The History of the Franks by Gregory of Tours Illustrated

The History of the Franks of

GREGORY OF TOURS

(c. 538-594)

Contents

The Translation

The History of the Franks (c. 592)

The Original Text

Contents of the Latin Text

The Dual Text

Dual Latin and English Text

The Biographies

Saint Gregory of Tours (1911)

Saint Gregory of Tours (1913) by Henri Leclercq

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The History of the Franks by Gregory of Tours

First published in the United Kingdom in 2024 by Delphi Classics.

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The Translation

Clermont-Ferrand, a city in central France — Gregory was born in Clermont, in the Auvergne region of central Gaul.

The History of the Franks (c. 592)

Translated by O. M. Dalton, Oxford Clarendon Press, 1927

Gregory of Tours, the father of French history, was born in c. 538 in Clermont, in the Auvergne region of central Gaul. His family formed part of the upper stratum of Gallo-Roman society. He was the son of Florentius, Senator of Clermont, and his wife Armentaria II, niece of Bishop Nicetius of Lyon and granddaughter of both Florentinus, Senator of Geneva, and Saint Gregory of Langres. Also, several of his relatives held the Bishoprics of Tours, Lyon and Langres. Gregory’s paternal grandmother, Leocadia III, descended from Vettius Epagathus, the illustrious martyr of Lyon.

His father died while Gregory was young and his mother moved to Burgundy, where she held property. Gregory went to live with his paternal uncle, St. Gallus, bishop of Clermont, under whom, and his successor St. Avitus, he received a formal education. In his youth, Gregory contracted a serious illness and made a visit of devotion to the tomb of Saint Martin at Tours. Upon his recovery, he pursued a clerical career and was ordained deacon by Avitus. Upon the death of St. Euphronius, Gregory was selected as bishop by the clergy and people, who had been impressed by his piety, learning and humility. Their deputies overtook him at the court of King Sigebert of Austrasia and, being compelled to acquiesce much against his will, Gregory was consecrated by Giles, bishop of Rheims, on 22 August 573, at the age of thirty-four.

He spent the majority of his career at Tours, although he assisted at the council of Paris in 577. The world in which he lived was on the cusp between the Western culture of late antiquity and the sweeping changes of early-medieval Europe. Gregory was also influenced by the Frankish culture of the Merovingians to the north and the Gallo-Roman way of life in southern Gaul. Tours was situated on the Loire, linked by five Roman roads; the city was on the main route between the Frankish north and Aquitania, with Spain beyond. As the centre for the popular cult of Saint Martin, Tours was an important pilgrimage site, with a notable hospital, while offering a political sanctuary for prominent leaders to flee to during periods of violence and turmoil in Merovingian politics. Throughout his career, Gregory struggled with personal relations with four Frankish kings, Sigebert I, Chilperic I, Guntram, and Childebert II, and he personally knew most of the leading Franks.

He wrote his works in Late Latin, which frequently departs from Classical usage in both syntax and spelling, although there are relatively few changes in inflection. His most prominent text is his great History of the Franks, which is densely written for its time, weaving numerous narratives and characters. It contains Christian tales of miracles, descriptions of omens and natural events, stories of Christian martyrs, dialogues of church debates, discussions of the lives of holy men, nobility, and eccentric peasants, frequent Bible verses and references, and complex explorations of the international relations between numerous tribes and nations, including the Lombards, Visigoths, Ostrogoths and Huns.

Written in the latter years of Gregory’s life, Historia Francorum is comprised of ten books. Books I to IV initially recount the world’s history from the Creation (as was traditional for such works), but the text moved quickly on to the Christianisation of Gaul, the life and times of Saint Martin, the conversion of the Franks and the conquest of Gaul under Clovis I, and the more detailed history of the Frankish kings down to the death of Sigebert I in 575. At this date, Gregory had been bishop of Tours for two years.

The first book opens with Gregory’s pronouncement that he is a Frankish Catholic clergyman that follows the Nicene Creed and abhors heresy like those of the wicked Arian sect. The narrative begins with a brief epitome of the biblical Old Testament and New Testament, and the subsequent spread of the Christian religion into Gaul. The book concludes with the death of Saint Martin of Tours in 397.

The second Book details the beginnings of the Merovingian dynasty, including King Clovis I’s conversion to Christianity by his wife Clotilde, ending with his death in 511, after his conquest of large tracts of land in modern-day France. Book III concerns the four sons of Clovis, who equally divide the land after their father’s death. These four kings, Theuderic I, Chlothar I, Childebert I, and Chlodomer, quarrel and fight for supremacy over the Frankish realm. Eventually, Chlothar becomes the most powerful king. After the death of Theuderic I in 534, Book III culminates with the death of his son and successor Theudebert I. Theudebert’s kingdom is inherited by Theudebald until his own death in 555.

The fourth Book concerns the last years of Clothar’s life, when the entire realm of the Franks is ruled by him. At the time of his demise in 561 (as under Clovis before him), the kingdom is divided equally between four sons of Clothar: Charibert I, Sigebert I, Guntram, and Chilperic I; of course, they quarrel for control of the entire realm. A truce between them is maintained until after the death of Charibert I in 567. Clothar’s remaining sons fight for the supremacy, with Sigibert displaying the strongest military force.

From Book V onwards, the author clearly possesses more personal knowledge about the events he discusses. The later books are considerably longer and more detailed, while covering a shorter amount of time. The fifth book also contains Gregory’s impressions of ecclesiastical issues he witnessed and had some bearing on. It also introduces Childebert II, the son of recently slain Sigibert and of the still-living Brunhilda. In Book VI, the young Childebert betrays his alliance with his adoptive uncle Gunthram, who had protected Childebert and his mother after his father Sigibert’s death. Now, Childebert forms an alliance with his uncle, Chilperic, who had often been an enemy of Sigibert. In the seventh Book, Fredegund assumes regency for her young son Clothar II. He will be king of all Franks until his death in 629 — beyond Gregory’s narrative, which ends in roughly 593. Fredegund and her son are under the protection of Gunthram. She remains in power until her death in 597.

