarily imply that the bread and wine are completely replaced.

SACRAMENT:  One of the seven rituals believed to convey God’s grace to believers.

THEOSIS:  The teaching, associated with Eastern Orthodox Christianity, that the believer becomes, through faith, united with God.

TRANSUBSTANTIATION:  The doctrine that held that the bread and wine of the Eucharist actually become, in their entirety, Jesus’s real body and blood.

VERNACULAR:  The common language spoken by the people.

VESTMENT:  A ceremonial garment worn by a priest during church services.

INTRODUCTION

Sunt bona, sunt quaedam mediocria, sunt mala plura

Quae legis hic: aliter non fit, Avite, liber.

—Martial, Epigram 1.16

Martin Luther is unquestionably one of the most prominent figures of the past millennium, and there is certainly no shortage of books about him. Yet he remains a fascinating and enigmatic figure. He is in many ways foreign to twenty-first century sensibilities, but he continues to speak deeply to many people—myself included—nearly five hundred years after his death. He introduced Europeans to a God who was not concerned with their good works, their personal piety, or their religious observation, but who simply reconciled sinners to himself by grace. In doing so, Luther initiated a theological revolution that splintered the Christian church and ushered in the modern world. This is his story.

Issues and Problems in Luther Study

A new treatment of Luther is an enormous task—far larger than I had anticipated when I first began to write this book. Nevertheless, I soldiered on to produce the volume that you now hold in your hands. A part of the problem is the immense volume of source material there is to work with. Luther’s own writings fill more than a hundred large volumes in the standard Weimar edition used by scholars. Only some of these have been translated into English, but the standard English translation still fills 55 large volumes. In addition to this, there are tens of thousands of books and articles about Luther’s life and thought, with hundreds more coming out each year. Even the most dedicated scholar can only hope to absorb a small fraction of this material.

An additional challenge is the fact that, unlike many theologians, Luther never developed his thought in writing in anything like a systematic fashion. Most of his writings are direct responses to particular events in his life, making it difficult to understand his theological and philosophical views without first having a concrete understanding of his life and times. Thus, any student of Luther’s thought must first master the intricacies of Luther’s life, and have at least a passing acquaintance with the political and social history of the early sixteenth century.

And there are also interpretive problems with the sources themselves. Contemporary accounts of Luther’s life are written either by Luther’s friends or by his enemies. In both cases, their reliability is open to question. All of Luther’s autobiographical writings are retrospective—written many years after the events that they record and likely colored by the intervening events of his life. The most interesting source of information about the mature Luther is his Table Talk—notes taken by admirers as Luther lectured, conversed and joked while dining with his students. Although these notes give us a rounded picture of Luther as a man, there are legitimate questions about their accuracy, and in any event, the nature of their composition render them at best a selective account of Luther’s life.

Luther’s way of looking at the world is also quite different from that which is typical in the twenty-first century. Luther sees everything in his world through theological lenses. Those of us who live in a secular era often find this difficult to grab hold of. Luther knew the Bible deeply and expected that his readers would share his familiarity. He would be shocked by the modern tendency to separate the world into secular and sacred spheres, and would object mightily to the religious pluralism that reigns in most Western democracies today. Luther took his faith very seriously—to the extent that he seems almost crazy to people raised to assume that secularism is the most normal way to view the world.

The great Luther scholar Bernhard Lohse once suggested that every biographer of Luther must take a personal position on Luther and recognize that his or her own particular value judgments will affect the final product.¹ This judgment, while true of all historical scholarship, is particularly true for those writing about Luther. I am, of course, no exception. I write as a Lutheran, and as one who admires Luther in many ways. Nevertheless, I recognize that Luther is not a cardboard saint, and I am troubled by some of his polemics. As such, although I have tried to maintain an appropriate level of critical distance, the reader can judge whether my own admiration for Luther has colored my judgment.

About This Book

This book is not intended to be an exhaustive treatment of Luther or of the Protestant Reformation. It is, instead, intended to introduce the reader to the basics of Luther’s life and thought, and to provide direction for further study. Although written primarily for high-school and college students, I hope that the general public will also find it useful. Throughout the book, I make reference to English sources that should be readily available to anyone with access to a good library. Those who are interested in a deeper treatment, or who wish to pursue more advanced study of Luther, should consult the bibliographic essay at the end of this book.

Chapter 1

CONTEXT

Today, some 500 years after he lived, Martin Luther is regularly considered by historians to be one of the most important figures of the last millennium. Life magazine, for instance, in its survey of the most important people and events of the last thousand years, listed Luther third, behind only Thomas Edison and Christopher Columbus. The Protestant Reformation, sparked by Luther’s actions, was ranked by Life as the third-most-important event of the millennium.¹ He is regularly studied by high school students in their history classes. He is the subject of countless books, and even of popular movies. Few would contest the fact that he is one of the most significant figures in European history.

However, few people in the late fifteenth century—the time of Luther’s birth—would have expected young Martin to achieve anything near this kind of greatness. Luther himself, near the end of his career, looked back on his life and explained how his fame had taken him by surprise:

I am the son of a peasant. My great-grandfather, grandfather, and father were peasants… I should have become a superintendent, a bailiff or the like in the village, a servant with authority over a few… that I [earned a good education], that I became a monk which brought shame upon me as it bitterly annoyed my father—that I and the Pope came to blows, that I married an apostate nun; who would have read this in the stars? Who would have prophesied it?²

The baby boy born to Hans and Margaret Luther on a rainy November evening in 1483 certainly did not seem like a potential world leader. He was from a peasant family of modest income. He had no influential connections in imperial or local politics. He lived in the small town of Eisleben, in a relatively unimportant corner of eastern Germany. Nevertheless, Luther would come to be one of the most important religious thinkers of all time, and his actions and ideas would deeply influence the future of Europe and the world. This is the story of how this apparently insignificant baby became a world-changing figure. In order to understand Luther’s journey, however, we must begin a bit before his birth and examine the world into which he was born.

1.1   The Late Medieval Church

The world into which Luther was born was a deeply religious one. Those of us who live in a largely secular age may find it hard to comprehend how thoroughly the Christian church influenced and governed the lives