Chapter 4

Free Space Radio Wave Propagation

There are two basic ways of transmitting an electro-magnetic (EM) signal, through a guided medium or through an unguided medium. Guided mediums such as coaxial cables and ber optic cables, are far less hostile toward the information carrying EM signal than the wireless or the unguided medium. It presents challenges and conditions which are unique for this kind of transmissions. A signal, as it travels through the wireless channel, undergoes many kinds of propagation eects such as reection, diraction and scattering, due to the presence of buildings, mountains and other such obstructions. Reection occurs when the EM waves impinge on objects which are much greater than the wavelength of the traveling wave. Diraction is a phenomena occurring when the wave interacts with a surface having sharp irregularities. Scattering occurs when the medium through the wave is traveling contains objects which are much smaller than the wavelength of the EM wave. These varied phenomenas lead to large scale and small scale propagation losses. Due to the inherent randomness associated with such channels they are best described with the help of statistical models. Models which predict the mean signal strength for arbitrary transmitter receiver distances are termed as large scale propagation models. These are termed so because they predict the average signal strength for large Tx-Rx separations, typically for hundreds of kilometers. 54

Figure 4.1: Free space propagation model, showing the near and far elds.

4.2

Free Space Propagation Model

Although EM signals when traveling through wireless channels experience fading eects due to various eects, but in some cases the transmission is with a direct line of sight such as in satellite communication. Free space model predicts that the received power decays as negative square root of the distance. Friis free space equation is given by Pr (d) = Pt G t G r 2 (4 )2 d2 L

(4.1)

where Pt is the transmitted power, Pr (d) is the received power, Gt is the transmitter antenna gain, Gr is the receiver antenna gain, d is the Tx-Rx separation and L is the system loss factor depended upon line attenuation, lter losses and antenna losses and not related to propagation. The gain of the antenna is related to the eective aperture of the antenna which in turn is dependent upon the physical size of the antenna as given below G = 4Ae /2 . (4.2)

The path loss, representing the attenuation suered by the signal as it travels through the wireless channel is given by the dierence of the transmitted and received power in dB and is expressed as: P L(dB ) = 10 log Pt /Pr . (4.3)

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The elds of an antenna can broadly be classied in two regions, the far eld and the near eld. It is in the far eld that the propagating waves act as plane waves and the power decays inversely with distance. The far eld region is also termed as Fraunhofer region and the Friis equation holds in this region. Hence, the Friis equation is used only beyond the far eld distance, df , which is dependent upon the largest dimension of the antenna as df = 2D2 /. (4.4)

Also we can see that the Friis equation is not dened for d=0. For this reason, we use a close in distance, do , as a reference point. The power received, Pr (d), is then given by: Pr (d) = Pr (do )(do /d)2 . (4.5)

Ex. 1: Find the far eld distance for a circular antenna with maximum dimension of 1 m and operating frequency of 900 MHz. Solution: Since the operating frequency f = 900 Mhz, the wavelength = 3 108 m/s m 900 106 Hz

. Thus, with the largest dimension of the antenna, D=1m, the far eld distance is df = . Ex. 2: A unit gain antenna with a maximum dimension of 1 m produces 50 W power at 900 MHz. Find (i) the transmit power in dBm and dB, (ii) the received power at a free space distance of 5 m and 100 m. Solution: (i) Tx power = 10log(50) = 17 dB = (17+30) dBm = 47 dBm (ii) df =
2 D 2 2 12 1/3

2D2 2(1)2 = = 6m 0.33

= 6m

Thus the received power at 5 m can not be calculated using free space distance formula. At 100 m , PT GT GR 2 4d2 50 1 (1/3)2 = 4 1002 PR = 56

= 3.5 103 mW PR (dBm) = 10logPr (mW ) = 24.5dBm

4.3

Basic Methods of Propagation

Reection, diraction and scattering are the three fundamental phenomena that cause signal propagation in a mobile communication system, apart from LoS communication. The most important parameter, predicted by propagation models based on above three phenomena, is the received power. The physics of the above phenomena may also be used to describe small scale fading and multipath propagation. The following subsections give an outline of these phenomena.