Book VIII opens with the travels of Guntram to Paris and Orleans, describing numerous confrontations between the king and several bishops. Meanwhile, Guntram becomes ill and fears for his life. Gregory suggests that the king’s illness is a just punishment since he is planning to send a great number of bishops into exile. Book IX concerns the Treaty of Andelot, which is signed in 587 between Guntram, Brunhilda, and Childebert II. It is a close pact of alliance, wherein Childebert is formally adopted as Guntram’s heir. Brunhilda also formally allies with Guntram and comes under his protection. The final book is set in c. 589 and explains how Basina, the daughter of Chilperic I and Clotilda, leads a brief revolt from a nunnery.

Gregory’s work reveals much about the changes in the Latin language of his time. Although there are problems in differentiating the exact grammar and orthography used by him from that used by his copyists, his writing differed radically from classical Latin in spelling and case endings. Gregory was aware of these differences, but explains that his mother convinced him that his style would make his writings accessible to a wider readership. Certainly, Gregory is a vivid teller of tales and his writings are far from artless. Beneath their idiosyncratic grammar and style, they are carefully constructed and rhetorically sophisticated, conveying profound religious and spiritual messages. The first comprehensive history of the French people, Historia Francorum provides invaluable insight into the political life of the early Middle Ages and it remains the chief sixth-century source text for studying the Merovingian kingdom of the Franks.

Baptism of Clovis I, as depicted on an ivory book cover from c. 870. A principal figure of Gregory’s history, Clovis (c. 466-511) was the first king of the Franks to unite his people, changing the form of leadership from a group of petty kings to rule by a single king, while ensuring that the kingship was passed down to his heirs.

Conquests of Clovis between 481 and 511

Realms of Merovingian Gaul at the death of Clovis in 511

‘Clovis I Leading the Franks to Victory in the Battle of Tolbiac’ by Ary Scheffer, 1836

CONTENTS

BOOK I

BOOK THE FIRST CONTENTS

IN THE NAME OF CHRIST, HERE BEGINS THE FIRST BOOK OF THE HISTORY

BOOK II

BOOK II CONTENTS

HERE BEGINS THE SECOND BOOK

BOOK III

BOOK III CONTENTS

HERE BEGINS THE THIRD BOOK

BOOK IV

BOOK IV CONTENTS

HERE BEGINS THE FOURTH BOOK

BOOK V

BOOK V CONTENTS

HERE BEGINS THE FIFTH BOOK FORTUNATELY. AMEN

BOOK VI

BOOK VI CONTENTS

HERE BEGINS THE SIXTH BOOK, COMMENCING FROM THE SIXTH YEAR OF KING CHILDEBERT

BOOK VII

BOOK VII CONTENTS

HERE BEGINS THE SEVENTH BOOK

BOOK VIII

BOOK VIII CONTENTS

IN CHRIST’S NAME BEGINS THE EIGHTH BOOK

BOOK IX

BOOK IX CONTENTS

IN THE NAME OF CHRIST HERE BEGINS THE NINTH BOOK IN THE TWELFTH YEAR OF KING CHILDEBERT

BOOK X

BOOK X CONTENTS

IN THE NAME OF OUR LORD JESUS CHRIST HERE BEGINS THE TENTH BOOK

The partition of the Frankish kingdom among the four sons of Clovis with Clotilde presiding, as depicted in the ‘Grandes Chroniques de Saint-Denis’, Bibliothèque municipale de Toulouse

Saint Gregory and King Chilperic I, from the ‘Grandes Chroniques de France de Charles V’, fourteenth century illumination

The original frontispiece of ‘Historia Francorum’, seventh century manuscript

Early seventh century coin of Chlothar II, who is the principal character of the last four books of Gregory’s history. Chlothar II (584-629), sometimes called ‘the Young’, was king of the Franks, ruling Neustria (584-629), Burgundy (613-629) and Austrasia (613-623).

BOOK I

HERE BEGINS THE PREFACE OF GREGORY, BISHOP OF THE CHURCH OF TOURS

IN THESE TIMES when the practice of letters declines, nay, rather perishes in the cities of Gaul, there has been found no scholar trained in the art of ordered composition to present in prose or verse a picture of the things that have befallen. Yet there have been done good things many, and evil many; the peoples savagely raged; the fury of kings grew sharp; churches were assailed by heretics and protected by catholics; the faith of Christ that glowed in many hearts was lukewarm in not a few; the faithful enriched the churches while the unbelievers stripped them bare. Wherefore the voice of lament was ofttimes raised, and men said: ‘Alas! for these our days! The study of letters is perished from us, nor is any found among our peoples able to set forth in a book the events of this present time.’

Now when I heard these and like complaints ever repeated, I was moved, with however rude an utterance, to hand down the memory of the past to future generations, in no wise leaving untold the conflicts of the wicked and those who lived in righteousness. I was the more encouraged because I often heard with surprise our people say that while the accomplished writer is understood by few, it is the man of plain speech who has the general ear.

Further, it seemed good to me for the better computation of the years, that in this first book, of which the chapters follow, I should begin from the foundation of the world.

