Visual processing

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Visual processing is the sequence of steps that information takes as it flows from visual sensors to cognitive processing. The sensors may be zoological eyes or they may be cameras or sensor arrays that sense various portions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

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Neuroanatomy of eye movements

Visual perception

1° (Retina bipolar cell) → 2° (Ganglionic cell) → 3° (Optic nerve → Optic chiasm → Optic tract → LGN of Thalamus) → 4° (Optic radiation → Cuneus and Lingual gyrus of Visual cortex → Blobs → Globs)

Muscles of orbit

Tracking

Smooth pursuit:	Parietal lobe Occipital lobe
Saccade:	Frontal eye fields
Nystagmus → Fixation reflex → PPRF

Horizontal gaze

PPRF → Abducens nucleus → MLF → Oculomotor nucleus → Medial rectus muscle

Vertical gaze

Rostral interstitial nucleus → Oculomotor nucleus, Trochlear nucleus → Muscles of orbit

Vestibulo–ocular reflex

Semicircular canal → Vestibulocochlear nerve → Vestibular nuclei → Abducens nucleus → MLF (Vestibulo-oculomotor fibers) → Oculomotor nucleus → Medial rectus muscle

Pupillary reflex

Pupillary response	1° (Posterior hypothalamus → Ciliospinal center) → 2° (Superior cervical ganglion) → 3° (Sympathetic root of ciliary ganglion → Nasociliary nerve → Long ciliary nerves → Iris dilator muscle)
Pupillary light reflex (constriction)	1° (Retina → Optic nerve → Optic chiasm → Optic tract → Pretectal nucleus) → 2° (Edinger–Westphal nucleus) → 3° (Oculomotor nerve → Parasympathetic root of ciliary ganglion → Ciliary ganglion) → (4° Short ciliary nerves → Iris sphincter muscle)
Accommodation vergence	1° (Retina → Optic nerve → Optic chiasm → Optic tract → Visual cortex → Brodmann area 19 → Pretectal area) → 2° (Edinger–Westphal nucleus) → 3° (Short ciliary nerves → Ciliary ganglion → Ciliary muscle)

Circadian rhythm

Retina → Retinohypothalamic tract → Hypothalamus (Suprachiasmatic nucleus)

v t e Index of the eye
Description	Anatomy orbit neural pathways Physiology Phenomena appearance visual optical illusions proteins Development
Disease	Congenital Corneal dystrophy Neoplasms and cancer Other Symptoms and signs
Treatment	Procedures Drugs infection glaucoma and miosis mydriatics vascular

Anatomy of the globe of the eye

Fibrous tunic (outer)

Sclera	Episcleral layer Schlemm's canal Trabecular meshwork
Cornea	Limbus layers Epithelium Bowman's Stroma Descemet's Endothelium

1:posterior segment 2:ora serrata 3:ciliary muscle 4:ciliary zonules 5:Schlemm's canal 6:pupil 7:anterior chamber 8:cornea 9:iris 10:lens cortex 11:lens nucleus 12:ciliary process 13:conjunctiva 14:inferior oblique muscule 15:inferior rectus muscule 16:medial rectus muscle 17:retinal arteries and veins 18:optic disc 19:dura mater 20:central retinal artery 21:central retinal vein 22:optic nerve 23:vorticose vein 24:bulbar sheath 25:macula 26:fovea 27:sclera 28:choroid 29:superior rectus muscle 30:retina

Uvea/vascular tunic (middle)

Choroid	Capillary lamina of choroid Bruch's membrane Sattler's layer
Ciliary body	Ciliary processes Ciliary muscle
Iris	Stroma Pupil Iris dilator muscle Iris sphincter muscle

Retina (inner)

Layers	Inner limiting membrane Nerve fiber layer Ganglion cell layer Inner plexiform layer Inner nuclear layer Outer plexiform layer Outer nuclear layer External limiting membrane Layer of rods and cones Retinal pigment epithelium
Cells	Photoreceptor cells (Cone cell, Rod cell) → (Horizontal cell) → Bipolar cell → (Amacrine cell) → Retina ganglion cell (Midget cell, Parasol cell, Bistratified cell, Giant retina ganglion cells, Photosensitive ganglion cell) → Diencephalon: P cell, M cell, K cell, Muller glia
Other	Macula Foveola Fovea centralis Parafovea Perifovea Optic disc Optic cup

Anterior segment

Posterior segment

Vitreous humour

Other

v t e Index of the eye
Description	Anatomy orbit neural pathways Physiology Phenomena appearance visual optical illusions proteins Development
Disease	Congenital Corneal dystrophy Neoplasms and cancer Other Symptoms and signs
Treatment	Procedures Drugs infection glaucoma and miosis mydriatics vascular

v t e The sensory system
Special senses	Visual system/sight Auditory system/hearing Chemoreception Olfactory system/smell Gustatory system/taste
Touch	Pain Nociception Temperature Thermoception Balance Equilibrioception Mechanoreception Pressure vibration Proprioception
Other	Sensory receptor Multisensory integration Sensory processing

Phenomena of the visual system

Entoptic phenomena

Other phenomena

v t e Index of the eye
Description	Anatomy orbit neural pathways Physiology Phenomena appearance visual optical illusions proteins Development
Disease	Congenital Corneal dystrophy Neoplasms and cancer Other Symptoms and signs
Treatment	Procedures Drugs infection glaucoma and miosis mydriatics vascular

General
conditions

Speech and language impairments / communication disorders	Expressive language disorder Infantile speech Landau–Kleffner syndrome Language disorder Lisp Mixed receptive-expressive language disorder Specific language impairment Speech and language impairment Speech disorder Speech error Speech sound disorder Stammering Tip of the tongue
Scholastic skills/ learning disorder	Developmental dyslexia Dyscalculia Dysgraphia (Disorder of written expression)
Motor function	Developmental coordination disorder Developmental verbal dyspraxia also known as Childhood apraxia of speech
Other	Auditory processing disorder Scotopic sensitivity syndrome Sensory processing disorder

Related topics

Lists

v t e Literacy
Teaching literacy	Reading education in the USA Phonics Whole language Dick and Jane National Council of Teachers of English NCLB Family literacy Adolescent literacy
Defining literacy	Functional illiteracy Critical literacy
Literacy internationally	International Reading Association List of countries by literacy rate Literacy in India International Literacy Day List of Chinese administrative divisions by illiteracy rate
Major contributors to literacy	Frank Laubach Ruth Johnson Colvin Paulo Freire Griffith Jones Marie Clay James Paul Gee
Related concepts	Agricultural literacy Aliteracy Asemic writing Computer literacy Cultural literacy Data literacy Dyslexia Diaspora literacy Early literacy Ecological literacy Electracy Emergent literacy Emotional literacy Financial literacy Health literacy Information literacy Information and media literacy Literacy test Media consumption Media literacy Mental health literacy Mental literacy New literacies Numeracy Oracy Orality Oral literature Postliterate society Racial literacy Scientific literacy Statistical literacy Technological literacy Transliteracy Visual literacy Writing system

v t e Writing systems
Overview	History of writing History of the alphabet Graphemes Scripts in Unicode
Lists	Writing systems Languages by writing system / by first written account Undeciphered writing systems Inventors of writing systems
Types	Featural Alphabets Abjads Alphasyllabaries / Abugidas Syllabaries Semi-syllabaries Ideogrammic Pictographic Logographic Numeral

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