4.3.1

Reection

Reection occurs when an electromagnetic wave falls on an object, which has very large dimensions as compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave. For example, such objects can be the earth, buildings and walls. When a radio wave falls on another medium having dierent electrical properties, a part of it is transmitted into it, while some energy is reected back. Let us see some special cases. If the medium on which the e.m. wave is incident is a dielectric, some energy is reected back and some energy is transmitted. If the medium is a perfect conductor, all energy is reected back to the rst medium. The amount of energy that is reected back depends on the polarization of the e.m. wave. Another particular case of interest arises in parallel polarization, when no reection occurs in the medium of origin. This would occur, when the incident angle would be such that the reection coecient is equal to zero. This angle is the Brewsters angle. By applying laws of electro-magnetics, it is found to be sin(B ) =
1 1

(4.6)

Further, considering perfect conductors, the electric eld inside the conductor is always zero. Hence all energy is reected back. Boundary conditions require that i = r and Ei = Er 57 (4.8) (4.7)

for vertical polarization, and Ei = Er for horizontal polarization. (4.9)

4.3.2

Diraction

Diraction is the phenomenon due to which an EM wave can propagate beyond the horizon, around the curved earths surface and obstructions like tall buildings. As the user moves deeper into the shadowed region, the received eld strength decreases. But the diraction eld still exists an it has enough strength to yield a good signal. This phenomenon can be explained by the Huygens principle, according to which, every point on a wavefront acts as point sources for the production of secondary wavelets, and they combine to produce a new wavefront in the direction of propagation. The propagation of secondary wavelets in the shadowed region results in diraction. The eld in the shadowed region is the vector sum of the electric eld components of all the secondary wavelets that are received by the receiver.

4.3.3

Scattering

The actual received power at the receiver is somewhat stronger than claimed by the models of reection and diraction. The cause is that the trees, buildings and lampposts scatter energy in all directions. This provides extra energy at the receiver. Roughness is tested by a Rayleigh criterion, which denes a critical height hc of surface protuberances for a given angle of incidence i , given by, hc = . 8sini (4.10)

A surface is smooth if its minimum to maximum protuberance h is less than hc , and rough if protuberance is greater than hc . In case of rough surfaces, the surface reection coecient needs to be multiplied by a scattering loss factor S , given by S = exp(8( h sini 2 ) ) (4.11)

where h is the standard deviation of the Gaussian random variable h. The following result is a better approximation to the observed value S = exp(8( h sini 2 h sini 2 ) )I0 [8( ) ] 58 (4.12)

Figure 4.2: Two-ray reection model. which agrees very well for large walls made of limestone. The equivalent reection coecient is given by, rough = S . (4.13)

4.4

Two Ray Reection Model

Interaction of EM waves with materials having dierent electrical properties than the material through which the wave is traveling leads to transmitting of energy through the medium and reection of energy back in the medium of propagation. The amount of energy reected to the amount of energy incidented is represented by Fresnel reection coecient , which depends upon the wave polarization, angle of incidence and frequency of the wave. For example, as the EM waves can not pass through conductors, all the energy is reected back with angle of incidence equal to the angle of reection and reection coecient = 1. In general, for parallel and perpendicular polarizations, is given by: || = Er /Ei = 2 sin t 1 sin i /2 sin t + 1 sin i 59 (4.14)

 = Er /Ei = 2 sin i 1 sin t /2 sin i + 1 sin t .

(4.15)

Seldom in communication systems we encounter channels with only LOS paths and hence the Friis formula is not a very accurate description of the communication link. A two-ray model, which consists of two overlapping waves at the receiver, one direct path and one reected wave from the ground gives a more accurate description as shown in Figure 4.2. A simple addition of a single reected wave shows that power varies inversely with the forth power of the distance between the Tx and the Rx. This is deduced via the following treatment. From Figure 4.2, the total transmitted and received electric elds are
T OT ET = Ei + ELOS , T OT ER = Eg + ELOS .

(4.16) (4.17)

Let E0 is the free space electric eld (in V/m) at a reference distance d0 . Then E (d, t) = where = c d c (4.19) E0 d 0 cos(c t ) d (4.18)

and d > d0 . The envelop of the electric eld at d meters from the transmitter at any time t is therefore |E (d, t)| = E0 d 0 . d (4.20)

This means the envelop is constant with respect to time. Two propagating waves arrive at the receiver, one LOS wave which travels a distance of d and another ground reected wave, that travels d . Mathematically, it can be expressed as: E (d , t) = where = c and E (d , t) = where = c 60 d . c (4.24) E0 d 0 cos(c t ) d (4.23) d c (4.22) E0 d 0 cos(c t ) d (4.21)

Figure 4.3: Phasor diagram of electric elds.