BOOK THE FIRST CONTENTS

IN THE NAME OF CHRIST HERE BEGINS THE FIRST BOOK OF THE CHURCH HISTORY OF GEORGIUS FLORENTIUS, OTHERWISE GREGORY, BISHOP OF TOURS

I. Of Adam and Eve.

II. Of Cain and Abel.

III. Of Enoch the righteous.

IV. Of the Flood.

V. Of Chus, who first made a graven image.

VI. Of Babylon.

VII. Of Abraham and Ninus.

VII. Of Isaac, Esau, Job, and Jacob.

IX. Of Joseph in Egypt.

X. Of the Crossing of the Red Sea.

XI. Of the people in the desert, and of Joshua.

XII. Of the Captivity of the Israelites, and their generations down to David.

XIII. Of Solomon, and of the building of the Temple.

XIV. Of the division of the Kingdom of Israel.

XV. Of the captivity in Babylon.

XVI. Of Christ’s Nativity.

XVII. Of divers kingdoms of the Gentiles.

XVIII. When the city of Lyons was founded.

XIX. Of the gifts of the Magi, and of the massacre of the Innocents.

XX. Of the miracles and the Passion of Christ.

XXI. Of Joseph who buried Him.

XXII. Of James the Apostle.

XXIII. Of the day of the Lord’s Resurrection.

XXIV. Of the Lord’s Ascension, and of the death of Pilate and Herod.

XXV. Of the Passion of the Apostles; and concerning Nero.

XXVI. Of James, and of the Evangelists Mark and John.

XXVII. Of the persecution under Trajan.

28. Of Hadrian and the inventions of the heretics; and of the Passion of the holy Polycarp and Justin.

29. Of the holy Photinus, Hirineus, and the other martyrs of Lyons.

XXVIII. (30) Of the Seven sent to preach in Gaul.

31. Of the church at Bourges.

XXIX. (32) Of Chroc and the shrine in Auvergne.

33. Of the martyrs of Auvergne.

34. Of the holy Privatus, martyr.

33. Of Quiriacus, bishop and martyr.

36. Of the birth of the holy Martin, and of the Invention of the Cross.

37. Of James of Nisibis, the bishop.

38. Of the passing of Anthony the monk.

XXX. (39) Of the coming of the holy Martin.

XXXI. (40) Of the matron Melania.

XXXII. (41) Of the death of Valens the emperor.

XXXIII. (42) Of the empire of Theodosius.

XXXIV. (43) Of the death of the tyrant Maximin.

44. Of Urbicus, bishop of Clermont.

45. Of the holy Hillidius, the bishop.

46. Of the bishops Nepotianus and Arthemius.

47. Of the chastity of the lovers.

XXXV. (48) Of the passing of Martin.

HERE END THE CHAPTERS OF BOOK I

[The period covered by this Book is from the Creation to A. D. 397.]

IN THE NAME OF CHRIST, HERE BEGINS THE FIRST BOOK OF THE HISTORY

PURPOSING TO RECORD the wars of kings with hostile peoples, of the martyr with the heathen, and of the Churches with the heretics, I am fain first to make profession of my own belief, that whoso reads may doubt not that I hold the catholic faith. I have also deemed it well for the sake of those whose hearts fail them as the end of this world draws nigh, to set forth clearly by extracts from the chronicles or histories of those who went before us, how great is the number of the years since the world began. But first I beg indulgence of those who may read what I write, if haply in letter or in syllable I transgress the laws of Grammar, an art in which I am but ill versed. I have but this one thing at heart, to hold fast in singleness and conviction of heart all that of which the Church enjoins belief, knowing that one subject to sin may yet obtain mercy of our gracious Lord through simple faith alone.

Therefore do I believe in God the Father Almighty, and in Jesus Christ His only Son, our Lord, born of the Father, not made; I believe that He was always with the Father — not after lapse of times but before all time. For neither could the one be called Father if He had not a Son, nor the other Son if He had not a Father. And with execration do I renounce those who say that there was a time when He was not, and avow that they dwell apart from the fold of the Church. I believe this Christ to be the Word of the Father, by whom all things were made. I believe that this Word was made flesh, and that by His passion the world was redeemed; and I believe that not in His Godhead but in His manhood did He undergo this Passion. I believe that He rose on the third day, that He delivered man which was lost, that He ascended into heaven, and now sitteth at the right hand of the Father; and that He shall come to judge the quick and the dead. I believe that the Holy Ghost proceeded from the Father and the Son, and that He is not after or before them in time, but equal, and God ever consisting with the Father and the Son, in nature consubstantial, in omnipotence equal, in essence coeternal, so that He was never without the Father or the Son, nor ever younger than the Father or the Son. I believe that this Holy Trinity subsisteth in distinction of the Persons, so that the Person of the Father is one, of the Son one, and of the Holy Ghost one. But in this Trinity I confess one Godhead, one power, and one being alone. I believe that the blessed Mary, as she was virgin before childbirth, was virgin likewise thereafter. I believe that the soul is immortal yet hath no part in godhead. And all that was established by the three hundred and eighteen bishops of Nicaea I do faithfully believe. And as touching the end of the world, I believe that which I have been taught by those who have gone before me. First shall Antichrist come and bring in the circumcision, proclaiming himself Christ; next shall he set up his image in the Temple at Jerusalem to be worshipped, as we read that the Lord said: ‘Ye shall see the abomination of desolation standing in the holy place.’ [Matt. XXIV. 15.] But concerning that day the Lord Himself maketh all plain, saying: ‘But of that day and that hour knoweth no man, no not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father alone.’ [Mark XIII. 32. The words do not exactly correspond with the Vulgate] And here I will make answer to the heretics who attack us and maintain that the Son is inferior to the Father seeing that He is ignorant of that day. Let them know therefore that by the name of Son is here meant the Christian people, of whom God thus speaketh: ‘I will be to them for a Father, and they shall be to Me for Sons.’ Now if God had thus spoken of His only begotten Son, He would never have placed the angels before Him. For thus He saith: ‘Neither the angels of heaven, nor the Son’; showing that He spake these things not of His only-begotten Son, but of His adopted people. But our end is Christ Himself, who of the fullness of His grace shall bestow on us eternal life if we be converted to Him.

After what manner the years of this world are counted the chronicles of Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, and of Jerome the priest plainly teach, setting them all forth in their order. And Orosius, also making most diligent inquiry into these things, set down the whole series of the years from the beginning of the world to his own day. Which Victorius did once again when he determined the dates of the Paschal feast. Therefore am I fain in my turn to follow the example of the aforesaid writers, and reckon the whole sum of years down to our own time, if the Lord shall lend me His aid. Which task I shall the more readily fulfil if I begin even from Adam.

