Looking for Homer - Finding the Trojan War

LOOKING

FOR

HOMER

FINDING THE

TROJAN WAR

MANUEL ROBBINS

LOOKING FOR

FINDING THE TROJAN WAR

Copyright © 2017 Manuel Robbins.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced by any means, graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or by any information storage retrieval system without the written permission of the author except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

iUniverse

1663 Liberty Drive

Bloomington, IN 47403

www.iuniverse.com

1-800-Authors (1-800-288-4677)

Because of the dynamic nature of the Internet, any web addresses or links contained in this book may have changed since publication and may no longer be valid. The views expressed in this work are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the publisher, and the publisher hereby disclaims any responsibility for them.

Any people depicted in stock imagery provided by Thinkstock are models, and such images are being used for illustrative purposes only.

Certain stock imagery © Thinkstock.

ISBN: 978-1-5320-2048-3 (sc)

ISBN: 978-1-5320-2049-0 (e)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017904679

iUniverse rev. date: 05/30/2017

CONTENTS

Preface

1 Introduction

2 The Poet-Singer

3 When Homer Lived

4 Time of the Trojan War

5 From the Hittite Records

6 Opportunity and Adventure

7 The War at Troy

8 Orality and Tradition

9 Venue

10 Writing and Transmission

Afterword

Notes

Appendix A

Readings

To my grandsons

Eric and Zachary

There are mysteries

That have come to us from

The deep past

PREFACE

Iliad and Odyssey are the oldest surviving works of European literature and therefore of Western literature. The Greeks of the Classical period considered these to be their greatest works. So Aristotle testified, making a judgment based on aesthetics. So the ages have ratified, since these works survive to our time, while nearly all others have faded away except for surviving text fragments. Whether both of these were composed by Homer, is guesswork. The ancients thought so, but they supposed many other works to be by him. A modern bookshelf has translations into English of Iliad and Odyssey and both works are labeled as by Homer. Yet today there is less certainty that one man—Homer—composed both. I have doubts that Odyssey is by Homer. Or is it the other way around? The issue is unsolvable and I put it aside as unproductive. In this small book, only Iliad will be considered.

The literary merit of Iliad is not covered in this book. Much has been written about that. It is summarized in a work by Smith and Miller (see Readings).

The Iliad is not a short poem. The wrath with its various episodes and the warring of heroes, requires 15,693 hexameter verses. But it is not the bulk of the Iliad that makes it immortal but the majesty and beauty of the poetry, the melody of the meter, the simplicity of the language, the dramatic power of its structure, and the profoundness of the thought. Homer knew how to sound the heights and depths of every human experience, and his poem abounds in passages of exquisite beauty, vivid description, touching pathos, eloquent speeches, the words and deeds of knightly heroes whose whole ambition was ever to be the best.

Iliad is a war story. It is unsurpassed in literature in the sense of immediacy that it provides. The action is happening here and now. The tale is told, or sung for this is a poetic work, in such specific and vivid detail that one can hardly help but thinking that this is a report of an actual war—a report from the battle front.

Iliad is, in certain ways, not a perfect work. There are such mechanical problems as a story rupture during the embassy to Achilles, or the Catalog of Ships inserted oddly into the text, and there are frequent minor self-contradictions. The plot is strange, dealing as it does with a great warrior—Achilles—who does virtually nothing through much of the story. The story is full of pathos. The ancient audience knew that the Greek Achilles was doomed from the beginning. Humans seek to control their destinies, but the gods dispose. Gods believe that they control, but they do not, for over them is Fate. Agamemnon, chief of the Greek forces, is doomed though that is not worked out within Iliad. Not only is Trojan Hector doomed, but so are his whole family—father, brothers, wife, children—and all the other Trojans. That also is not worked out in Iliad, but it is clear enough from other works related to Iliad.

Iliad deals with the carnage of battle in painful detail. The slaughter is amply described and is gruesome, but the constant repetition seems aimed at making the listener sick of war. From this it is possible to believe that Homer was a pacifist. Homer has great, almost overwhelming, sympathy for Priam and his family and the Trojans. Their side of the story is told without rancor, and not in a way that one ordinarily tells of an enemy.

This, then, is the work so appreciated by the ancients, and moderns. Its composition is fraught with mysteries. We love mysteries because they challenge us. We hate mysteries because we cannot solve them. They hide something from us, and that is something we cannot stand. They tax our limited knowledge and mental powers.