Figure 4.4: Equivalent phasor diagram of Figure 4.3.

According to the law of reection in a dielectric, i = 0 and Eg = Ei which means the total electric eld, Et = Ei + Eg = Ei (1 + ). (4.25)

For small values of i , reected wave is equal in magnitude and 180o out of phase with respect to incident wave. Assuming perfect horizontal electric eld polarization, i.e., = 1 = Et = (1 1)Ei = 0, (4.26)

the resultant electric eld is the vector sum of ELOS and Eg . This implies that,
T OT = |ELOS + Eg |. ER

(4.27)

It can be therefore written that

E0 d 0 E0 d 0 cos(c t ) + (1) cos(c t ) d d

(4.28)

In such cases, the path dierence is =d d = (ht + hr )2 + d2 (ht hr )2 + d2 . (4.29)

However, when T-R separation distance is very large compared to (ht + hr ), then 2ht hr d (4.30)

Ex 3: Prove the above two equations, i.e., equation (4.29) and (4.30). Once the path dierence is known, the phase dierence is = 2 c = 61 (4.31)

and the time dierence, d = . = c 2fc (4.32)

When d is very large, then becomes very small and therefore ELOS and Eg are virtually identical with only phase dierence,i.e., | E0 d 0 E0 d 0 E0 d 0 || |. || d d d
d c

(4.33) . Then, (4.34) (4.35) (4.36) (4.37)

Say, we want to evaluate the received E-eld at any t =

d d d d d E0 d 0 E0 d 0 cos(c c ) cos(c c ) )= c d c c d c c = c E0 d 0 E0 d 0 cos( cos(0o ) ) d c d E0 d 0 E0 d 0 = d d E0 d 0 ( 1). d

Using phasor diagram concept for vector addition as shown in Figures 4.3 and 4.4, we get
T OT |ER (d)| =

E0 d 0 E 0 d 0 E0 d 0 + cos( ))2 + ( sin( ))2 d d d (cos( ) 1)2 + sin2 ( ) = E0 d 0 2 2cos d E0 d 0 =2 sin( ). d 2

(4.38) (4.39) (4.40) (4.41)

E0 d 0 d

For

< 0.5rad, sin( 2 )

2 .

Using equation (4.31) and further equation (4.30),

we can then approximate that sin( 2ht hr ) = < 0.5rad. 2 d (4.42)

This raises the wonderful concept of cross-over distance dc , dened as d > dc = 20ht hr 4ht hr = . 5 (4.43)

The corresponding approximate received electric eld is

E0 d0 2ht hr ht h r =k 2 . d d d

(4.44)

62

Therefore, using equation (4.43) in (4.1), we get the received power as Pr =

(4.45)

The cross-over distance shows an approximation of the distance after which the received power decays with its fourth order. The basic dierence between equation (4.1) and (4.45) is that when d < dc , equation (4.1) is sucient to calculate the path loss since the two-ray model does not give a good result for a short distance due to the oscillation caused by the constructive and destructive combination of the two rays, but whenever we distance crosses the cross-over distance, the power falls o rapidly as well as two-ray model approximation gives better result than Friis equation. Observations on Equation (4.45): The important observations from this equation are: 1. This equation gives fair results when the T-R separation distance crosses the cross-over distance. 1. In that case, the power decays as the fourth power of distance Pr (d) = with K being a constant. 2. Path loss is independent of frequency (wavelength).
2 3. Received power is also proportional to h2 t and hr , meaning, if height of any of the

K , d4

(4.46)

antennas is increased, received power increases.