1. In the beginning the Lord formed the heaven and the earth in His Christ, who is the origin of all things, that is to say, in His Son; who, when the elements of the world had been created, took a clod of fragile clay and shaped man in His own image and similitude, breathing upon his face the breath of life, that he was made a living soul. And while the man slept, a rib was taken from him, and the woman Eve created. Nor is it to be doubted that, before he sinned, the first man Adam presented the type of our Lord and Saviour. For when Christ swooned in His Passion, He produced from His side water and blood, and gave unto Himself a Church, virgin and immaculate, redeemed by the blood and purified by the water, having neither spot nor wrinkle, that is to say, washed by the water to take away all blemish, and stretched on the Cross to take away every wrinkle. So therefore these first human creatures lived in bliss amid the delights of Paradise; but, enticed by the serpent’s guile, they transgressed the divine commandments. And they were driven forth from that abode of angels and given over to the toils of the world.

2. Now when the woman was known by her companion she conceived, and bare two sons. But when God favourably received the sacrifice of the one, the other was inflamed by envy and swelled in his wrath. He was the first man to rise up and shed his brother’s blood; he cast him down, he overcame and murdered him that was his own brother.

3. Thereafter the whole race of man fell into abominable crimes, save only Enoch the just, who, walking in the ways of God, was by the Lord Himself taken up and delivered from the midst of a sinful people because of his justice. For thus we read: ‘Enoch walked with God: and he was no more seen; for God took him.’

4. The Lord therefore, being moved to wrath against the iniquities of a people which walked not in His ways, sent a deluge, and by the tide-waves of this flood destroyed from the surface of the earth every living soul. He saved in the ark only Noe, His own most faithful servant and type, together with his wife and the wives of his three sons for the perpetuation of mankind after them. The heretics assail us here, asking why the holy Scriptures described God as wroth. Let them know, therefore, that our God is not angered after the manner of men; for He is moved to wrath that He may warn by fear, He driveth away that He may recall, He is angered that we may be amended. But neither do I doubt of this, that the form of the ark presenteth the type of our mother Church, which, passing through the waves and rocks of this world, beareth us motherly and tenderly, keeping us from threatening ills, and defendeth us by her embrace and guardianship.

From Adam to Noe are ten generations: Adam, Seth, Enos, Cainan, Malaleel, Jareth, Enoch, Methuselah, Noe. These ten generations make two thousand two hundred and forty-two years. Now Adam was buried in the land of Enachim, formerly called Hebron, as is plainly set forth in the Book of Joshua.

5. After the Flood, Noe had three sons, Sem, Ham, and Japheth. From Japheth issued generations of men, likewise also from Ham and Sem; and, as ancient history relates, by these the human race was spread abroad under the whole heaven. The firstborn of Ham was Chus, who by inspiration of the Devil was first inventor of the whole art of magic, and of idolatry. He first, at the prompting of the Evil One, set up a graven image to be worshipped, and by his false arts, showed mankind stars and fire falling from heaven. He passed over to the Persians, who called him Zoroaster, which is to say, living star. Taught by him the custom of adoring fire, they worship him as a god, since he was consumed by fire from heaven.

6. When men had multiplied and were being dispersed over all the earth, they came out of the East and discovered the grassy plain of Senachar. There they built a city; they strove to set up a tower which should reach to heaven. But God confounded their vain imagination and their tongue and their own selves, and dispersed them through every land over the wide world. And the name of the city was called Babel, which is to say, Confusion, for that there God confounded their tongues. This is Babylon, built by the giant Hebron, son of Chus. As the history of Orosius relates, it was disposed in a square upon a wondrous even plain; its walls were of burned brick laid with bitumen; they were fifty cubits thick and two hundred cubits high. The circumference was four hundred and seventy stadia, each stadium containing five aripennes. In each side were placed twenty-five gates, making a hundred in all. The doors of these gates were of wondrous size, and fashioned of cast bronze. The same historian narrates much more concerning this city, adding these words: ‘but though it was thus gloriously builded, yet was it conquered and overthrown.’

7. Now the first son of Noe was Sem, of whom, in the tenth generation, was born Abraham, thus: — Noe, Sem, Arfaxath, Sale, Heber, Falech, Rheu, Saruch, and Tharae who begat Abraham. In these ten generations from Noah to Abraham are found nine hundred years. In that time reigned Ninus; he builded the city called Ninus, called also Nineveh, the extent whereof is determined by the prophet Jonah as taking three days’ journey. In the forty-third year of his reign was Abraham born. This is that Abraham who was the beginning of our faith. He it was who received the promise; to him Christ our Lord revealed that He should be born and suffer for us in return for His offering, Himself saying in the Gospel: ‘Abraham rejoiced to see My day; and he saw it, and was glad.’ This sacrifice of Abraham, as Severus relates in his chronicle, was offered on the mount of Calvary, where our Lord was crucified, as is commonly affirmed to this day in the city of Jerusalem. On this mountain stood the holy Cross on which the Redeemer was nailed, and from which flowed His blessed blood. This Abraham received the sign of the circumcision, showing that what he bore in the body we should carry in the heart,’ as the prophet saith: ‘Circumcise yourselves to the Lord, and circumcise the foreskin of your heart.’ And: ‘Go not after other gods.’ And again:

None that is uncircumcised in heart shall enter into My sanctuary.’ This Abraham, a syllable being added to his name, God called the father of many peoples.

8. At the age of a hundred years he begat Isaac. And to Isaac, in the sixtieth year of his age, were born twin sons of Rebecca. The firstborn was Esau, also called Edom, which is to say, ‘earthly’, who for gluttony sold his birthright. He was the father of the Idumaeans, Jobab descending from him in the fourth generation, thus: Esau, Raguel, Zara, Jobab, who is also named Job. He lived two hundred and forty-nine years; in his eightieth year he was delivered from his infirmity, and after his deliverance he lived a hundred and seventy years, his riches restored unto him twofold, and blessed with as many sons as those whom he had lost.