That is why this investigation was undertaken. There are so many problems. How could such a great work appear seemingly out of nothing? There are no antecedents that we know of. Where did the war story come from? Was there a Trojan War? Who was Homer? Where did he come from and when did he live? Why did the ancients know so little about him? Did he live in the Greek Dark Age, an age without writing? If so, how do we have a written Iliad? How did it come down to us from ancient times? These are some of the mysteries.

In a way it seems futile to delve into these matters, or into anything dealing with Homer or Iliad. Even in ancient times, Homer was written about frequently. In modern times, with so many able scholars at work in Homeric studies, the mass of books and scholarly papers produced is so huge that if they were piled up, one on top of the other, they would challenge the heights of Mount Olympus. There is hardly a declarative sentence in this book that could not bring forth from the accumulated scholarship one or more references, one or more footnotes. I offer this work only because it may provide some slightly different insights. I do not believe that I have solved all of the problems mentioned above. But the search for answers has helped me to understand Homer’s work better, and some of the mystery has given way to a reasonable clarity.

1

INTRODUCTION

What will be discussed happened far away and long ago and it may be useful to explain place and time. Two locations are of interest. There is, of course, Greece. Ancient Greece was not a country in the modern sense. There was hardly ever a Greek nation in ancient times, a unified land under a single rule, but rather a number of city-states separately ruled. Ancient Greece is best understood as the place or places where Greeks lived in large numbers. Who were the Greeks? They were those who spoke the Greek language, shared certain religious beliefs and shrines, and saw one another as kindred. That region so defined would include what today is the Greek mainland, and also in certain periods Greek populations in Crete, Cyprus, and southern Italy. There were also Greeks across the Aegean Sea, on the west coast of Anatolia, and that is most important.

Anatolia is the name by which Turkey is known in ancient times, before the arrival of the Turks in the region. In the earliest time period of interest here, the dominant people of Anatolia were the Hittites, people of Hittite speech, the earliest known and recorded member of the Indo-European family of languages. Around them in Anatolia lived peoples who spoke kindred languages, Palaic to the north, and Luvian to the west along the Aegean coast. Troy, the city whose fame is entirely due to Homer, was located on the west coast of Anatolia.

Several time periods are discussed here. As an aid to understanding what will be said, following, these are briefly described.

The Greek Bronze Age

Homer seemingly knew of what is now called the Bronze Age, and refers to it though he lived centuries after that period. It may seem strange that an important period in the past is named after a metal alloy—bronze—yet this metal alloy did play more than a merely practical role in daily life. Bronze was used in arms and armor, pots and pans, and many and various hardware needs. Iron was barely known at that time. The technology of extracting iron from its ores was a difficult one. The Hittites had mastered it, and apparently no one else. It was a rare metal, and a Hittite king sent an iron dagger as a prized gift to another king. To make bronze, copper and tin were needed. The search for these metals over land and sea, over centuries of the Bronze Age, led to adventurous exploration and international trade, defining factors of the Bronze Age.

The Late Bronze Age is dated here to 1600 BC to 1200 BC.¹.¹ In Egypt, great temples were built during this period, but not the pyramids, which were already ancient by this time. Illustrations and writing in hieroglyphics on Egyptian temple walls provide a good outline of Late Bronze Egyptian history.

To the north of Egypt along the coast, small city states existed corresponding to what today is Israel, Lebanon, and Syria. These were all literate states, even as early as the Bronze Age, meaning that professional scribes were available who could serve the writing needs of people of all classes, who were otherwise illiterate. Those peoples, who spoke some variant of the Northwest Semitic language, left little of grand or monumental structures behind during the Bronze Age for the archaeologist to discover. There were small cities, small palaces, but there was not in that region in that period a sufficient economic basis to encourage a great conqueror who might demand grandiose sculptures, or vast temples.

North of Canaan, Anatolia of the Late Bronze Age is all important for matters discussed in this book. Hittites were the dominant force in Anatolia, ruling from Hattusa, their capital in central Anatolia, the remains of which can still be seen east of present-day Ankara. These ruins suggest that Hattusa was an all but impregnable fortress city. The location of Hattusa on a high prairie, near a river running in a deep gorge from which canals could not draw water, meant that the Hittites had a weak agricultural base and a weak economy. This is not the situation from which ordinarily a great power emerges, yet the Hittites were a great power of the Late Bronze Age. In the 1300s BC, in the time of Egyptian king Ramesses II, the Hittites and the Egyptians were the two super powers of that time. Hittite strength was based on skillfully arranged treaties with virtually all nearby states, by economic and mutual defense treaties with these states, and by the threat of Hittite armies when other measures failed.

Map A. Certain cities of the Greek Bronze Age, most of them