4.5

Diraction

Diraction is the phenomena that explains the digression of a wave from a straight line path, under the inuence of an obstacle, so as to propagate behind the obstacle. It is an inherent feature of a wave be it longitudinal or transverse. For e.g the sound can be heard in a room, where the source of the sound is another room without having any line of sight. The similar phenomena occurs for light also but the diracted light intensity is not noticeable. This is because the obstacle or slit need to be of the order of the wavelength of the wave to have a signicant eect. Thus radiation from a point source radiating in all directions can be received at any 63

Figure 4.5: Huygens secondary wavelets. point, even behind an obstacle (unless it is not completely enveloped by it), as shown in Figure 4.5. Though the intensity received gets smaller as receiver is moved into the shadowed region. Diraction is explained by Huygens-Fresnel principle which states that all points on a wavefront can be considered as the point source for secondary wavelets which form the secondary wavefront in the direction of the prorogation. Normally, in absence of an obstacle, the sum of all wave sources is zero at a point not in the direct path of the wave and thus the wave travels in the straight line. But in the case of an obstacle, the eect of wave source behind the obstacle cannot be felt and the sources around the obstacle contribute to the secondary wavelets in the shadowed region, leading to bending of wave. In mobile communication, this has a great advantage since, by diraction (and scattering, reection), the receiver is able to receive the signal even when not in line of sight of the transmitter. This we show in the subsection given below.

4.5.1

Knife-Edge Diraction Geometry

As shown in Figure 4.6, consider that theres an impenetrable obstruction of hight h at a distance of d1 from the transmitter and d2 from the receiver. The path dierence between direct path and the diracted path is =
2 d2 1+h + 2 d2 2 + h (d1 + d2 )

(4.47)

64

Figure 4.6: Diraction through a sharp edge. which can be further simplied as
2 2 = d1 (1 + h2 /2d2 1 ) + d2 (1 + h /2d2 ) (d1 + d2 )

= h2 /(2d1 ) + h2 /(2d2 ) = h2 (d1 + d2 )/(2d1 d2 ). Thus the phase dierence equals = 2/ = 2h2 (d1 + d2 )/2(d1 d2 ). With the following considerations that =+ and tan we can write, tan = tan + tan = h/d1 + h/d2 = h(d1 + d2 )/d1 d2 .

(4.48)

(4.49)

(4.50)

(4.51)

(4.52)

In order to normalize this, we usually use a Fresnel-Kircho diraction parameter v , expressed as v = h 2(d1 + d2 )/(d1 d2 ) = (2d1 d2 )/((d1 + d2 )) (4.53)

65

Figure 4.7: Fresnel zones. and therefore the phase dierence becomes = v 2 /2. (4.54)

From this, we can observe that: (i) phase dierence is a function of the height of the obstruction, and also, (ii) phase dierence is a function of the position of the obstruction from transmitter and receiver.

4.5.2

Fresnel Zones: the Concept of Diraction Loss

As mentioned before, the more is the object in the shadowed region greater is the diraction loss of the signal. The eect of diraction loss is explained by Fresnel zones as a function of the path dierence. The successive Fresnel zones are limited by the circular periphery through which the path dierence of the secondary waves is n/2 greater than total length of the LOS path, as shown in Figure 4.7. Thus successive Fresnel zones have phase dierence of which means they alternatively 66

provide constructive and destructive interference to the received the signal. The radius of the each Fresnel zone is maximum at middle of transmitter and receiver (i.e. when d1 = d2 ) and decreases as moved to either side. It is seen that the loci of a Fresnel zone varied over d1 and d2 forms an ellipsoid with the transmitter and receiver at its focii. Now, if theres no obstruction, then all Fresnel zones result in only the direct LOS prorogation and no diraction eects are observed. But if an obstruction is present, depending on its geometry, it obstructs contribution from some of the secondary wavelets, resulting in diraction and also the loss of energy, which is the vector sum of energy from unobstructed sources. please note that height of the obstruction can be positive zero and negative also. The diraction losses are minimum as long as obstruction doesnt block volume of the 1st Fresnel zone. As a rule of thumb, diraction eects are negligible beyond 55% of 1st Fresnel zone. Ex 4: Calculate the rst Fresnel zone obstruction height maximum for f = 800 MHz. Solution: = H= H1 =
(d1 +d2 ) d1 +d2
3 250250 8

c 3 3 108 = m = 2 6 f 8 10 10 8

500

= 6.89m

Thus H1 = 10 + 6.89 = 16.89m

(b) H2 = Thus H2 = 10 + 5.6 = 15.48m . To have good power strength, obstacle should be within the 60% of the rst fresnel zone.
3 8

100 400 = 10 (0.3) = 5.48m 500

Ex 5: Given f=900 MHz, d1 = d2 = 1 km, h = 25m, where symbols have usual meaning. Compute the diraction loss. Also nd out in which Fresnel zone the tip of the obstruction lies.