9. The second son of Isaac was Jacob, the beloved of God, as He spake by the Prophet: ‘I have loved Jacob, but Esau have I hated.’ After his wrestling with the angel he was called Israel, and from him the Israelites are named. He begat the twelve patriarchs, whose names are these: — Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judas, Issachar, Zabulon, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, and Asser. After these, in the ninety-second year of his age, he begat of Rachel, Joseph, whom he loved more than his other sons; and of her he had also Benjamin, the last of all his sons. In the sixteenth year of his age, Joseph, presenting a type of the Redeemer, saw dreams which he recounted to his brethren: he was binding sheaves, which the sheaves of his brethren worshipped; another time the sun and moon, with eleven stars, bowed down before him. Which thing created a great hatred in his brethren against him, so that they burned with envy and sold him for twenty pieces of silver to certain Ishmaelites passing into Egypt. But when a famine was upon them they also went down into Egypt and were known of Joseph, though he was not known of them. Joseph, having many times tried them and caused them to bring thither Benjamin, who also was born of his own mother Rachel, declared himself to them. Thereafter all the Israelites went down into Egypt, and through Joseph enjoyed the good grace of Pharaoh. In Egypt Jacob died after he had blessed his sons, and was buried in the sepulchre of his father Isaac in the land of Canaan. But when Joseph and Pharaoh were dead, the whole people were reduced to slavery, and after the ten plagues of Egypt were set free by Moses, Pharaoh having been drowned in the Red Sea.

10. And since much has been written by many writers of the passage of this sea, it has seemed good to me to insert in this book somewhat regarding the place where they went over, and of the manner of their crossing. As well ye know, the Nile flows through Egypt, ‘watering it by its floods, whence the Egyptians are known as dwellers on the Nile. Many travellers relate that now its valley is covered with holy monasteries. Upon its banks is situated Babylon, not the Babylon aforesaid, but another of the same name, wherein Joseph builded granaries of wondrous workmanship with squared stones and mortar, more capacious at the base, but narrow at the top, so that the corn was cast into them through a small hole: these granaries are seen unto this day. From this city the king set forth to pursue the Hebrews, with hosts of chariots and a great force of foot-soldiers. Now the aforesaid river, coming from the east, flows west in the direction of the Red Sea. But a lake or arm proceeds from the Red Sea, running from west to east, and having a length of about fifty miles, with a breadth of eighteen. At the head of this water is builded the city Clysma, not because the place is fertile, since there is nothing more barren, but because of the harbour; for by reason of its convenience, ships coming from India he here, and the merchandise here collected is distributed through all the land of Egypt. The Hebrews, making their way through the desert to this arm, came to the sea itself, and because they found sweet water, pitched their camp. In this narrow space between the desert and the sea they halted, as it is written: ‘And Pharaoh, hearing that the sea and the desert had shut them in, and that there was no way by which they might go farther, commanded that they should be pursued.’ Now when the army was nigh, the people cried to Moses, who by divine command stretched forth his rod over the sea, and it was parted, and they went over on dry land.

And as the Scripture says, a wall of waters protecting them on every side, they passed over, led by Moses, and came wholly unharmed to the shore over against Mount Sinai, while the Egyptians were all drowned. Of this passage of the sea, as I have said, are narrated many things; but it hath been my care to insert in this book only that which I know to be true, hearing it from learned men, and from those who have visited the spot. They say that the ruts made by the chariot-wheels have remained even to this day, and are perceived at the bottom of the sea, as far as the sight of men’s eyes can reach. If by the motion of the sea they are in some measure covered up, they are miraculously restored to their former state when there is calm again. Others say that the Israelites returned to the same bank from which they entered the water after making a small circuit in the sea. Others, again, assert that all went in at one place; yet others, misusing the testimony of the Psalms, ‘Which divided the Red Sea into parts’, declare that before each tribe a separate way was opened. But these parts must be understood figuratively, and not according to the letter. For in this world also, which is figuratively called a sea, are many parts, nor can all pass over equally or by one way into life. For some cross at the first hour; these are they who, reborn by baptism, can endure to the end of their earthly life, unspotted from all defilement of the flesh. And some cross at the third hour, even they who are converted at a greater age. And others pass at the sixth, even they who repress carnal lust. Each at his own hour, as the Evangelist says, they are hired, according to their faith, to work in the Lord’s vineyard. Such are the parts in which this sea is crossed. But in favour of the belief that when they came to the sea they returned along the shore of that water, men quote the word which the Lord spake to Moses: ‘that they turn and encamp before Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, over against Baalzephon.’ Nor is it to be doubted that the passage of that sea and the pillar of cloud are types of our baptism, as the blessed apostle Paul says: ‘Moreover, brethren, I would not that ye should be ignorant that all our fathers were under the cloud, and were all baptized unto Moses in the cloud and in the sea.’ The column of fire typifies the Holy Spirit.

From the birth of Abraham to the departure of the Children of Israel out of Egypt and the passage of the Red Sea, which took place in the eightieth year of Moses, are counted four hundred and sixty-two years.

11. Thereafter for forty years the Israelites dwelled in the desert, and were instructed in their laws. Then, having received the law, they crossed the Jordan with Joshua and obtained the promised land.

12. After the passing of Joshua they neglected the divine commandments and many times were brought under the yoke of strangers. But when they repented with groans, by the Lord’s will they were set free by the arm of mighty men. After these things they asked of the Lord, through Samuel, that they might have a king like other peoples, and received Saul first, and afterwards David.

From Abraham to David are fourteen generations, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Judas, Phares, Esrom, Aram, Aminadab, Naasson, Salma, Booz, Obeth, Jesse, David. Of Bathsheba David begat Solomon, who was raised to the throne by Nathan the prophet, his brother, and his mother.