67

Figure 4.8: Knife-edge Diraction Model Given, Gd (dB ) = 20 log(0.5 0.62v ) Gd (dB ) = 20 log(0.225/v ) 1 < v <= 0 v > 2.24

Solution: v=h 2(d1 + d2 ) = 25 d1 d2 2 2000 = 2.74 1 3 10

Gd (dB ) = 20 log( 225 v ) = 21.7dB

Since loss = -Gd (dB) = 21.7 dB

n= Thus n=4.

(2.74)2 = 3.5 2

4.5.3

Knife-edge diraction model

Knife-edge diraction model is one of the simplest diraction model to estimate the diraction loss. It considers the object like hill or mountain as a knife edge sharp

68

object. The electric eld strength, Ed of a knife-edge diracted wave is given by

Ed /Eo = F (v ) = (1 + j )/2

(exp((jt2 )/2)dt.

(4.55)

The diraction gain due to presence of knife edge can be given as Gd (db) = 20log|F (v )| Gd (db) = 0v <= 1 Gd (db) = 20log(0.5 0.62) 1 <= v <= 0 0 <= v <= 1 1 <= v <= 2.4 (4.56) (4.57) (4.58) (4.59) (4.60) (4.61)

Gd (db) = 20log(0.5exp(0.95v ))

Gd (db) = 20log(0.4 sqrt(0.1184 (0.38 0.1v 2 ))) Gd (db) = 20log(0.225/v )

v > 2.4

When there are more than one obstruction, then the equivalent model can be found by one knife-edge diraction model as shown in Figure 4.8.

4.6
4.6.1

Link Budget Analysis

According to this model the received power at distance d is given by, P L(d)( d n d ) = P L(dB ) = P L(d0 ) + 10nlog ( ) d0 d0 (4.62)

The value of n varies with propagation environments. The value of n is 2 for free space. The value of n varies from 4 to 6 for obstruction of building, and 3 to 5 for urban scenarios. The important factor is to select the correct reference distance d0 . For large cell area it is 1 Km, while for micro-cell system it varies from 10m-1m. Limitations: Surrounding environmental clutter may be dierent for two locations having the same transmitter to receiver separation. Moreover it does not account for the shadowing eects.

69

4.6.2

Log Normal Shadowing

The equation for the log normal shadowing is given by, P L(dB ) = P L(dB ) + X = P L(d0 ) + 10nlog ( d ) + X d0 (4.63)

where X is a zero mean Gaussian distributed random variable in dB with standard deviation also in dB. In practice n and values are computed from measured data. Average received power The Q function is given by, z Q(z ) = 0.5(1 erf ( )) 2 and Q(z ) = 1 Q(z ) (4.65) (4.64)

So the probability that the received signal level (in dB) will exceed a certain value is P (Pd > ) = Q( Pr ). (4.66)

4.7

Outdoor Propagation Models

There are many empirical outdoor propagation models such as Longley-Rice model, Durkins model, Okumura model, Hata model etc. Longley-Rice model is the most commonly used model within a frequency band of 40 MHz to 100 GHz over dierent terrains. Certain modications over the rudimentary model like an extra urban factor (UF) due to urban clutter near the reciever is also included in this model. Below, we discuss some of the outdoor models, followed by a few indoor models too.

4.7.1

Okumura Model

The Okumura model is used for Urban Areas is a Radio propagation model that is used for signal prediction.The frequency coverage of this model is in the range of 200 MHz to 1900 MHz and distances of 1 Km to 100 Km.It can be applicable for base station eective antenna heights (ht ) ranging from 30 m to 1000 m. 70

Okumura used extensive measurements of base station-to-mobile signal attenuation throughout Tokyo to develop a set of curves giving median attenuation relative to free space (Amu ) of signal propogation in irregular terrain. The empirical pathloss formula of Okumura at distance d parameterized by the carrier frequency fc is given by PL (d)dB = L(fc , d) + Amu (fc , d) G(ht ) G(hr ) GAREA (4.67)

where L(fc , d) is free space path loss at distance d and carrier frequency fc , Amu (fc , d) is the median attenuation in addition to free-space path loss across all environments,G(ht ) is the base station antenna height gain factor,G(hr ) is the mobile antenna height gain factor,GAREA is the gain due to type of environment. The values of Amu (fc , d) and GAREA are obtained from Okumuras empirical plots. Okumura derived empirical formulas for G(ht ) and G(hr ) as follows: G(ht ) = 20 log10 (ht /200), 30m < ht < 1000m hr 3m 3m < hr < 10m (4.68) (4.69) (4.70)