13. After the death of David, when his son had begun to reign, the Lord appeared to him, and promised to grant whatsoever he should ask of Him. But he, despising earthly riches, sought rather wisdom. Which thing was approved of the Lord, so that He said to Solomon: Because thou hast not sought the kingdoms of the world, nor the riches thereof, but hast asked for thyself understanding, therefore shall it be given thee. There hath been none thus wise before thee, neither shall be any after thee. And this was afterwards proven by the judgement which he gave between two women who disputed for a child. This Solomon builded to the name of the Lord a temple marvellously wrought, employing thereon much gold and silver, bronze and iron, so that there were some who said that never was building wrought like unto it in the world.

From the departure of the Children of Israel out of Egypt to the building of the Temple, which took place in the seventh year of Solomon’s reign, are found four hundred and eighty years, as the history of the Kings bears witness.

14. After the death of Solomon the kingdom was divided into two parts, by reason of the hardness of Roboam. Two tribes remained to Roboam, and received the name of Judah; Jeroboam had ten tribes, which were called Israel. Thereafter they fell away into idolatry, and were subdued neither by the predictions of the prophets nor by their death, nor by the disasters of the land, nor even by the ruin of their kings.

15. Until the Lord was wroth, and raised up against them Nabuchodonosor, who carried them away captive to Babylon with all the ornaments of the Temple. Into this captivity went Daniel, the great prophet, unharmed among the hungry lions, and the Three Children, whom the dew covered in the midst of the flames. In this captivity also Ezekiel prophesied, and Esdras the prophet was born.

From David to the laying waste of the Temple and the passing over into Babylon are fourteen generations, namely: David, Solomon, Roboam, Abia, Asa, Josaphat, Joram, Ozia, Joatham, Achaz, Ezechia, Manasses, Amon, Josias; these fourteen generations comprise three hundred and ninety years. From this captivity the people were delivered by Zorobabel, who afterwards restored both the Temple and the city. Now I deem that this captivity typifies that into which the sinful soul is carried away; and except it be delivered by Zorobabel, which is Christ, it shall undergo misery of exile. For the Lord Himself says in the Gospel: ‘If therefore the Son shall make you free, ye shall be free indeed.’ May He therefore build Himself a temple within us in which He may dwell; in which faith may shine as gold and the word of preaching gleam like silver, in which all the ornaments of that visible temple are bright in the integrity of our hearts. May He grant our goodwill prosperous fulfilment, for: ‘Except the Lord build the house their labour is in vain that build it.’ This captivity is said to have lasted seventy-six years.

16. The Israelites, brought back by Zorobabel as aforesaid, now murmured against God, now rushed after idols, and imitated the abominations of the Gentiles. While they despised the prophets of God, they were given over to the Gentiles, enslaved, and slain, until the Lord Himself, promised by the voice of patriarchs and prophets, and through the Holy Ghost entering the womb of the Virgin Mary, deigned to be born for the redemption of this as for all other peoples.

From the going into captivity to the birth of Christ are fourteen generations: Jechonias, Salathiel, Zorobabel, Abiud, Heliachim, Azor, Sadoc, Ioachim, Heliuth, Heleazar, Mathan, Jacob, Joseph, spouse of Mary, of whom our Lord Jesus Christ was born. Which Joseph is counted as the fourteenth.

17. But lest we seem to have knowledge of no people save the Hebrews, we now make mention of the other kingdoms, saying which and of what nature they were in the time of the Israelites. In the days of Abraham Ninus reigned over the Assyrians, and Europs over the Sicyonians; among the Egyptians ruled the sixteenth domination which in their tongue was called a dynasty. In the time of Moses Trophas reigned as seventh king of the Argives, and Cecrops as first king in Attica; Cenchris, who was overwhelmed in the Red Sea, was twelfth king of the Egyptians; Agatadis was sixteenth ruler of the Assyrians, and Maratis ruled over the Sicyonians. In the time when Solomon reigned in Israel, Silvius was fifth king of Latium, Festus ruled the Lacedaemonians, Oxion was second king of the Corinthians, Thephei governed the Egyptians as hundred and twentieth king. Eutropes reigned over the Assyrians; Agasastus was second king of the Athenians. At the time when Amon reigned over Judaea, and when the people went captive into Babylon, Argaeus was king over the Macedonians, Gyges over the Lydians, Vafres over the Egyptians; Nabuchodonosor, who led Israel captive, reigned in Babylon; Servius was sixth king of the Romans.

18. After these the first imperial ruler was Julius Caesar, who won sole authority over the whole empire. The second was Octavianus, grandson of Julius and known as Augustus, after whom the month of August is named. In the nineteenth year of his reign, as we learn beyond all doubt, was founded Lyons — the city of Gaul — which was afterwards made illustrious by the blood of the martyrs and bears a most noble name among cities.

19. In the forty-fourth year of the reign of Augustus our Lord Jesus Christ, as I have related, was born, according to the flesh, of the Virgin Mary in Bethlehem, the city of David. The wise men, beholding His great star in the East, came with gifts and, making their offerings, humbly adored the Child. Herod, fearing for his kingdom, and striving to discover Christ our God, did to death the tender infants. But he himself was afterwards stricken by the divine judgement.

20. Our Lord and God Jesus Christ preached repentance, bestowed the grace of baptism, promised the heavenly kingdom to all nations, and wrought signs and wonders among the peoples. He brought forth wine, namely, from water, quenched fevers, gave sight to the blind, restored life to those that were buried, set free those possessed by unclean spirits, made whole lepers squalid with the miserable disease of their skin. While He wrought these and many other miracles, He manifestly declared His godhead to the peoples, till the Jews were inflamed to wrath and excited to envy; thus did the minds of a race fed on the blood of the prophets now unjustly strive to destroy the just. Therefore, that the oracles of the prophets of old might be fulfilled, He was betrayed by His own disciple, wickedly condemned by the high priests, mocked by the Jews, and crucified with malefactors; His body, when the breath was gone out, was guarded by soldiers. When these things were done, there came to pass darkness over all the earth, and many were converted with groans, confessing Jesus the Son of God.