G(hr ) = 10 log10 (hr /3), G(hr ) = 20 log10 (hr /3),

Correlation factors related to terrain are also developed in order to improve the models accuracy. Okumuras model has a 10-14 dB empirical standard deviation between the path loss predicted by the model and the path loss associated with one of the measurements used to develop the model.

4.7.2

Hata Model

The Hata model is an empirical formulation of the graphical path-loss data provided by the Okumura and is valid over roughly the same range of frequencies, 150-1500 MHz. This empirical formula simplies the calculation of path loss because it is closed form formula and it is not based on empirical curves for the dierent parameters. The standard formula for empirical path loss in urban areas under the Hata model is PL,urban (d)dB = 69.55+26.16 log10 (fc )13.82 log10 (ht )a(hr )+(44.96.55 log10 (ht )) log10 (d) (4.71)

71

The parameters in this model are same as in the Okumura model,and a(hr ) is a correction factor for the mobile antenna height based on the size of coverage area.For small to medium sized cities this factor is given by a(hr ) = (1.11 log10 (fc ) 0.7)hr (1.56 log10 (fc ) 0.8)dB and for larger cities at a frequencies fc > 300 MHz by a(hr ) = 3.2(log10 (11.75hr ))2 4.97dB else it is a(hr ) = 8.29(log10 (1.54hr ))2 1.1dB Corrections to the urban model are made for the suburban, and is given by PL,suburban (d)dB = PL,urban (d)dB 2(log10 (fc /28))2 5.4 (4.72)

Unlike the Okumura model,the Hata model does not provide for any specic pathcorrelation factors. The Hata model well approximates the Okumura model for distances d > 1 Km. Hence it is a good model for rst generation cellular systems, but it does not model propogation well in current cellular systems with smaller cell sizes and higher frequencies. Indoor environments are also not captured by the Hata model.

4.8

Indoor Propagation Models

The indoor radio channel diers from the traditional mobile radio channel in ways - the distances covered are much smaller ,and the variability of the environment is much greater for smaller range of Tx-Rx separation distances.Features such as lay-out of the building,the construction materials,and the building type strongly inuence the propagation within the building.Indoor radio propagation is dominated by the same mechanisms as outdoor: reection, diraction and scattering with variable conditions. In general,indoor channels may be classied as either line-of-sight or obstructed.

4.8.1

Partition Losses Inside a Floor (Intra-oor)

The internal and external structure of a building formed by partitions and obstacles vary widely.Partitions that are formed as a part of building structure are called 72

hard partitions , and partitions that may be moved and which do not span to the ceiling are called soft partitions. Partitions vary widely in their physical and electrical characteristics,making it dicult to apply general models to specic indoor installations.

4.8.2

Partition Losses Between Floors (Inter-oor)

The losses between oors of a building are determined by the external dimensions and materials of the building,as well as the type of construction used to create the oors and the external surroundings. Even the number of windows in a building and the presence of tinting can impact the loss between oors.

4.8.3

Log-distance Path Loss Model

It has been observed that indoor path loss obeys the distance power law given by P L(dB ) = P L(d0 ) + 10n log10 (d/d0 ) + X (4.73)

where n depends on the building and surrounding type, and X represents a normal random variable in dB having standard deviation of dB.

4.9

Summary

In this chapter, three principal propagation models have been identied: free-space propagation, reection and diraction, which are common terrestrial models and these mainly explains the large scale path loss. Regarding path-loss, one important factor introduced in this chapter is log-distance path loss model. These, however, may be insignicant when we consider the small-scale rapid path losses. This is discussed in the next chapter.

4.10

References

1. T. S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, 2nd ed. Singapore: Pearson Education, Inc., 2002. 2. S. Haykin and M. Moher, Modern Wireless Communications. Singapore: Pearson Education, Inc., 2002. 73

3. J. W. Mark and W. Zhuang, Wireless Communications and Networking. New Delhi: PHI, 2005.

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