21. Joseph, who had embalmed the body with spices and laid it in his own tomb, was seized and imprisoned in a cell, where he was guarded by the high priests themselves. As is related in the Acts of Pilate sent to the emperor Tiberius, they showed in this a greater fierceness in their hate against him than against our Lord Himself, who was guarded only by soldiers, but he by the priests. But at the resurrection of the Lord the guards were terrified by the vision of the angel, when He was not found in the tomb; and by night the walls of the cell in which Joseph was confined were raised up on high; and an angel loosed him, setting him free from his imprisonment, while the walls were restored to their former place. And when the priests reproached the guards, and instantly required of them the sacred body, the soldiers said to them: ‘Do ye bring back Joseph and we will bring back Christ; but, to speak the truth, neither can ye restore God’s benefactor, nor we His Son.’ Thereat the priests were confounded; and on this plea the soldiers were suffered to go free.

22. When the apostle James had seen the Lord already dead upon the Cross, he is said to have vowed with an oath that he would not eat bread until he beheld the Lord risen again. And the Lord, coming again at last, upon the third day, after having triumphantly vanquished Hell, revealed Himself to James, saying: ‘Arise, James, and eat, for now am I risen from the dead.’ This was that James the Just, whom they call the brother of the Lord, because he was the son of Joseph by another wife than Mary.

23. Now in our belief the Resurrection of the Lord was on the first day, and not on the seventh, as many deem. This is the day of the Resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ which, on account of this His holy rising again, we properly call the Lord’s Day. As at the Creation this was the first day to see the light, so likewise was it worthy first to look upon the Lord rising from the tomb.

From the captivity of Jerusalem and the desolation of the Temple to the Passion of our Lord Jesus Christ, that is, to the seventeenth year of Tiberius, are computed [six hundred and sixty-eight years].

24. The Lord being therefore risen again, was for forty days discoursing with His disciples of the Kingdom of God; thereafter He was taken up in a cloud from their sight and carried into heaven, where He sitteth in glory at the right hand of the Father. Pilate sent to Tiberius Caesar a report of what was done, and told him of the miracles of Christ, of His Passion and Resurrection: this report is preserved in writing to this day among us. Tiberius laid it before the Senate; but the senators rejected it in wrath because it had not been laid before them first. Hence grew up the first seeds of hatred against the Christians. But Pilate did not remain unpunished for his wickedness and his crime, that is, for the violent death which he inflicted on our Lord Jesus Christ, for he slew himself with his own hands. Many deem him to have been a Manichaean, according to that which is read in the Gospel: ‘There came certain which told him of the Galilaeans, whose blood Pilate had mingled with their sacrifices.’ Likewise Herod the king, raging against the Lord’s apostles, was stricken from heaven for such great crimes; swelling up and swarming with worms, he took a knife to ease his malady, and smote himself with his own hand.

25. Under Claudius, fourth emperor from Augustus, the blessed apostle Peter came to Rome and, preaching there, plainly proved Christ, through His manifold virtues, to be the Son of God. From those days there began to be Christians in the city of Rome. But when the name of Christ spread more and more among the peoples, there arose against it the old envy of the serpent, and a fierce malice filled the whole heart of the emperor. For Nero the wanton, vain, and arrogant, who abandoned himself to men and abused them in his turn, the filthy violator of his mother, of his sisters, and whatsoever women were nearest to him in blood, to complete the heavy sum of his wickedness, became the first to raise up persecution against the believers and oppose the worship of Christ. He had with him Simon Magus, one full of all wickedness and master of the whole art of magic. This man was rejected by the Lord’s apostles Peter and Paul; and the emperor, moved to wrath against them because they preached Christ the Son of God and scorned to worship idols, commanded that Peter should be slain on the cross, and Paul with the sword. He himself died by his own hand at the fourth milestone from the city, while seeking to escape from a rebellion stirred up against him.

26. At that time also James, the brother of the Lord, and Mark the Evangelist were crowned with glorious martyrdom for the name of Christ. But the first of all to enter upon this path was Stephen, deacon and martyr. After the death of the apostle James, great calamity befell the Jews. For Vespasian came into their land, the Temple was burned, and six hundred thousand Jews perished in the war by famine and by the sword. Domitian, after Nero, was the second emperor to rage against the Christians; he banished the apostle John to the island of Patmos, and set in movement divers cruelties against the peoples. After his death the blessed John, apostle and Evangelist, returned from exile; when old and full of days, and of a life lived perfectly towards God, he laid himself while yet alive in the tomb. It is said that he shall not taste of death until the Lord shall come again at Judgement. For the Lord Himself says in the Gospel: ‘I will that he tarry until I come.’

27. The third, after Nero, to set on foot persecution of the Christians was Trajan. In his reign the blessed Clement, third bishop of the Roman Church, suffered death; it is declared that likewise the holy Simeon, bishop of Jerusalem and son of Cleophas, was crucified for the name of Christ; and Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, was taken to Rome and delivered over to wild beasts. These things were done in the days of Trajan.

28. After him, Helius Adrianus was created emperor; from this successor of Domitian Jerusalem received the name of Helia, from Helius Adrianus the emperor. After these martyrdoms of saints, it did not suffice the Adversary to have excited unbelieving peoples against the followers of Christ; he must needs also rouse schisms among the Christians themselves. He stirred up heresies; the Catholic faith was divided and torn in different ways. For in the reign of Antoninus arose the mad heresy of Marcion and Valentinus; and Justin the philosopher, after writing his books in defence of the Catholic Church, was crowned with martyrdom for the name of Christ. And in Asia, a persecution arising, the most blessed Polycarp, the disciple of John the apostle and Evangelist, was consecrated by fire to the Lord, a most pure burnt-offering, in the eightieth year of his age. In Gaul also many were crowned with celestial gems, martyrs for the name of Christ: the history of whose Passions is faithfully preserved among us to this day.

29. The first among these was Photinus, bishop of Lyons, who, full of days and tried by diverse tortures, suffered for the name of Christ. The most blessed Irenaeus, successor of this martyr, and sent to the city by the blessed Polycarp, shone forth with admirable light and virtue. In a brief space of time, chiefly by his preaching, he made the whole city Christian. But on the coming of persecution the Devil maintained such wars there by the hand of a tyrant, and so great a multitude of Christians were murdered there for confessing the Lord’s name, that the streets ran with streams of Christian blood, so that we are unable to tell their number or to collect their names; but the Lord hath written them in the Book of Life. This executioner, after causing divers tortures to be inflicted on the blessed Irenaeus in his presence, dedicated him by martyrdom to Christ the Lord. After Irenaeus, forty-eight other martyrs suffered death, of whom we read that Vettius Epagathus was the first.

28 (30). Under the emperor Decius there arose many wars against the Christian name, and the believers were slaughtered in such numbers that they could not be counted. Babillas, bishop of Antioch, with three children, Urbanus, Prilidanus, and Epolon; further, Xystus, bishop of the Church of Rome, Laurentius the archdeacon, and Hippolytus, attained the martyr’s end, confessing the name of the Lord. Valentinianus and Novatianus were now the chief leaders of the heretics, and under the impulsion of the Enemy, raged against our faith. At this time seven men consecrated as bishops were sent into Gaul to preach, as we read in the history of the Passion of the holy martyr Saturninus. It is there written: ‘In the consulate of Decius and Gratus, as is faithfully recorded, the city of Toulouse had already its first and greatest bishop in the holy Saturninus.’ These are the names of those who were sent: to Tours, Bishop Catinus; [This should be Gatianus.] to Arles, Bishop Trophimus; to Narbonne, Bishop Paulus; to Toulouse, Bishop Saturninus; to Paris, Bishop Dionysius; to Clermont, Bishop Stremonius; to Limoges, Bishop Martialis. Of these, the blessed Dionysius, bishop of Paris, after enduring divers torments for the name of Christ, ended this present life under the sword. Saturninus, when he was certain of his martyrdom, said to two of his priests: ‘Behold now am I made a sacrifice, and the time of my dissolution is at hand. I pray you that until my destined end be accomplished, ye leave me not wholly.’ But when he had been arrested and was being led to the Capitol, he was dragged thither alone, for these twain forsook him. When therefore he saw that they had abandoned him, he is said to have prayed after this manner: ‘Lord Jesus Christ, hear me from Thy holy heaven, and grant that to the end of time this Church may never have a citizen of Toulouse for her bishop.’ And we know that it hath never so befallen in that city until the present time. Satuminus was bound at the heels of a maddened bull and driven headlong from the Capitol, so ending his life. Gatianus, Trophimus, Stremonius, Paul, and Martial, after lives passed in the greatest sanctity, during which they won over much people to the Church, and spread the faith of Christ on every hand, passed from the world in the glad confession of their faith. In this wise leaving this earth, the first as martyrs, the rest as confessors, they were all together united in heaven.

31. Now one of their disciples went to the city of Bourges and brought the people tidings of the salvation of all mankind through Christ the Lord. A few only believed; these were ordained priests, and learned the manner of chanting psalms; they were likewise instructed in the method of building churches and properly celebrating the rites due to Almighty God. As they had as yet small resources for building, they begged the house of a certain citizen to serve as a church. But those of senatorial family, and other chief men of the place, were at that time in the bonds of heathen worship, while the new believers belonged to the poor, according to the words of the Lord when He rebuked the Jews, saying: ‘The harlots and the publicans go into the kingdom of heaven before you.’ Failing therefore to obtain the house which they sought, they repaired to a certain Leucadius, the first senator of Gaul, belonging to the family of that Vettius Epagathus whose death at Lyons for the name of Christ we have recorded above. When they had made known to him their faith and their petition, he made this answer: ‘If the house which I possess at Bourges should prove worthy of such use I should not refuse to give it.’ At these words they prostrated themselves at his feet and offered him three hundred pieces of gold with a silver salver, saying that the house was well fitted for this mystery. Thereupon he took three pieces of gold to bring him a blessing, generously excusing them payment of the rest. At this time he was still fast bound in the errors of idolatry, but now became a Christian and turned his house into a church. It is to-day the first church of Bourges, constructed with wondrous workmanship, and made illustrious by the relics of the first martyr, Stephen.

29 (32). The imperial throne of Rome was occupied by Valerian and Gallienus, twenty-seventh in order of succession, who in their days set on foot a serious persecution of the Christians. At that time Cornelius ennobled Rome and Cyprian Carthage with the shedding of their glorious blood. In their time also Chroc, king of the Alamanni, levied his army and overran Gaul. This Chroc is said to have been a man of the utmost arrogance. Having done various wicked deeds, at the instigation, as it is said, of a wicked mother, he mustered, as I have noted, the Alamannic people and overran all Gaul, overthrowing from the foundations every building erected in ancient times. Reaching Clermont, he burned, tore down, and wholly overthrew the shrine which the Gauls in their language called Vasso Galatae, a structure wondrously wrought with a double wall, fashioned within of small stones and without of great stones hewn square, and thirty feet thick. The interior was various with marble and mosaic; the floor was paved with marble, and the roof covered with lead.

33. Near this city rest the martyrs Liminius and Antolianus. Here, too, Cassius and Victorinus, joined as brothers in the love of Christ, pouring out their blood, together won the kingdom of heaven. They of old time relate that Victorinus was slave to a priest of the above-named temple. He often went into the quarter called the quarter of the Christians to persecute the inhabitants, and there found Cassius, the Christian, whose preaching and miracles so moved him that he believed on Christ. He abandoned the wretched state of heathendom, was consecrated by baptism, and became a famous worker of miracles. Not long after, as I have said, these two, who had been companions upon earth, passed therefrom together into the kingdom of heaven.

34. During the irruption of the Alamanni into Gaul, the holy Privatus, bishop of Javols, was found in a cave of the mountain near Mende, where he was devoting himself to prayer and fasting, the people having shut themselves up within the defences of the strong place of Grèzes. As the good shepherd refused to abandon his sheep to the wolves, they sought to make him sacrifice to demons. With execration he refused the